La Operación Tormenta ( serbocroata : Operacija Oluja / Операција Олуја ) fue la última gran batalla de la Guerra de Independencia de Croacia y un factor importante en el resultado de la Guerra de Bosnia . Fue una victoria decisiva para el ejército croata (HV), que atacó a lo largo de un frente de 630 kilómetros (390 millas) contra la autoproclamada república proto-estatal de Krajina Serbia (RSK), y una victoria estratégica para el ejército del República de Bosnia y Herzegovina (ARBiH). El HV contó con el apoyo de la policía especial croata que avanzaba desde elVelebit Mountain, y el ARBiH ubicado en el bolsillo de Bihać , en la retaguardia del Ejército de la República de Serbia Krajina (ARSK). La batalla, lanzada para restaurar el control croata de 10.400 kilómetros cuadrados (4.000 millas cuadradas) de territorio, que representa el 18,4% del territorio que reclamó, y el control bosnio de Bosnia occidental , fue la batalla terrestre europea más grande desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial . La Operación Tormenta comenzó en la madrugada del 4 de agosto de 1995 y se declaró finalizada la noche del 7 de agosto, a pesar de las importantes operaciones de limpieza contra focos de resistencia que duraron hasta el 14 de agosto.
Operación Tormenta | |||||||||
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Parte de la Guerra de Independencia de Croacia y la Guerra de Bosnia | |||||||||
![]() Mapa de las Fuerzas de la Operación Tormenta : Croacia RSK Bosnia y Herzegovina | |||||||||
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Beligerantes | |||||||||
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Comandantes y líderes | |||||||||
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Unidades involucradas | |||||||||
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Fuerza | |||||||||
Croacia: 130.000 soldados ARBiH : 3.000 soldados | ARSK : 27.000 a 34.000 hombres Bosnia occidental : 4.000 a 5.000 hombres | ||||||||
Bajas y perdidas | |||||||||
174-211 muertos 1.100-1.430 heridos 3 capturados | 560 mataron a 4.000 prisioneros de guerra | ||||||||
Muertes de civiles serbios: 214 (reclamación croata) - 1.192 (reclamación serbia) Muertes de civiles croatas: 42 Refugiados: 150.000–200.000 serbios de la antigua RSK 21.000 bosnios de la antigua APWB 22.000 bosnios y croatas de la República Srpska Otros: 4 miembros del personal de mantenimiento de la paz de la ONU muertos y 16 heridos |
La Operación Tormenta fue una victoria estratégica en la Guerra de Bosnia, que puso fin efectivamente al asedio de Bihać y colocó al HV, al Consejo de Defensa de Croacia (HVO) y a la ARBiH en condiciones de cambiar el equilibrio de poder militar en Bosnia y Herzegovina a través de la Operación Mistral posterior 2 . La operación se basó en los avances de HV y HVO realizados durante la Operación Verano '95 , cuando se obtuvieron posiciones estratégicas que permitieron la rápida captura de la capital de RSK, Knin , y en el continuo armado y entrenamiento de HV desde el comienzo de la Guerra de Independencia de Croacia. cuando se creó la RSK durante la Revolución Serbia de los Troncos y la intervención del Ejército Popular Yugoslavo . La operación en sí siguió a una misión de mantenimiento de la paz de las Naciones Unidas (ONU) fallida y los esfuerzos diplomáticos para resolver el conflicto.
El éxito estratégico de HV y ARBiH fue el resultado de una serie de mejoras en los propios ejércitos y avances cruciales realizados en las posiciones del ARSK que posteriormente fueron explotados por HV y ARBiH. El ataque no tuvo éxito de inmediato en todos los puntos, pero la toma de posiciones clave llevó al colapso de la estructura de mando del ARSK y la capacidad defensiva general. La captura por HV de Bosansko Grahovo , justo antes de la operación, y el avance de la policía especial a Gračac , hicieron casi imposible la defensa de Knin. En Lika , dos brigadas de guardias cortaron rápidamente el área controlada por el ARSK que carecía de profundidad táctica y fuerzas de reserva móviles, y aislaron focos de resistencia, colocaron una fuerza móvil para un impulso decisivo hacia el norte en el área de responsabilidad del Cuerpo de Karlovac (AOR), y empujó ARSK hacia Banovina . La derrota del ARSK en Glina y Petrinja , después de una dura defensiva, también derrotó al ARSK Banija Corps ya que su reserva fue inmovilizada por la ARBiH. La RSK se basó en la República Srpska y los ejércitos yugoslavos como reserva estratégica, pero no intervinieron en la batalla. Estados Unidos también jugó un papel en la operación al dirigir a Croacia a una empresa de consultoría militar, Military Professional Resources Incorporated (MPRI), que firmó un contrato con licencia del Pentágono para asesorar, capacitar y proporcionar inteligencia al ejército croata.
El HV y la policía especial sufrieron 174-211 muertos o desaparecidos, mientras que el ARSK tuvo 560 soldados muertos. También murieron cuatro miembros del personal de mantenimiento de la paz de la ONU. El HV capturó a 4.000 prisioneros de guerra . Se discute el número de civiles serbios muertos: Croacia afirma que murieron 214, mientras que fuentes serbias citan 1.192 civiles muertos o desaparecidos. La población croata había sido sometida años antes a una limpieza étnica en las zonas controladas por el ARSK por las fuerzas rebeldes serbias, con un estimado de 170.000 a 250.000 expulsados y centenares de muertos. Durante y después de la ofensiva, entre 150.000 y 200.000 serbios de la zona que antes estaba bajo el control del ARSK habían huido y las fuerzas croatas cometieron diversos crímenes contra los civiles que quedaban allí. El Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia (TPIY) juzgó posteriormente a tres generales croatas acusados de crímenes de guerra y de participar en una empresa criminal conjunta diseñada para expulsar a la población serbia de Croacia, aunque los tres fueron finalmente absueltos y el tribunal refutó los cargos de un delito. empresa criminal. El Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia llegó a la conclusión de que la Operación Tormenta no tenía como objetivo la persecución étnica, ya que no se había atacado deliberadamente a civiles. El Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia declaró que el ejército y la policía especial croatas cometieron un gran número de crímenes contra la población serbia después del ataque de artillería, pero que el estado y los líderes militares no eran responsables de su creación y organización. Croacia también adoptó medidas discriminatorias para evitar el regreso de los serbios. Human Rights Watch informó que la gran mayoría de los abusos durante la operación fueron cometidos por fuerzas croatas y que los abusos continuaron a gran escala durante meses después, que incluyeron ejecuciones de civiles y destrucción de bienes serbios. En 2010, Serbia demandó a Croacia ante la Corte Internacional de Justicia (CIJ), alegando que la ofensiva constituía un genocidio . En 2015, el tribunal dictaminó que la ofensiva no fue genocida y afirmó las conclusiones anteriores del TPIY.
Fondo
En agosto de 1990, una insurgencia conocida como la Revolución de registro se llevó a cabo en Croacia centra en las áreas predominantemente serbia-pobladas del dálmata interior alrededor de la ciudad de Knin , [1] así como en partes de la Lika , Kordun y Banovina regiones y asentamientos en el este de Croacia con importantes poblaciones serbias. [2] Las áreas se formaron posteriormente en un proto-estado no reconocido internacionalmente , la República de Serbia Krajina (RSK), y después de que declaró su intención de separarse de Croacia y unirse a la República de Serbia , el Gobierno de la República de Croacia declaró el RSK una rebelión. [3]
El conflicto se intensificó en marzo de 1991, lo que resultó en la Guerra de Independencia de Croacia . [4] En junio de 1991, Croacia declaró su independencia cuando Yugoslavia se desintegró . [5] Siguió una moratoria de tres meses sobre las declaraciones de Croacia y la RSK, [6] después de lo cual la decisión entró en vigor el 8 de octubre. [7] Durante este período, la RSK inició una campaña de limpieza étnica contra los civiles croatas. En 1991, 84.000 croatas huyeron del territorio controlado por los serbios. [8] La mayoría de los no serbios fueron expulsados a principios de 1993. Cientos de croatas fueron asesinados y el número total de croatas y otros no serbios que fueron expulsados varía entre 170.000 según el Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia [9] y hasta un cuarto de millón. personas según Human Rights Watch . [10] En noviembre de 1993, menos de 400 personas de etnia croata permanecían en el área protegida por las Naciones Unidas conocida como Sector Sur, [11] mientras que 1.500 - 2.000 más permanecían en el Sector Norte. [12]
Las fuerzas croatas también llevaron a cabo una limpieza étnica contra los serbios en Eslavonia oriental y occidental y partes de la región de Krajina, aunque en una escala más restringida y las víctimas serbias fueron menos que las víctimas croatas de las fuerzas serbias. [13] En 1991, 70.000 serbios fueron desplazados del territorio croata. [8] En octubre de 1993, el ACNUR estimó que había un total de 247.000 croatas y otros desplazados no serbios procedentes de zonas bajo el control de RSK y 254.000 serbios desplazados y refugiados del resto de Croacia, un estimado de 87.000 de quiénes eran habitantes de las Áreas Protegidas de las Naciones Unidas (APNU). [14]
Durante este tiempo, los serbios que vivían en las ciudades croatas, especialmente los que estaban cerca de las líneas del frente, fueron sometidos a diversas formas de discriminación, desde ser despedidos de sus trabajos hasta colocar bombas debajo de sus automóviles o casas. [15] El ACNUR informó que en las partes controladas por los serbios de la APNU, los abusos contra los derechos humanos contra croatas y no serbios eran persistentes. Algunas de las "autoridades" serbias de Krajina siguieron figurando entre los autores más atroces de abusos contra los derechos humanos de la población residual no serbia, así como de los serbios que no estaban de acuerdo con la política nacionalista. Las violaciones de derechos humanos incluyeron asesinatos, desapariciones, golpizas, hostigamiento, reasentamiento forzoso o exilio, diseñados para asegurar el dominio serbio de las áreas. [14] En 1993, el ACNUR también informó de una serie continua de abusos contra los serbios en las zonas controladas por el gobierno croata que incluían asesinatos, desapariciones, abusos físicos, detenciones ilegales, acoso y destrucción de bienes. [14]
A medida que el Ejército Popular Yugoslavo (JNA) apoyaba cada vez más al RSK y la Policía croata se mostraba incapaz de hacer frente a la situación, la Guardia Nacional Croata (ZNG) se formó en mayo de 1991. El ZNG pasó a llamarse Ejército Croata (HV) en noviembre. [dieciséis]
El establecimiento del ejército de Croacia se vio obstaculizado por un embargo de armas de la ONU introducido en septiembre. [17] Los últimos meses de 1991 vieron la lucha más feroz de la guerra, que culminó con la Batalla de los Cuarteles , [18] el Asedio de Dubrovnik , [19] y la Batalla de Vukovar . [20]
En enero de 1992, los representantes de Croacia, el JNA y la ONU firmaron un acuerdo para implementar el plan Vance diseñado para detener los combates. [21]
Para poner fin a la serie de ceses del fuego fallidos, la Fuerza de Protección de las Naciones Unidas (UNPROFOR) se desplegó en Croacia para supervisar y mantener el acuerdo. [22] Se desarrolló un punto muerto a medida que el conflicto se convirtió en una guerra de trincheras estática, y el JNA pronto se retiró de Croacia a Bosnia y Herzegovina , donde se anticipó un nuevo conflicto. [21] Serbia continuó apoyando al RSK, [23] pero una serie de avances de HV restauró pequeñas áreas al control croata cuando terminó el asedio de Dubrovnik , [24] y la Operación Maslenica resultó en ganancias tácticas menores. [25]
En respuesta a los éxitos de HV, el Ejército de la República de Krajina Serbia (ARSK) atacó intermitentemente varias ciudades y pueblos croatas con artillería y misiles. [2] [26] [27]
Cuando el JNA se retiró en Croacia, su personal se preparó para establecer un nuevo ejército serbio de Bosnia , ya que los serbios de Bosnia declararon la República Serbia de Bosnia y Herzegovina el 9 de enero de 1992, antes del referéndum del 29 de febrero al 1 de marzo de 1992 sobre la independencia de Bosnia. y Herzegovina. El referéndum fue posteriormente citado como pretexto para la guerra de Bosnia . [28] Los serbios de Bosnia levantaron barricadas en la capital, Sarajevo , y en otros lugares el 1 de marzo, y al día siguiente se registraron las primeras muertes de la guerra en Sarajevo y Doboj . En los últimos días de marzo, el ejército de los serbios de Bosnia comenzó a bombardear Bosanski Brod , [29] y el 4 de abril Sarajevo fue atacada. [30] A finales de año, el ejército de los serbios de Bosnia, rebautizado como Ejército de la República Srpska (VRS) después de la proclamación del estado de la República Srpska , controlaba aproximadamente el 70% de Bosnia y Herzegovina. [31] Esa proporción no cambiará significativamente durante los próximos dos años. [32] Aunque la guerra originalmente enfrentó a los serbios de Bosnia con los no serbios en el país, se convirtió en un conflicto de tres lados a finales de año, cuando comenzó la guerra entre croatas y bosnios . [33] El RSK fue apoyado hasta cierto punto por la República Srpska, que lanzó ataques aéreos ocasionales desde Banja Luka y bombardeó varias ciudades de Croacia. [34] [35]
Preludio
En noviembre de 1994, el Asedio de Bihać , una batalla de la Guerra de Bosnia, entró en una etapa crítica cuando el VRS y el ARSK estuvieron a punto de capturar la ciudad de Bihać del Ejército de la República de Bosnia y Herzegovina (ARBiH). Era una zona estratégica y, [36] desde junio de 1993, Bihać había sido una de las seis zonas seguras de las Naciones Unidas establecidas en Bosnia y Herzegovina. [37]
La administración estadounidense consideró que su captura por las fuerzas serbias intensificaría la guerra y conduciría a un desastre humanitario mayor que cualquier otro en el conflicto hasta ese momento. Entre Estados Unidos , Francia y Reino Unido , existía división en cuanto a cómo proteger el área. [36] [38] Estados Unidos pidió ataques aéreos contra el VRS, pero los franceses y los británicos se opusieron citando preocupaciones de seguridad y el deseo de mantener la neutralidad de las tropas francesas y británicas desplegadas como parte de la UNPROFOR en Bosnia y Herzegovina. A su vez, Estados Unidos no estaba dispuesto a enviar tropas terrestres. [39]
Por otro lado, los europeos reconocieron que EE. UU. Era libre de proponer una confrontación militar con los serbios mientras confiaba en las potencias europeas para bloquear cualquier movimiento de ese tipo, [40] ya que el presidente francés François Mitterrand desalentó cualquier intervención militar, lo que ayudó en gran medida a la guerra serbia. esfuerzo. [41] La postura francesa se revirtió después de que Jacques Chirac fuera elegido presidente de Francia en mayo de 1995, [42] presionando a los británicos para que adoptaran también un enfoque más agresivo. [43]
Negar Bihać a los serbios era estratégicamente importante para Croacia, [44] y el general Janko Bobetko , el jefe del Estado Mayor croata , consideró que la posible caída de Bihać representaba el fin del esfuerzo bélico de Croacia. [45]
En marzo de 1994, se firmó el Acuerdo de Washington [45], que puso fin a la guerra croata-bosnia y proporcionó a Croacia asesores militares estadounidenses de Military Professional Resources Incorporated (MPRI). [46] [47] La participación de Estados Unidos reflejó una nueva estrategia militar respaldada por Bill Clinton en febrero de 1993. [48]
Dado que el embargo de armas de la ONU todavía estaba en vigor, MPRI fue contratado aparentemente para preparar al HV para participar en el programa Asociación para la Paz de la OTAN . MPRI capacitó a oficiales y personal de HV durante 14 semanas, de enero a abril de 1995. También se ha especulado en varias fuentes, [46] incluido un artículo en The New York Times de Leslie Wayne y en varios informes de los medios de comunicación serbios, [49] [50 ] que MPRI también puede haber proporcionado asesoramiento doctrinal , planificación de escenarios e inteligencia satelital del gobierno de EE.UU. a Croacia, [46] aunque MPRI, [51] funcionarios estadounidenses y croatas negaron tales afirmaciones. [52] [53] En noviembre de 1994, Estados Unidos puso fin unilateralmente al embargo de armas contra Bosnia y Herzegovina, [54] permitiendo de hecho que el HV se aprovisionara a sí mismo a medida que los envíos de armas atravesaban Croacia. [55]
El Acuerdo de Washington también dio lugar a una serie de reuniones entre el gobierno croata y estadounidense y oficiales militares en Zagreb y Washington, DC El 29 de noviembre de 1994, los representantes croatas propusieron atacar el territorio controlado por los serbios de Livno en Bosnia y Herzegovina, con el fin de dibujar alejar parte de la fuerza que asedia Bihać y evitar la captura de la ciudad por los serbios. Como los funcionarios estadounidenses no respondieron a la propuesta, el Estado Mayor croata ordenó la Operación Invierno '94 el mismo día, a ser llevada a cabo por el HV y el Consejo de Defensa de Croacia (HVO), la principal fuerza militar de Herzeg-Bosnia . Además de contribuir a la defensa de Bihać, el ataque acercó la línea de contacto de HV y HVO a las rutas de suministro de RSK. [45]
En 1994, Estados Unidos, Rusia , la Unión Europea (UE) y la ONU buscaron reemplazar el plan Vance, que trajo la UNPROFOR. Ellos formularon el Plan Z-4 dando a las áreas de mayoría serbia en Croacia una autonomía sustancial. [56]
Después de numerosos y frecuentemente descoordinados cambios en el plan propuesto, incluida la filtración de sus elementos preliminares a la prensa en octubre, el Plan Z-4 se presentó el 30 de enero de 1995. Ni a Croacia ni a la RSK les gustó el plan. A Croacia le preocupaba que la RSK pudiera aceptarlo, pero Tuđman se dio cuenta de que Milošević, quien en última instancia tomaría la decisión por la RSK, [57] no aceptaría el plan por temor a que sentara un precedente para un arreglo político en Kosovo, lo que permitiría Croacia a aceptar el plan con pocas posibilidades de que se implemente. [56] La RSK se negó a recibir, y mucho menos a aceptar, el plan. [58]
En diciembre de 1994, Croacia y la RSK celebraron un acuerdo económico para restaurar las conexiones por carretera y ferrocarril, el suministro de agua y gas y el uso de una parte del oleoducto Adria . Aunque parte del acuerdo nunca se aplicó, [59] se abrió un tramo de la autopista Zagreb-Belgrado que pasa por el territorio de RSK cerca de Okučani y el oleoducto. Tras un incidente mortal que ocurrió a finales de abril de 1995 en la autopista recientemente abierta, [60] Croacia recuperó todo el territorio de la RSK en Eslavonia occidental durante la Operación Flash , [61] tomando el control total del territorio el 4 de mayo, tres días después de la comenzó la batalla. En respuesta, el ARSK atacó Zagreb utilizando misiles M-87 Orkan con municiones de racimo . [62] Posteriormente, Milošević envió a un alto oficial del ejército yugoslavo al mando del ARSK, junto con armas, oficiales de campo y miles de serbios nacidos en el área de RSK que habían sido reclutados por la fuerza por el ARSK. [63]
El 17 de julio, el ARSK y el VRS comenzaron un nuevo esfuerzo para capturar Bihać ampliando los logros obtenidos durante la Operación Spider . El movimiento brindó al HV la oportunidad de extender sus ganancias territoriales de la Operación Invierno '94 avanzando desde el valle de Livno. El 22 de julio, Tuđman y el presidente de Bosnia, Alija Izetbegović, firmaron el Acuerdo Escindido para la defensa mutua , que permite el despliegue a gran escala del HV en Bosnia y Herzegovina. El HV y el HVO respondieron rápidamente a través de la Operación Verano '95 (en croata : Ljeto '95 ), capturando Bosansko Grahovo y Glamoč del 28 al 29 de julio. [64] El ataque alejó algunas unidades ARSK de Bihać, [64] [65] pero no tantas como se esperaba. Sin embargo, colocó al HV en una posición excelente, [66] ya que aisló a Knin de la República Srpska, así como de Yugoslavia . [67]
A finales de julio y principios de agosto, hubo dos intentos más de resucitar el Plan Z-4 y el acuerdo económico de 1994. Las conversaciones propuestas el 28 de julio fueron ignoradas por la RSK, y el 3 de agosto se llevaron a cabo conversaciones de última hora en Ginebra . Estos se rompieron rápidamente cuando Croacia y la RSK rechazaron un compromiso propuesto por Thorvald Stoltenberg , un Representante Especial del Secretario General de la ONU , esencialmente pidiendo más negociaciones en una fecha posterior. Además, el RSK rechazó una serie de demandas croatas, incluido el desarme, y no volvió a respaldar el Plan Z-4. Croacia utilizó las conversaciones para preparar el terreno diplomático para la inminente Operación Tormenta [68], cuya planificación se completó durante la reunión de las islas Brijuni entre Tuđman y los comandantes militares el 31 de julio. [69]
El HV inició una movilización a gran escala a finales de julio, poco después de que el general Zvonimir Červenko se convirtiera en su nuevo Jefe de Estado Mayor el 15 de julio. [70] En 2005, el semanario croata Nacional informó que Estados Unidos había participado activamente en la preparación, el seguimiento y el inicio de la Operación Tormenta, que la luz verde del presidente Clinton fue transmitida por el agregado militar estadounidense en Zagreb y el Las operaciones se transmitieron en tiempo real al Pentágono . [71]
Orden de batalla
![Map of HV and ARSK corps areas of responsibility on 4 August 1995](http://wikiimg.tojsiabtv.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cro-occup-lines-1Aug95-Corps.svg/300px-Cro-occup-lines-1Aug95-Corps.svg.png)
HV , ARSK
en Bosnia y Herzegovina:
HV / HVO , VRS / ARSK , ARBiH / HVO , APWB
El plan operativo de HV se estableció en cuatro partes separadas, designadas Tormenta-1 a 4, que se asignaron a varios cuerpos en función de sus áreas de responsabilidad individuales (AOR). Cada plan estaba programado para tomar entre cuatro y cinco días. [70] Las fuerzas que el HV asignó para atacar el RSK se organizaron en cinco cuerpos de ejército: Split , Gospić , Karlovac , Zagreb y Bjelovar Corps. [72] Se asignó una sexta zona a la policía especial croata dentro del AOR Split Corps, [73] cerca del límite con el Gospić Corps. [74] Al HV Split Corps, ubicado en el extremo sur del teatro de operaciones y comandado por el teniente general Ante Gotovina , se le asignó el plan Storm-4, que era el componente principal de la Operación Tormenta. [73] El Cuerpo Dividido emitió órdenes para la batalla usando el nombre Kozjak-95 en su lugar, que no era una práctica inusual. [75] El Cuerpo Dividido de 30.000 hombres se opuso al 7º Cuerpo de Dalmacia del Norte del ARSK de 10.000 efectivos, [73] con sede en Knin y comandado por el General de División Slobodan Kovačević . [74] La policía especial de 3.100 efectivos, desplegada en la montaña Velebit en el flanco izquierdo del Cuerpo Split, estaba directamente subordinada al Estado Mayor HV comandado por el Teniente General Mladen Markač . [76]
A los 25.000 efectivos del Cuerpo HV Gospić se les asignó el componente Tormenta-3 de la operación, [77] a la izquierda de la zona especial de policía. Fue comandado por el brigadier Mirko Norac , y se opuso al 15º Cuerpo Lika del ARSK, con sede en Korenica y comandado por el mayor general Stevan Ševo . [78] El Lika Corps, que constaba de unos 6.000 soldados, estaba intercalado entre el HV Gospić Corps y el ARBiH en el bolsillo de Bihać en la retaguardia del ARSK, formando un área amplia pero muy poco profunda. El 5º Cuerpo de la ARBiH desplegó alrededor de 2.000 soldados en la zona. El Cuerpo de Gospić, asignado a una sección de 150 kilómetros (93 millas) del frente, tenía la tarea de cortar el RSK por la mitad y vincularse con el ARBiH, mientras que el ARBiH tenía la tarea de inmovilizar a las fuerzas del ARSK que estaban en contacto con el Bihać. bolsillo. [77]
El HV Karlovac Corps, comandado por el mayor general Miljenko Crnjac , en el flanco izquierdo del Gospić Corps, cubrió el área que se extiende desde Ogulin hasta Karlovac, incluido Kordun, [79] y ejecutó el plan Storm-2. El cuerpo estaba compuesto por 15.000 soldados y tenía la tarea de inmovilizar a las fuerzas del ARSK en el área para proteger los flancos del Cuerpo de Zagreb y Gospić. [80] Tenía un puesto de mando avanzado en Ogulin y se opuso al 21º Cuerpo Kordun de ARSK con sede en Petrova Gora , [79] que constaba de 4.000 soldados en el AOR (una de sus brigadas se enfrentaba al Cuerpo de Zagreb). [80] Inicialmente, el 21º Cuerpo de Kordun estaba al mando del coronel Veljko Bosanac, pero fue reemplazado por el coronel Čedo Bulat durante la noche del 5 de agosto. Además, el grueso del Cuerpo de Unidades Especiales ARSK estaba presente en el área, comandado por el Mayor General Milorad Stupar . [79] El Cuerpo de Unidades Especiales del ARSK tenía 5.000 efectivos, y se enfrentaba en gran parte al bolsillo de Bihać al inicio de la Operación Tormenta. La armadura y la artillería del ARSK en el AOR superaron en número a la del HV. [80]
El HV Zagreb Corps, asignado al plan Storm-1, inicialmente comandado por el mayor general Ivan Basarac , en el flanco izquierdo del Karlovac Corps, se desplegó en tres ejes principales de ataque: hacia Glina , Petrinja y Hrvatska Kostajnica . Se le opuso el 39.º Cuerpo Banija del ARSK, con sede en Glina y comandado por el mayor general Slobodan Tarbuk . [81] Al Cuerpo de Zagreb se le encomendó eludir a Petrinja para neutralizar la artillería y los misiles ARSK que pudieran tener como objetivo las ciudades croatas, haciendo un avance secundario desde Sunja hacia Hrvatska Kostajnica. Su misión secundaria se vio comprometida cuando un batallón de la policía especial y el 81.º Batallón de Guardias planeado encabezar el avance se desplegaron en otros lugares, lo que obligó a modificar el plan. El Cuerpo de Zagreb estaba compuesto por 30.000 soldados, mientras que el ARSK tenía 9.000 frente a ellos y alrededor de 1.000 soldados de la ARBiH en el bolsillo de Bihać a su retaguardia. Al comienzo de la Operación Tormenta, alrededor de 3.500 soldados del ARSK estaban en contacto con el ARBiH. [82] El HV Bjelovar Corps, en el flanco izquierdo del Zagreb Corps, cubriendo el área a lo largo del río Una , tenía un puesto de mando avanzado en Novska . El cuerpo estaba comandado por el general de división Luka Džanko . Frente al Bjelovar Corps formaba parte del ARSK Banija Corps. El Cuerpo de Bjelovar se incluyó en el ataque del 2 de agosto y, por lo tanto, no se emitió un plan de operaciones por separado. [83]
El ARSK dividió sus fuerzas en el área en dos, subordinando el Cuerpo de Dalmacia del Norte y Lika al Estado Mayor del ARSK, y agrupando al resto en el Grupo Operativo Kordun comandado por el Teniente Coronel General Mile Novaković . Territorialmente, la división correspondió a los sectores norte y sur de las áreas protegidas de la ONU. [84]
Las estimaciones del número total de tropas desplegadas por los beligerantes varían considerablemente. Las fuerzas croatas se han estimado entre 100.000 y 150.000, [61] [85] pero la mayoría de las fuentes calculan la cifra en unos 130.000 soldados. [86] [87] La fuerza de las tropas ARSK en los Sectores Norte y Sur fue estimada por el HV antes de la Operación Tormenta en aproximadamente 43,000. [88] Estimaciones HV más detalladas de la mano de obra por cuerpos individuales del ARSK indicaron 34.000 soldados, [89] mientras que fuentes serbias citan 27.000 soldados. [90] La discrepancia generalmente se refleja en la literatura como una estimación de alrededor de 30.000 soldados del ARSK. [86] El ARBiH desplegó aproximadamente 3.000 soldados contra las posiciones del ARSK cerca de Bihać. [80] A finales de 1994, el Fikret Abdić -Led Provincia Autónoma de Bosnia Occidental (APWB): una franja de tierra al noroeste de Bihac entre su aliado RSK y el bolsillo-mandado 4.000-5.000 soldados que fueron desplegados al sur de Velika Kladusa en contra de la Fuerza ARBiH. [91]
Cuerpo | Unidad | Note |
---|---|---|
Split Corps | 4th Guards Brigade | In the Bosansko Grahovo area |
7th Guards Brigade | ||
81st Guards Battalion | In the Glamoč area | |
1st Croatian Guards Brigade | A part of the 1st Croatian Guards Corps; Held in reserve in the Bosansko Grahovo area | |
6th Home Guard Regiment | In the Sinj area | |
126th Home Guard Regiment | ||
144th Home Guard Regiment | ||
142nd Home Guard Regiment | In the Šibenik area | |
15th Home Guard Regiment | ||
113th Infantry Brigade | ||
2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade | In the Zadar area | |
112th Infantry Brigade | ||
7th Home Guard Regiment | ||
134th Home Guard Regiment | ||
10th Artillery-Rocket Regiment of the HVO | Supporting the Split Corps | |
14th Artillery Battalion | ||
20th Artillery (Howitzer) Battalion | ||
Elements of the artillery battalion of the 5th Guards Brigade | ||
11th Antitank Artillery-Rocket Battalion | ||
Gospić Corps | 138th Home Guard Regiment | In the Saborsko area |
133rd Home Guard Regiment | ||
9th Guards Brigade | Without its 2nd Battalion, in the Gospić area | |
118th Home Guard Regiment | In the Gospić area | |
111th Infantry Brigade | ||
12th Artillery Battalion | Supporting the Gospić Corps | |
1st Guards Brigade | Directly subordinated to the HV General Staff; Temporarily assigned to the Gospić Corps from 4–6 August | |
Karlovac Corps | 104th Infantry Brigade | In the Karlovac area |
110th Home Guard Regiment | ||
137th Home Guard Regiment | ||
14th Home Guard Regiment | In the Ogulin area | |
143rd Home Guard Regiment | ||
99th Infantry Brigade | ||
1 battalion of the 148th Infantry Brigade | In reserve | |
7th Antitank Artillery-Rocket Battalion | Supporting the Karlovac Corps | |
13th Antitank Artillery-Rocket Battalion | ||
33rd Engineer Brigade | ||
Zagreb Corps | 17th Home Guard Regiment | In the Sunja area |
103rd Infantry Brigade | ||
151st Infantry Brigade | ||
2nd Guards Brigade | In the Petrinja area | |
57th Infantry Brigade | ||
12th Home Guard Regiment | ||
20th Home Guard Regiment | In the Petrinja and Glina areas | |
153rd Infantry Brigade | In the Glina area | |
202nd Artillery-Rocket Brigade | Supporting the Zagreb Corps | |
67th Military Police Battalion | ||
252nd Independent Signals Company | ||
502nd Mechanized NBC Warfare Company | ||
1 battalion of the 33rd Engineer Brigade | ||
31st Engineer Battalion | ||
36th Engineer-Pontoon Battalion | ||
1st Riverine Corps | ||
6th Artillery Battalion | ||
8th Howitzer Artillery Battalion (203mm) | ||
1 battalion of the 16th Artillery-Rocket Brigade | ||
5th Antitank Artillery-Rocket Battalion | ||
1 battalion of the 15th Antitank Artillery-Rocket Brigade | ||
Bjelovar Corps | 125th Home Guard Regiment | In the Jasenovac area |
52nd Home Guard Regiment | ||
34th Engineer Battalion | ||
24th Home Guard Regiment | ||
18th Artillery Battalion | ||
121st Home Guard Regiment | In the Okučani area |
Corps | Unit | Note |
---|---|---|
North Dalmatia Corps | 75th Motorized Brigade | Opposite the Split Corps |
92nd Motorized Brigade | ||
1st Light Brigade | ||
4th Light Brigade | ||
2nd Infantry Brigade | ||
3rd Infantry Brigade | ||
7th Mixed Artillery Regiment | ||
7th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment | ||
7th Light Artillery-Rocket Regiment | ||
Special Units Corps | 2nd Guards Brigade | |
Lika Corps | 9th Motorized Brigade | Opposite the Gospić Corps |
18th Infantry Brigade | ||
50th Infantry Brigade | ||
103rd Light Brigade | ||
37th Infantry Battalion | ||
15th Mixed Artillery Battalion | ||
15th Mixed Antitank Artillery Battalion | ||
70th Infantry Brigade | Opposite Gospić and Karlovac Corps | |
Kordun Corps | 11th Infantry Brigade | Opposite the Karlovac Corps |
13th Infantry Brigade | ||
19th Infantry Brigade | ||
21st Border Squadron | ||
21st Reconnaissance Squadron | ||
21st Mixed Artillery Squadron | ||
75th Mixed Antitank Artillery Squadron | ||
75th Engineer Battalion | ||
Special Units Corps | Missing its 2nd Guards Brigade; Opposite the Karlovac Corps | |
Banija Corps | 24th Infantry Brigade | Opposite the Zagreb Corps |
33rd Infantry Brigade | ||
31st Motorized Brigade | ||
ARSK General Staff Artillery Group | ||
26th Infantry Brigade | Opposite Zagreb and Bjelovar Corps | |
Army of Republika Srpska | 11th Brigade | In the Republika Srpska, on the right flank of the RSK Banija Corps |
Corps | Unit | Note |
---|---|---|
5th Corps | 501st Mountain Brigade | Opposite the Lika Corps |
502nd Mountain Brigade | ||
505th Mountain Brigade | Opposite the Banija Corps | |
511th Mountain Brigade |
Cronograma de la operación
4 August 1995
Operation Storm started at 5 a.m. on 4 August 1995 when coordinated attacks were executed by reconnaissance and sabotage detachments in concert with Croatian Air Force (CAF) air strikes aimed at disrupting ARSK command, control, and communications.[93] UN peacekeepers, known as United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation (UNCRO),[94] were notified three hours in advance of the attack when Tuđman's chief of staff, Hrvoje Šarinić, telephoned UNCRO commander, French Army General Bernard Janvier. In addition, each HV corps notified the UNCRO sector in its path of the attack, requesting written confirmations of receipt of the information. The UNCRO relayed the information to the RSK,[95] confirming the warnings RSK received from the Yugoslav Army General Staff the previous day.[96]
Sector South
In the Split Corps AOR, at 5 a.m. the 7th Guards Brigade advanced south from Bosansko Grahovo towards the high ground ahead of Knin after a period of artillery preparation. Moving against the ARSK 3rd Battlegroup, consisting of elements of the North Dalmatian Corps and RSK police, the 7th Guards achieved its objectives for the day and allowed the 4th Guards Brigade to attack. The HV Sinj Operational Group (OG), on the left flank of the two brigades, joined the attack and the 126th Home Guard Regiment captured Uništa, gaining control of the area overlooking the Sinj–Knin road. The 144th Brigade and the 6th Home Guard Regiment also pushed ARSK forces back. The Šibenik OG units faced the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade and a part of the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the ARSK North Dalmatian Corps. There, the 142nd and the 15th Home Guard Regiments made minor progress in the area between Krka and Drniš, while the 113th Infantry Brigade made a slightly greater advance on their left flank, to Čista Velika. In the Zadar OG area, the 134th Home Guard Regiment (without its 2nd Battalion) failed to advance, while the 7th Home Guard Regiment and the 112th HV Brigade gained little ground against the ARSK 92nd Motorized and 3rd Infantry Brigades at Benkovac. On the Velebit, the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade, reinforced with a company from the 7th Home Guard Regiment, and the 2nd Battalion of the 134th Home Guard Regiment met stiff resistance but advanced sufficiently to secure use of the Obrovac–Sveti Rok road. At 4:45 p.m., a decision to evacuate the population in the Northern Dalmatia and Lika areas was made by RSK President Milan Martić.[97][98] According to RSK Major General Milisav Sekulić, Martić ordered the evacuation hoping to coax Milošević and the international community to help the RSK.[99] Nonetheless, the evacuation was extended the whole sectors North and South, except Kordun region.[100] In the evening the ARSK General Staff moved from Knin to Srb,[97] about 35 kilometres (22 miles) to the northwest.[101]
At 5 a.m., Croatian special police advanced to the Mali Alan pass on the Velebit, encountering strong resistance from the ARSK Lika Corps' 4th Light Brigade and elements of the 9th Motorized Brigade. The pass was captured at 1 p.m., and Sveti Rok village was captured at about 5 p.m. The special police advanced further beyond Mali Alan, meeting more resistance at 9 p.m. and then bivouacking until 5 a.m. The ARSK 9th Motorized Brigade withdrew to Udbina after being forced out of its positions on the Velebit. In the morning, the special police captured Lovinac, Gračac and Medak.[102]
In the Gospić Corps AOR, the 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Battalion of the 1st Guards Brigade began an eastward attack in the Mala Kapela area in the morning, meeting heavy resistance from the ARSK 70th Infantry Brigade. The rest of the 1st Guards joined in around midnight. The 133rd Home Guard Regiment attacked east of Otočac, towards Vrhovine, attempting to encircle the ARSK 50th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 103rd Infantry Brigade in a pincer movement. Even though the regiment advanced, it failed to achieve its objective for the day. On the regiment's right flank, the HV 128th Brigade advanced together with the 3rd Battalion of the 8th Home Guard Regiment and cut through the Vrhovine–Korenica road. The rest of the 9th Guards Brigade, the bulk of the HV 118th Home Guard Regiment and the 111th Infantry Brigade advanced east from Gospić and Lički Osik, coming up against very strong resistance from the ARSK 18th Infantry Brigade. As a result of these setbacks, the Gospić Corps ended the day short of the objectives it had been given.[103]
Sector North
In the Ogulin area of the HV Karlovac Corps AOR, the 99th Brigade, reinforced by the 143rd Home Guard Regiment's Saborsko Company, moved towards Plaški at 5 a.m., but the force was stopped and turned back in disarray by 6 p.m. The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced from Josipdol towards Plaški, encountering minefields and strong ARSK resistance. Its elements connected with the 14th Home Guard Regiment, advancing through Barilović towards Slunj. Near the city of Karlovac, the 137th Home Guard Regiment deployed four reconnaissance groups around midnight of 3–4 August, followed by artillery preparation and crossing of the Korana River at 5 a.m. The advance was fiercely resisted by the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade, but the bridgehead was stable by the end of the day. The 110th Home Guard Regiment, reinforced by a company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment, advanced east to the road leading south from Karlovac to Vojnić and Slunj, where it met heavy resistance and suffered more casualties to landmines, demoralizing the unit and preventing its further advance. In addition, the attached company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade failed to secure the regiment's flanks. The 104th Brigade tried to cross the Kupa River at 5 a.m., but failed and fell back to its starting position by 8 a.m., at which time it was shifted to the bridgehead established by the 110th Home Guard Regiment. A company of the 99th Brigade was attached to the 143rd Home Guard Regiment for operations the next day, and a 250-strong battlegroup was removed from the brigade and subordinated to the Karlovac Corps directly.[104]
In the Zagreb Corps area, the HV moved across the Kupa River at two points towards Glina—in and near Pokupsko, using the 20th Home Guard Regiment and the 153rd Brigade. Both crossings established bridgeheads, although the bulk of the units were forced to retreat as the ARSK counter-attacked—only a battalion of the 153rd Brigade and elements of the 20th Home Guard Regiment held their ground. The crossings prompted the ARSK General Staff to order the 2nd Armoured Brigade of the Special Units Corps to move from Slunj to the bridgeheads,[105] as the HV advance threatened a vital road in Glina.[80] The HV 2nd Guards Brigade and the 12th Home Guard Regiment were tasked with the quick capture of Petrinja from the ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade in a pincer movement.[105] The original plan, involving thrusts six to seven kilometres (3.7 to 4.3 miles) south of Petrinja, was amended by Basarac to a direct assault on the city.[73] On the right flank, the regiment was soon stopped by minefields and forced to retreat, while the bulk of the 2nd Guards Brigade advanced until it wavered following the loss of a company commander and five soldiers. The rest of the 2nd Guards Brigade—reinforced by the 2nd Battalion, elements of the 12th Home Guard Regiment, the 5th Antitank Artillery Battalion and the 31st Engineers Battalion—formed Tactical Group 2 (TG2) operating on the left flank of the attack. TG2 advanced from Mošćenica, a short distance from Petrinja, but was stopped after the 2nd Battalion's commander and six soldiers were killed. The ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade also panicked but managed to stabilize its defences as it received reinforcements. The HV 57th Brigade advanced south of Petrinja, intent on reaching the Petrinja–Hrvatska Kostajnica road, but ran into a minefield where the brigade commander was killed, while the 101st Brigade to its rear suffered heavy artillery fire and casualties. In the Sunja area, the 17th Home Guard Regiment and a company of the 151st Brigade unsuccessfully attacked the ARSK 26th Infantry Brigade. Later that day, a separate attack by the rest of the 151st Brigade also failed. The HV 103rd Brigade advanced to the Sunja–Sisak railroad, but had to retreat under heavy fire. The Zagreb Corps failed to meet any objective of the first day. This was attributed to inadequate manpower and as a result the corps requested the mobilization of the 102nd Brigade and the 1st and 21st Home Guard Regiments. The 2nd Guards Brigade was reinforced by the 1st Battalion of the 149th Brigade previously held in reserve in Ivanić Grad.[105]
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR, two battalions of the 125th Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River near Jasenovac, secured a bridgehead for trailing HV units and advanced towards Hrvatska Dubica. The two battalions were followed by an additional company of the same regiment, a battalion of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment, the 265th Reconnaissance Company and finally the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup. A reconnaissance platoon of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River into the Republika Srpska, established a bridgehead for two infantry companies and subsequently demolished the Bosanska Dubica–Gradiška road before returning to Croatian soil. The Bjelovar Corps units reached the outskirts of Hrvatska Dubica before nightfall. That night, the town of Hrvatska Dubica was abandoned by the ARSK troops and the civilian population. They fled south across the Sava River into Bosnia and Herzegovina.[106]
5 August 1995
Sector South
The HV did not advance towards Knin during the night of 4/5 August when the ARSK General Staff ordered a battalion of the 75th Motorized Brigade to stage themselves north of Knin. The ARSK North Dalmatian Corps became increasingly uncoordinated as the HV 4th Guards Brigade advanced south towards Knin, protecting the right flank of the 7th Guards Brigade. The latter met little resistance and entered the town at about 11 a.m. Lieutenant General Ivan Čermak was appointed commander of the newly established HV Knin Corps. Sinj OG completed its objectives, capturing Kozjak and Vrlika, and meeting little resistance as the ARSK 1st Light Brigade disintegrated, retreating to Knin and later to Lika. By 8 p.m., Šibenik OG units advanced to Poličnik (113th Brigade), Đevrske (15th Home Guard Regiment), and captured Drniš (142nd Home Guard Regiment), while the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade retreated towards Srb and Bosanski Petrovac together with the 3rd Infantry and the 92nd Motorized Brigades, leaving the Zadar OG units with little opposition. The 7th Home Guard Regiment captured Benkovac, while the 112th Brigade entered Smilčić and elements of the 9th Guards Brigade reached Obrovac.[107]
The 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Guards Brigade advanced to Lička Jasenica, the latter pressing their attack further towards Saborsko, with the 2nd Battalion of the HV 119th Brigade reaching the area in the evening. The HV reinforced the 133rd Home Guard Regiment with a battalion of the 150th Brigade enabling the regiment to achieve its objectives of the previous day, partially encircling the ARSK force in Vrhovine. The 154th Home Guard Regiment was mobilized and deployed to the Ličko Lešće area. The 9th Guards Brigade (without its 2nd Battalion) advanced towards Udbina Air Base, where ARSK forces started to evacuate. The 111th Brigade and the 118th Home Guard Regiment also made small advances, linking up behind ARSK lines.[108]
Sector North
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced towards Plaški, capturing it that evening, while the 14th Home Guard Regiment captured Primišlje, 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) northwest of Slunj. At 0:30 a.m., the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and a company of the 19th Infantry Brigade counter-attacked at the Korana bridgehead, causing the bulk of the 137th Home Guard Regiment to panic and flee across the river. A single platoon of the regiment remained but the ARSK troops did not exploit the opportunity to destroy the bridgehead. In the morning, the regiment reoccupied the bridgehead, reinforced by a 350-strong battlegroup drawn from the 104th Brigade (including a tank platoon and multiple rocket launchers), and a company of the 148th Brigade from the Karlovac Corps operational reserve. The regiment and the battlegroup managed to extend the bridgehead towards the Karlovac–Slunj road. The 110th Home Guard Regiment attacked again south of Karlovac, but was repelled by prepared ARSK defences. That night, the Karlovac Corps decided to move elements of the 110th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade to the Korana bridgehead, while the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated to the right bank of Korana in an area extending about 30 kilometres (19 miles) north from Slunj.[109]
The Zagreb Corps made little or no progress on day two of the battle. Part of the 2nd Guards Brigade was ordered to drive towards Glina with the 20th Home Guards Regiment making a modest advance, while the 153rd Brigade abandoned its bridgehead. In the area of Petrinja, the HV advanced gradually only to be pushed back in some areas by an ARSK counter-attack. The results were reversed at significant cost by a renewed push by the 2nd Guards Brigade. The Zagreb Corps commander was replaced by Lieutenant General Petar Stipetić on orders from President Tuđman. The HV reassigned the 102nd Brigade to drive to Glina, and the 57th Brigade was reinforced with the 2nd Battalion of the 149th Brigade. The 145th Brigade was moved from Popovača to the Sunja area, where the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the 151st Brigade made minor advances into the ARSK-held area.[110]
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR, Hrvatska Dubica was captured by the 52nd and the 24th Home Guard Regiments advancing from the east and the 125th Home Guard Regiment approaching from the north. The 125th Home Guard Regiment garrisoned the town, while the 52nd Home Guard Regiment moved northwest towards expected Zagreb Corps positions, but the Zagreb Corps' delays prevented any link-up. The 24th Home Guard Regiment advanced about four kilometres (2.5 miles) towards Hrvatska Kostajnica when it was stopped by ARSK troops. In response, the Corps called in a battalion and a reconnaissance platoon of the 121st Home Guard Regiment from Nova Gradiška to aid the push to the town.[111] The ARBiH 505th and 511th Mountain Brigades advanced north to Dvor and engaged the ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade—the only reserve unit of the Banija Corps.[112]
6 August 1995
On 6 August, the HV conducted mopping-up operations in the areas around Obrovac, Benkovac, Drniš and Vrlika, as President Tuđman visited Knin.[113] After securing their objectives on or near Velebit, the special police was deployed on foot behind ARSK lines to hinder movement of ARSK troops there, capturing strategic intersections in the villages of Bruvno at 7 a.m. and Otrić at 11 a.m.[114]
At midnight, elements of the ARBiH 501st and 502nd Mountain Brigades advanced west from Bihać against a skeleton force of the ARSK Lika Corps that had been left behind since the beginning of the battle. The 501st moved about 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) into Croatian territory, to Ličko Petrovo Selo and Plitvice Lakes by 8 a.m. The 502nd captured an ARSK radar and communications facility on Plješivica Mountain, and proceeded towards Korenica where it was stopped by the ARSK units. The HV 1st Guards Brigade reached Rakovica and linked up with the Bosnia-Herzegovina 5th Corps in the area of Drežnik Grad by 11 a.m.[115] It was supported by the 119th Brigade and a battalion of the 154th Home Guard Regiment deployed in the Tržačka Raštela and Ličko Petrovo Selo areas.[116] In the afternoon, a link-up ceremony was held for the media in Tržačka Raštela.[117] The 138th Home Guard Regiment completely encircled Vrhovine, which was captured by the end of the day by the 8th and the 133rd Home Guard Regiments, reinforced with a battalion of the 150th Brigade. The HV 128th Brigade entered Korenica while the 9th Guards Brigade continued towards Udbina.[116]
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced to Broćanac where it connected with the 1st Guards Brigade. From there the regiment continued towards Slunj, accompanied by elements of the 1st Guards Brigade and the 14th Home Guard Regiment, capturing the town at 3 p.m. The advance of the 14th Home Guard Regiment was supported by the 148th Brigade guarding its flanks. The ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated from Slunj, together with the civilian population, moving north towards Topusko. An attack by the 137th Home Guard Regiment, and the elements of various units reinforcing it, extended the bridgehead and connected it with the 14th Home Guard Regiment in Veljun, 18 kilometres (11 miles) north of Slunj. The rest of the 149th Brigade (without the 1st Battalion) was reassigned from the Zagreb Corps to the Karlovac Corps to reinforce the 137th Home Guard Regiment.[118] At 11 a.m., an agreement was reached between the ARSK and civilian authorities in Glina and Vrginmost, securing the evacuation of civilians from the area.[119] The ARBiH 502nd Mountain Brigade also moved north, flanking the APWB capital of Velika Kladuša from the west, and capturing the town by the end of the day.[120]
The TG2 advanced to Petrinja at about 7 a.m. after a heavy artillery preparation. The 12th Home Guard Regiment entered the city from the west and was subsequently assigned to garrison Petrinja and its surrounding area. After the loss of Petrinja to the HV, the bulk of the ARSK Banija Corps started to retreat towards Dvor. The HV 57th Brigade advanced against light resistance and took control of the Petrinja–Hrvatska Kostajnica road. During the night of 6/7 August, the 20th Home Guard Regiment, supported by Croatian police and elements of the 153rd Brigade, captured Glina despite strong resistance. The 153rd Brigade then took positions that allowed the advance to continue towards the village of Maja in coordination with the 2nd Guards Brigade, which drove south from Petrinja towards Zrinska gora conducting mop-up operations. The 140th Home Guard Regiment flanked the 2nd Guards Brigade on the northern slope of Zrinska Gora, while the 57th Brigade captured Umetić. The 103rd and the 151st Brigades, and the 17th Home Guard Regiment, advanced towards Hrvatska Kostajnica, with the addition of a battalion of the HV 145th Brigade which would arrive that afternoon. Around noon, the 151st Brigade connected with the Bjelovar Corps units on the Sunja–Hrvatska Dubica road. They were assigned to secure roads in the area afterwards.[121]
By capturing Glina, the HV trapped the bulk of the ARSK Kordun Corps and about 35,000 evacuating civilians in the area of Topusko, prompting its commander to request UNCRO protection. The 1st Guards Brigade, approaching Topusko from Vojnić, received orders to engage the ARSK Kordun Corps, but the orders were cancelled at midnight by the chief of the HV General Staff. Instead, the Zagreb Corps was instructed to prepare a brigade-strength unit to escort unarmed persons and ARSK officers and non-commissioned officers with side arms to Dvor and allow them to cross into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Based on information obtained from UN troops, it was believed that the ARSK forces in Banovina were about to surrender.[122]
A battalion of the 121st Home Guard Regiment entered Hrvatska Kostajnica, while the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup secured the national border behind them. The 52nd Home Guard Regiment connected with the Zagreb Corps and then turned south to the town, reaching it that evening. The capture of Hrvatska Kostajnica marked the fulfilment of all of the Bjelovar Corps' objectives.[123]
7 August 1995
The 1st Croatian Guards Brigade (1. hrvatski gardijski zdrug - HGZ) arrived in the Knin area to connect with elements of the 4th, 7th and 9th Guards Brigades, tasked with a northward advance the next day. The Split Corps command moved to Knin as well.[124] The Croatian special police proceeded to Gornji Lapac and Donji Lapac arriving by 2 p.m. and completing the boundary between the Gospić and Split Corps AORs. The Croatian special police also made contact with the 4th Guards Brigade in Otrić and the Gospić Corps units in Udbina by 3 p.m. By 7 p.m., a battalion of the special police reached the border near Kulen Vakuf, securing the area.[125]
In the morning, the 9th Guards Brigade (without its 2nd Battalion) captured Udbina, where it connected with the 154th Home Guard Regiment, approaching from the opposite side of the Krbava Polje (Croatian: Polje or karst field). By the end of the day, Operation Storm objectives assigned to the Gospić Corps were completed.[126]
A forward command post of the HV General Staff was moved from Ogulin to Slunj, and it assumed direct command of the 1st Guards Brigade, the 14th Home Guard Regiment and the 99th Brigade. The 14th Home Guard Regiment secured the Slunj area and deployed to the left bank of Korana to connect with the advancing Karlovac special police. Elements of the regiment and the 99th Brigade secured the national border in the area. The 1st Guards Brigade advanced towards Kordun, as the Karlovac Corps reoriented its main axis of attack. The 110th Home Guard Regiment and elements of the 104th Brigade reached a largely deserted Vojnić in early afternoon, followed by the 1st Guards Brigade, the 143rd Home Guard Brigade and the 137th Home Guard Regiment. Other HV units joined them by evening.[127]
The 2nd Guards Brigade advanced from Maja towards Dvor, but was stopped approximately 25 kilometres (16 miles) short by ARSK units protecting the withdrawal of the ARSK and civilians towards the town. Elements of the brigade performed mopping-up operations in the area. The ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade held the road bridge in Dvor that connected the ARSK and the Republika Srpska across the Una River. The brigade was overwhelmed by the ARBiH 5th Corps, and it retreated south of Una, as the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and the civilians from Kordun were reaching Dvor. Elements of the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the HV 145th and 151st Brigades reached Dvor via Hrvatska Kostajnica and came into contact with the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 24th Infantry and 2nd Armoured Brigades, who had retreated from Glina.[120][128] As the expected surrender of the ARSK Kordun Corps did not materialize, the HV was ordered to reengage.[122] Despite major pockets of resistance, Croatia's defence minister, Gojko Šušak, declared major operations over at 6 p.m.,[120] 84 hours after the battle had started.[129]
8–14 August 1995
On 8 August, the 4th and the 7th Guards Brigades, the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ advanced north to Lička Kaldrma and the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina, eliminating the last major pocket of ARSK resistance in Donji Lapac and the Srb area by 8 p.m.[130] and achieving all of Split Corps' objectives for Operation Storm.[124] After the capture of Vojnić, the bulk of the Karlovac Corps units were tasked with mopping up operations in their AOR.[131] Elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached the Croatian border southwest of Dvor, where fighting for full control of the town was in progress, and connected with the ARBiH 5th Corps.[132]
As Tuđman ordered the cessation of military operations that afternoon, the ARSK Kordun Corps accepted surrender. Negotiations of the terms of surrender were held the same day at 1:20 p.m. at the Ukrainian UNCRO troops command post in Glina, and the surrender document was signed at 2 p.m. in Topusko. Croatia was represented by Lieutenant General Stipetić, while the RSK was represented by Bulat, commander of the ARSK Kordun Corps, and Interior Minister Tošo Pajić. The terms of surrender specified the handover of weapons, except officers' side arms, on the following day, and the evacuation of persons from Topusko via Glina, Sisak, and the Zagreb–Belgrade motorway to Serbia, protected by the Croatian military and civilian police.[133]
On 9 August, the special police surrendered their positions to the HV, after covering more than 150 kilometres (93 miles) on foot in four days.[125] The 1st Guards Brigade, followed by other HV units, entered Vrginmost. The 110th and the 143rd Home Guard Regiments conducted mopping up operations around Vrginmost and Lasinja. The 137th Home Guard Regiment conducted mopping up operations in the Vojnić area and the 14th Home Guard Regiment did the same in the Slunj, Cetingrad, and Rakovica areas.[134] The HV secured Dvor late in the evening, shortly after the civilians finished evacuating. Numerous HV Home Guard units were later tasked with further mopping up operations.[132]
On 10 August, the HV 57th Brigade reached the Croatian border south of Gvozdansko, while elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached Dvor and the 12th Home Guard Regiment captured Matijevići, just to the south of Dvor, on the Croatian border. The Zagreb Corps reported that the entire national border in its AOR was secured and all its Operation Storm objectives had been achieved. Mopping up operations in Banovina lasted until 14 August, and special police units joined the operations on the Zrinska Gora and Petrova Gora mountains.[135]
Operaciones de la fuerza aérea
On 4 August 1995, the CAF had at its disposal 17 MiG-21s, five attack and nine transport helicopters, three transport airplanes and two reconnaissance aircraft. On that first day of the operation, thirteen MiG-21s were used to destroy or disable six targets in the Gospić and Zagreb Corps AORs, at the cost of one severely and three slightly damaged jets. The same day, three Mi-8s were used for medical evacuation.[136] US Navy EA-6Bs and F/A-18s on patrol as part of Operation Deny Flight fired on ARSK surface-to-air missile (SAM) sites at Udbina and Knin as SAM radars locked onto the jets.[137] A few sources claim that they were deployed as a deterrent as the UN troops came under HV fire,[138] and a subsequent UN Security Council report only notes that the deployment was a result of the deterioration of the military situation and resulting low security of the peacekeepers in the area.[139] Also on 4 August, the RSK 105th Aviation Brigade based at Udbina, deployed helicopters against the Croatian special police on Velebit Mountain and against targets in the Gospić area virtually to no effect.[136]
On 5 August, the RSK air force began evacuating to Zalužani Airfield near Banja Luka, completing the move that day. At the same time the CAF deployed 11 MiG-21s to strike a communications facility and a storage site, as well as five other military positions throughout the RSK. That day, the CAF also deployed a Mi-24 to attack ARSK armour units near Sisak and five Mi-8s to transport casualties, and move troops and cargo. Five CAF MiG-21s sustained light damage in the process. The next day, jets struck an ARSK command post, a bridge and at least four other targets near Karlovac and Glina. A Mi-24 was deployed to the Slunj area to attack ARSK tanks, while three Mi-8s transported wounded personnel and supplies. An additional pair of MiG-21s was deployed to patrol the airspace over Ivanić Grad and intercept two Bosnian Serb fighter jets, but they failed to do so due to fog in the area and their low level of flight.[136] The VRS aircraft subsequently managed to strike the Petrokemija chemical plant in Kutina.[140]
On 7 August, two VRS air force jets attacked a village in the Nova Gradiška area, just north of the Sava River—the international border in the area.[141] The CAF bombed an ARSK command post, a storage facility and several tanks near Bosanski Petrovac.[136] CAF jets also struck a column of Serb refugees near Bosanski Petrovac, killing nine people, including four children.[142] On 8 August, the CAF performed its last combat sorties in the operation, striking tanks and armoured vehicles between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor, and two of its MiG-21s were damaged.[136] The same day, UN military observers deployed at Croatian airfields claimed that the CAF attacked military targets and civilians in the Dvor area,[140] where refugee columns were mixed with ARSK transporting heavy weapons and large quantities of ammunition.[143] Overall, the CAF performed 67 close air support, three attack helicopter, seven reconnaissance, four combat air patrol and 111 transport helicopter sorties during Operation Storm.[136]
Otras operaciones coordinadas
In order to protect areas of Croatia away from Sectors North and South, the HV conducted defensive operations while the HVO started a limited offensive north of Glamoč and Kupres to pin down part of the VRS forces, exploit the situation and gain positions for further advance.[144] On 5 August, the HVO 2nd and 3rd Guards Brigades attacked VRS positions north of Tomislavgrad, achieving small advances to secure more favourable positions for future attacks towards Šipovo and Jajce, while tying down part of the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps.[145] As a consequence of the overall battlefield situation, the VRS was limited to a few counter-attacks around Bihać and Grahovo as it was short of reserves.[146] The most significant counter-attack was launched by the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps on the night of 11/12 August. It broke through the 141st Brigade,[147] consisting of the HV's reserve infantry, reaching the outskirts of Bosansko Grahovo, only to be beaten back by the HV,[148] using one battalion drawn from the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigade each, supported by the 6th and the 126th Home Guard Regiments.[147]
Operation Phoenix
In eastern Slavonia, the HV Osijek Corps was tasked with preventing ARSK or Yugoslav Army forces from advancing west in the region, and counter-attacking into the ARSK-held area around Vukovar. The Osijek Corps mission was codenamed Operation Phoenix (Croatian: Operacija Fenix). The Corps commanded the 3rd Guards and 5th Guards Brigades, as well as six other HV brigades and seven Home Guard regiments. Additional reinforcements were provided in a form of specialized corps-level units otherwise directly subordinated to the HV General Staff, including a part of the Mi-24 gunship squadron. Even though artillery rounds and small arms fire were traded between the HV and the ARSK 11th Slavonia-Baranja Corps in the region, no major attack occurred.[144] The most significant coordinated ARSK effort occurred on 5 August, when the exchange was compounded by three RSK air raids and an infantry and tank assault targeting Nuštar, northeast of Vinkovci.[149] Operation Storm led the Yugoslav Army to mobilize and deploy considerable artillery, tanks and infantry to the border area near eastern Slavonia, but it took no part in the battle.[146]
Operation Maestral
In the south of Croatia, the HV deployed to protect the Dubrovnik area against the VRS Herzegovina Corps and the Yugoslav Army situated in and around Trebinje and the Bay of Kotor. The plan, codenamed Operation Maestral, entailed deployment of the 114th, 115th and 163rd Brigades, the 116th and 156th Home Guard Regiments, the 1st Home Guard Battalion (Dubrovnik), the 16th Artillery Battalion, the 39th Engineers Battalion and a mobile coastal artillery battery. The area was reinforced on 8 August with the 144th Brigade as the unit completed its objectives in Operation Storm and moved to Dubrovnik. The CAF committed two MiG-21s and two Mi-24s based in Split to Operation Maestral. The Croatian Navy supported the operation deploying the Korčula, Brač and Hvar Marine Detachments, as well as missile boats, minesweepers, anti-submarine warfare ships and coastal artillery. In the period, the VRS attacked the Dubrovnik area intermittently using artillery only.[150]
Evaluación de la batalla
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Operation Storm became the largest European land battle since the Second World War,[151] encompassing a 630-kilometre (390 mi) frontline.[61] It was a decisive victory for Croatia,[152] restoring its control over 10,400 square kilometres (4,000 square miles) of territory, representing 18.4% of the country.[153] Losses sustained by the HV and the special police are most often cited as 174 killed and 1,430 wounded,[154] but a government report prepared weeks after the battle specified 211 killed or missing, 1,100 wounded and three captured soldiers. By 21 August, Croatian authorities recovered and buried 560 ARSK servicemen killed in the battle. The HV captured 4,000 prisoners of war,[155] 54 armoured and 497 other vehicles, six aircraft, hundreds of artillery pieces and over 4,000 infantry weapons.[153] Four UN peacekeepers were killed—three as a result of HV actions and one as a result of ARSK activities—and 16 injured. The HV destroyed 98 UN observation posts.[156]
The HV's success was a result of a series of improvements to the HV itself and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were subsequently exploited by the HV and the ARBiH. The attack was not immediately successful everywhere, but the seizing of key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure and overall defensive capability.[130] The HV's capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm and the special police's advance to Gračac made Knin nearly impossible to defend.[157] In Lika, two Guards brigades rapidly cut the ARSK-held area lacking tactical depth or mobile reserve forces, isolating pockets of resistance and placing the 1st Guards Brigade in a position that allowed it to move north into the Karlovac Corps AOR, pushing ARSK forces towards Banovina. The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja, after heavy fighting, also defeated the ARSK Banija Corps, as its reserve became immobilized by the ARBiH. The ARSK force was capable of containing or substantially holding assaults by regular HV brigades and the Home Guard, but attacks by the Guards brigades and the special police proved to be decisive.[158] Colonel Andrew Leslie, commanding the UNCRO in the Knin area,[159] assessed Operation Storm as a textbook operation that would have "scored an A-plus" by NATO standards.[160]
Even if the ARBiH had not provided aid, the HV would almost certainly have defeated the Banija Corps on its own, albeit at greater cost. The lack of reserves was the ARSK's key weakness that was exploited by the HV and the ARBiH since the ARSK's static defence could not cope with fast-paced attacks. The ARSK military was unable to check outflanking manoeuvres and their Special Units Corps failed as a mobile reserve, holding back the HV's 1st Guards Brigade south of Slunj for less than a single day.[158] The ARSK traditionally counted on the VRS and the Yugoslav military as its strategic reserve, but the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina immobilized the VRS reserves and Yugoslavia did not intervene militarily as Milošević did not order it to do so. Even if he had wished to intervene, the speed of the battle would have allowed a very limited time for Yugoslavia to deploy appropriate reinforcements to support the ARSK.[146]
Crisis de refugiados
The evacuation and following mass-exodus of the Serbs from the RSK led to a significant humanitarian crisis. In August 1995, the UN estimated that only 3,500 Serbs remained in Kordun and Banovina (former Sector North) and 2,000 remained in Lika and Northern Dalmatia (former Sector South), while more than 150,000 had fled to Yugoslavia, and between 10,000 and 15,000 had arrived in the Banja Luka area.[139] The number of Serb refugees was reported to be as many as 200,000 by the international media[161] and international organizations.[162] Also, 21,000 Bosniak refugees from the former APWB fled to Croatia.[139][163]
While approximately 35,000 Serb refugees, trapped with the surrendered ARSK Kordun Corps, were evacuated to Yugoslavia via Sisak and the Zagreb–Belgrade motorway,[122] the bulk of the refugees followed a route through the Republika Srpska, arriving there via Dvor in Banovina or via Srb in Lika—two corridors to Serb-held territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina left as the HV advanced.[98] The two points of retreat were created as a consequence of the delay of a northward advance of the HV Split Corps after the capture of Knin, and the decision not to use the entire HV 2nd Guards Brigade to spearhead the southward advance from Petrinja.[164] The retreating ARSK, transporting large quantities of weaponry, ammunition, artillery and tanks, often intermingled with evacuating or fleeing civilians, had few roads to use.[143] The escaping columns were reportedly intermittently attacked by CAF jets,[165] and the HV, trading fire with the ARSK located close to the civilian columns.[166] The refugees were also targeted by ARBiH troops,[167] as well as by VRS jets, and sometimes were run over by the ARSK Special Units Corps' retreating tanks.[168][169] On 9 August, a refugee convoy evacuating from the former Sector North under the terms of the ARSK Kordun Corps' surrender agreement was attacked by Croatian civilians in Sisak. The attack caused one civilian death, many injuries and damage to a large number of vehicles. Croatian police intervened in the incident after UN civilian police monitors pressured them to do so.[140] The next day, US ambassador Galbraith joined the column to protect them,[170] and the Croatian police presence along the planned route increased.[165] The refugees moving through the Republika Srpska were extorted at checkpoints and forced to pay extra for fuel and other services by local strongmen.[171]
Aiming to reduce evidence of political failure, Yugoslav authorities sought to disperse the refugees in various parts of Serbia and prevent their concentration in the capital, Belgrade.[172] The government encouraged the refugees to settle in predominantly Hungarian areas of Vojvodina, and in Kosovo, which was largely populated by Albanians, leading to increased instability in those regions.[173][174] Even though 20,000 were planned to be settled in Kosovo, only 4,000 moved to the region.[174] After 12 August, the Serbian authorities started to deport some of the refugees who were of military age, declaring them illegal immigrants.[175] They were turned over to the VRS or the ARSK in eastern Croatia for conscription.[176] Some of the conscripts were publicly humiliated and beaten for abandoning the RSK.[175] In some areas, ethnic Croats of Vojvodina were evicted from their homes by the refugees themselves to claim new accommodations.[177] Similarly, the refugees moving through Banja Luka forced Croats and Bosniaks out of their homes.[178]
Return of the refugees
At the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence, in 1991–1992, a non-Serb population of more than 220,000 was forcibly removed from Serb-held territories in Croatia, as the RSK was established.[179] In the wake of Operation Storm, a part of those refugees, as well as Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, settled in a substantial number of housing units in the area formerly held by the ARSK, presenting an obstacle to the return of Serb refugees.[180] As of September 2010[update], out of 300,000–350,000 Serbs who fled from Croatia during the entire war,[181] 132,707 are registered as having returned,[182] but only 60–65% of those are believed to reside permanently in the country. However, only 20,000–25,000 more are interested in returning to Croatia.[181] As of 2010[update], approximately 60,000 Serb refugees from Croatia remained in Serbia.[183]
The ICTY stated that Croatia adopted discriminatory measures to prevent the return of refugees.[184] The Human Rights Watch reported in 1999 that Serbs did not enjoy their civil rights as Croatian citizens, as a result of discriminatory laws and practices, and that they were frequently unable to return to and live freely in Croatia.[185] The return of refugees has been hampered by several obstacles. These include property ownership and accommodation, as Croat refugees settled in vacated homes,[180] and Croatian war-time legislation that stripped the refugees once living in government-owned housing of their tenancy rights. The legislation was abolished following the war,[186] and alternative accommodation is offered to returnees.[187] 6,538 housing units were allocated by November 2010. Another obstacle is the difficulty for refugees to obtain residency status or Croatian citizenship. Applicable legislation has been relaxed since, and by November 2010, Croatia allowed the validation of identity documents issued by the RSK.[182] Even though Croatia declared a general amnesty, refugees fear legal prosecution,[186] as the amnesty does not pertain to war crimes.[188]
In 2015 and 2017 report, Amnesty International expressed concern about persisting obstacles for Serbs to regain their property.[189] They reported that Croatian Serbs continued to face discrimination in public sector employment and the restitution of tenancy rights to social housing vacated during the war. They also pointed to hate speech, "evoking fascist ideology" and the right to use minority languages and script continued to be politicized and unimplemented in some towns.[189]
Crímenes de guerra
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), set up in 1993 based on the UN Security Council Resolution 827,[190] indicted Gotovina, Čermak and Markač for war crimes, specifically for their roles in Operation Storm, citing their participation in a joint criminal enterprise aimed at the permanent removal of Serbs from the ARSK-held part of Croatia. The ICTY charges specified that other participants in the joint criminal enterprise were Tuđman, Šušak, and Bobetko and Červenko,[191] however all except Bobetko were dead before the first relevant ICTY indictment was issued in 2001.[192] Bobetko was indicted by the ICTY, but died a year later, before he could be extradited for trial at the ICTY.[193] The trial of Gotovina et al began in 2008,[194] leading to the convictions of Gotovina and Markač and the acquittal of Čermak three years later.[195] Gotovina and Markač were acquitted on appeal in November 2012.[196] The ICTY concluded that Operation Storm was not aimed at ethnic persecution, as civilians had not been deliberately targeted. The Appeals Chamber stated that Croatian Army and Special Police committed crimes after the artillery assault, but the state and military leadership had no role in planning and creation of crimes.[197] Furthermore, they did not find that Gotovina and Markač played a role in adopting discriminatory efforts that prevent the return of Serb civilians.[184] Two judges in the panel of five dissented from this verdict.[198] The case raised significant issues for law of war and it has been described as a precedent.[199][200][201][202][203][204]
EU envoy Bildt accused Croatia of the most efficient ethnic cleansing carried out in the Yugoslav Wars.[205] His view is supported by several Western analysts, such as historians Marie-Janine Calic,[206] Gerard Toal and Carl T. Dahlman,[207] Miloševic biographer Adam LeBor,[208] and Professor Paul Mojzes,[209] but rejected by then-US ambassador Galbraith.[210] In the Gotovina Defence Final Trial Brief, Gotovina's lawyers Luka Misetic, Greg Kehoe and Payam Akhavan rejected the accusation of mass expulsion of Serbian population.[211] They referred to the ICTY testimony of RSK Commander Mile Mrkšić, who stated that on 4 August 1995, sometime after 16:00 hrs, it was Milan Martić and his staff who in fact made a decision to evacuate the Serb population from Krajina to Srb, a village near the Bosnian border.[212]
In February 2015, at the conclusion of the Croatia–Serbia genocide case, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) dismissed a Serbian lawsuit which alleged that Operation Storm constituted genocide,[213] ruling that Croatia did not have the specific intent to exterminate the country's Serb minority, though it reaffirmed that serious crimes against Serb civilians had taken place.[213][214] The court also found that the HV left accessible escape routes for civilians.[215] They also found that, at most, the leaders of Croatia envisaged that the military offensive would have the effect of causing the flight of the great majority of the Serb population, that they were satisfied with that consequence and they wished to encourage the departure of the Serb civilians, but do not establish the existence of the specific intent which characterizes genocide.[216] According to the judgement, Serb civilians fleeing their homes, as well as those remaining in UN protected areas, were subject to various forms of harassment by both the HV and Croatian civilians.[217] On 8 August, a refugee column was shelled.[217]
The number of civilian casualties in Operation Storm is disputed. The State Attorney's Office of the Republic of Croatia claims that 214 civilians were killed—156 in 24 instances of war crimes and another 47 as victims of murder—during the battle and in its immediate aftermath. The Croatian Helsinki Committee disputes the claim and reports that 677 civilians were killed during the same period.[218] When submitted as evidence, their report was rejected by the ICTY due to unsourced statements and double entries contained within.[219] Serbian sources quote 1,192 civilians dead or missing.[220] ICTY prosecutors set the number of civilian deaths at 324.[221] Croatian government officials estimate that 42 Croatian civilians were killed during the operation.[222]
It is difficult to determine the exact number of properties destroyed during and after Operation Storm, since a large number of houses had already sustained damage since the beginning of the war.[179] Human Rights Watch (HRW) estimates that more than 5,000 homes were destroyed during and after the battle.[223] Out of the 122 Serbian Orthodox churches in the area, one was destroyed and 17 were damaged, but most of the damage to the churches occurred prior to the Serb retreat.[224] HRW also reported that the vast majority of the abuses during Operation Storm were committed by Croatian forces. These abuses, which continued on a large scale for months afterward, included summary executions of elderly and infirm Serbs who remained behind and the wholesale burning and destruction of Serb villages and property. In the months following Operation Storm, at least 150 Serb civilians were summarily executed and another 110 persons forcibly disappeared.[225] One such example is the Varivode massacre, in which nine Serb civilians were killed.[226] Other recorded crimes against Serb civilians either during or in the aftermath of Operation Storm occurred in Komić, Kijani, Golubić, Uzdolje, Grubori, and Gošić.
As of November 2012[update], the Croatian authorities have received 6,390 reports of crimes committed in the area during or after Operation Storm, and have convicted 2,380 persons of committing looting, arson, murders, war crimes and other illegal acts. As of the same date, 24 more trials of war crimes related to Operation Storm were in progress.[227] In 2012, Serbian authorities were investigating five cases of war crimes committed during Operation Storm.[228] On the 25th anniversary of the Operation, the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network analyzed documents from the ICTY trial and found that very few of the perpetrators of killings of Serb civilians have been brought to justice while none of the commanders of the units responsible have been prosecuted.[229]
Secuelas
The defeat of the RSK led the Bosnian Serbs to realise that a settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be negotiated as soon as possible,[230] and reversed the tide of the war against the Serbs,[160] giving US diplomacy a strong boost.[231] The success of Operation Storm also represented a strategic victory in the Bosnian War as it lifted the siege of Bihać,[164] and allowed the Croatian and Bosnian leadership to plan a full-scale military intervention in the VRS-held Banja Luka area—one aimed at creating a new balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a buffer zone along the Croatian border, and contributing to the resolution of the war.[230] The intervention materialized as Operation Mistral 2 in September 1995. Combined with a NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[230] it led to the start of peace talks that would result in the Dayton Agreement a few months later.[232] The development also led to the restoration of the remaining Serb-held areas in eastern Slavonia and Baranja to Croatian control through the Erdut Agreement,[233] ending the Croatian War of Independence in November.[234]
The ease with which the HV achieved victory surprised many observers as Western intelligence services predicted a Croatian defeat.[235] International reactions to Operation Storm quickly evolved from emotive arguments, supportive of either side in the battle, to those calmly assessing the situation on the ground.[236] UN officials and most international media criticised Croatia.[237] Carl Bildt, an EU negotiator working for the former Yugoslavia, publicly condemned Croatia, while UN Special Representative Stoltenberg urged the UN Secretary General Personal Representative Yasushi Akashi to request NATO strikes against the HV.[236] German Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel expressed regret but added that "... the years of Serb aggression ... have sorely tried Croatia's patience".[238] The US response was mixed. While Secretary of Defense William Perry reflected favourably on the military development,[237] the US ambassador to Croatia, Peter Galbraith, declared his disapproval. On 10 August, the UN Security Council issued Resolution 1009 demanding that Croatia halt military operations, condemning the targeting of UN peacekeepers, and calling for the resumption of talks—but not calling for a HV withdrawal.[236] By 18 August, US diplomats on Robert Frasure's team tasked to mediate in the Bosnian War believed Operation Storm lent their diplomatic mission a chance to succeed,[239] reflecting the opinion of US President Bill Clinton that the Serbs would not negotiate seriously unless they sustained major military defeats.[240]
In Serbia, Milošević condemned the Croatian attack, but the Milošević-influenced press also denounced the leadership of the RSK as being incompetent,[241] while the most extreme politicians, including Vojislav Šešelj, demanded retaliation against Croatia.[242] Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić begged for the Yugoslav Army to help while accusing Milošević of treason.[243]
In Croatia, HV units returning to their bases were given heroes' welcomes in numerous cities, and a commemorative medal was created to be issued to HV troops who took part in the operation.[244] On 26 August, Croatia organised the Freedom Train—a railroad tour taking Tuđman and the bulk of Croatia's government officials, public personalities, journalists and the diplomatic corps in Croatia from Zagreb to Karlovac, Gospić, Knin and Split.[245] Tuđman gave a speech at each of the stops.[246] In Knin, he declared: "[The Serbs] didn't even have time to collect their dirty [money] and their dirty underwear. On this day, we can say that Croatia stopped bearing its historical cross. This is not just the liberation of land, but the creation of a foundation for a free and independent Croatia for centuries to come."[247] During the final rally in Split, which drew a crowd of 300,000, Tuđman vowed to liberate Vukovar as well.[248]
Conmemoración
Croats and Serbs hold opposing views of the operation.[249] In Croatia, 5 August—the day that the HV captured Knin—was chosen as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders, the Croatian public holiday when Operation Storm is officially celebrated.[250] In Serbia and the Republika Srpska, the day is marked by mourning for the Serbs killed and those who fled during or after the operation.[251]
On the 23rd anniversary of the operation, the celebration in Knin was attended by brigadier Ivan Mašulović, military attaché of Montenegro. It was the first time that Montenegro sent an envoy to Knin. The move was heavily criticized by Montenegrin pro-Serbian politicians and Serbian media. Montenegrin right-wing party New Serb Democracy (NSD) called Mašulović a traitor, as well as those "who sent him to a celebration of a crime against the Serbian people."[252][253] Some went so far as to compare him to Montenegrin fascist collaborator Sekula Drljević.[254] Montenegrin Ministry of Defence defended their decision to send an envoy stating that "Montenegro would not fight anyone else's battles. Montenegro has the stance of building good neighbourly relations with all countries in the region," including "close and friendly" Serbia and "close and friendly" NATO ally Croatia.[255][256]
On the 25th anniversary of the operation, the celebration in Knin was attended for the first time ever by an ethnic Serb political representative, Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia Boris Milošević. His move was applauded across Croatia, with Prime Minister of Croatia Andrej Plenković stating that it will "send a new message for Croatian society, relations between Croatians and Serb minority ... between Croatia and Serbia."[257] Other notable politicians who praised it include member of the opposition Social Democratic Party (SDP) Peđa Grbin, president of the Independent Democratic Serb Party (SDSS) Milorad Pupovac, leader of the Democratic Alliance of Croats in Vojvodina (DSHV) Tomislav Žigmanov, Mayor of Knin Marko Jelić and retired general Pavao Miljavac.[258][259] Milošević's move was met with criticism from the far-right party Homeland Movement (DP) and members of Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) paramilitary. Leader of the Homeland Movement Miroslav Škoro refused to participate in the official ceremony, despite being a Deputy Speaker of the Parliament, and stated that "there is no reason for reconciliation of any kind."[260] The move was also received negatively by the Governments of Serbia and Republika Srpska. At the celebration, Prime Minister Plenković, President Zoran Milanović and General Gotovina sent messages of peace and reconciliation and sympathy for Serbian civilian victims as well.[261][257][262] Serbia held a commemoration on the Rača Bridge over the Sava River, while a tableau was staged on the bridge with actors dressed as refugees sitting in Yugoslav-era cars and tractors.[261]
Notas al pie
- ^ The New York Times & 19 August 1990
- ^ a b ICTY & 12 June 2007
- ^ The New York Times & 2 April 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 3 March 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 26 June 1991
- ^ The New York Times & 29 June 1991
- ^ Narodne novine & 8 October 1991
- ^ a b Blitz, Brad K. (2006). War and Change in the Balkans: Nationalism, Conflict and Cooperation. Cambridge University Press. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-52167-773-8.
- ^ Marlise Simons (10 October 2001). "Milosevic, Indicted Again, Is Charged With Crimes in Croatia". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- ^ "Milosevic: Important New Charges on Croatia". Human Rights Watch. 21 October 2001. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
- ^ Department of State & 31 January 1994
- ^ ECOSOC & 17 November 1993, Section J, points 147 & 150
- ^ Bassiouni, M. Cherif; Manikas, Peter M. (28 December 1994). "Annex IV: The policy of ethnic cleansing". United Nations. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012.
- ^ a b c "CROATIA HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES, 1993". United States Department of State. 31 January 1994.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 233
- ^ EECIS 1999, pp. 272–278
- ^ The Independent & 10 October 1992
- ^ The New York Times & 24 September 1991
- ^ Bjelajac & Žunec 2009, pp. 249–250
- ^ The New York Times & 18 November 1991
- ^ a b The New York Times & 3 January 1992
- ^ Los Angeles Times & 29 January 1992
- ^ Thompson 2012, p. 417
- ^ The New York Times & 15 July 1992
- ^ The New York Times & 24 January 1993
- ^ ECOSOC & 17 November 1993, Section K, point 161
- ^ The New York Times & 13 September 1993
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 382
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 427
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 428
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 433
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 443
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 10
- ^ The Seattle Times & 16 July 1992
- ^ The New York Times & 17 August 1995
- ^ a b Halberstam 2003, p. 284
- ^ Halberstam 2003, p. 204
- ^ The Independent & 27 November 1994
- ^ Halberstam 2003, pp. 285–286
- ^ Halberstam 2003, p. 305
- ^ Halberstam 2003, p. 304
- ^ Halberstam 2003, p. 293
- ^ Halberstam 2003, p. 306
- ^ Hodge 2006, p. 104
- ^ a b c Jutarnji list & 9 December 2007
- ^ a b c Dunigan 2011, pp. 93–94
- ^ The Guardian & 8 July 2001
- ^ Woodward 2010, p. 432
- ^ The New York Times & 13 October 2002
- ^ RTS & 3 September 2011
- ^ Avant 2005, p. 104
- ^ Jutarnji list & 20 August 2010
- ^ RFE & 20 August 2010
- ^ Bono 2003, p. 107
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 439
- ^ a b Armatta 2010, pp. 201–204
- ^ Ahrens 2007, pp. 160–166
- ^ Galbraith 2006, p. 126
- ^ Bideleux & Jeffries 2006, p. 205
- ^ The New York Times & 2 May 1995
- ^ a b c Goldstein 1999, pp. 252–253
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 456
- ^ The New York Times & 15 July 1995
- ^ a b Bjelajac & Žunec 2009, p. 254
- ^ The New York Times & 31 July 1995
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 364–366
- ^ Burg & Shoup 2000, p. 348
- ^ Ahrens 2007, pp. 171–173
- ^ Nacional & 3 April 2005
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 367
- ^ Nacional & 24 May 2005
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 59
- ^ a b c d CIA 2002, pp. 369–370
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, pp. 67–69
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 67
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 76
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 369
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 81–82
- ^ a b c Marijan 2007, pp. 90–92
- ^ a b c d e CIA 2002, pp. 368–369
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 100–101
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 368
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 115
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 367–368
- ^ Henriksen 2007, p. 104
- ^ a b Thomas 2006, p. 55
- ^ Index.hr & 5 August 2011
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 37–38
- ^ a b c Marijan 2007, pp. 67–116
- ^ Sekulić 2000, p. 262
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 451
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 372–374
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 370
- ^ UNCRO
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 129
- ^ Sekulić 2000, p. 173
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, pp. 70–72
- ^ a b HRW 1996, p. 9
- ^ Sekulić 2000, p. 265
- ^ Sekulić 2000, p. 267
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 371
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 76–77
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 82–84
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 92–93
- ^ a b c Marijan 2007, pp. 101–103
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 116–117
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 72–73
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 84–85
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 93–95
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 103–105
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 117
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 372–373
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 73
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 77–78
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 372
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, pp. 86–87
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 96
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 95–96
- ^ HRW 1996, p. 17
- ^ a b c CIA 2002, pp. 373–374
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 105–106
- ^ a b c Marijan 2007, p. 111
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 117–118
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, p. 74
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, p. 78
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 87–88
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 96–97
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 106–107
- ^ Nova TV & 5 August 2011
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 374
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 97
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, p. 107
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 111–112
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 98
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 108–109
- ^ a b c d e f Marijan 2007, pp. 119–121
- ^ NATO & 4 July 1997
- ^ Mueller 2000, notes 77 & 81
- ^ a b c UNSC & 23 August 1995, p. 3
- ^ a b c UNSC & 23 August 1995, p. 6
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 128
- ^ Balkan Insight & 7 August 2015
- ^ a b HRW 1996, p. 14
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, pp. 124–126
- ^ Marijan 2007, pp. 125–126
- ^ a b c CIA 2002, p. 376
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 418, n. 641
- ^ CIA 2002, p. 379
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 127
- ^ Marijan 2007, p. 125
- ^ Riley 2010, p. 216
- ^ Newark 2005, p. 195
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, p. 137
- ^ Nation 2003, p. 190
- ^ Sadkovich 1998, p. 222
- ^ UNSC & 23 August 1995, p. 2
- ^ CIA 2002, pp. 374–375
- ^ a b CIA 2002, p. 375
- ^ The New York Times & 4 August 1995
- ^ a b Dunigan 2011, p. 94
- ^ BBC News & 5 August 2005
- ^ UNHCR & 20 June 2001
- ^ Narodne novine & 7 July 1998
- ^ a b Marijan 2007, p. 134
- ^ a b HRW 1996, p. 13
- ^ HRW 1996, p. 10
- ^ Vreme & 10 August 2006
- ^ Dakić 2001, p. 62
- ^ 24sata & 13 February 2009
- ^ The New York Times & 13 August 1995
- ^ The Independent & 9 August 1995 (b)
- ^ Thomas 1999, p. 239
- ^ Goldman 1997, p. 372
- ^ a b van Selm 2000, pp. 4–5
- ^ a b HRW 1996, p. 40
- ^ Markotich 1996, p. 125
- ^ The Guardian & 14 June 1999
- ^ The Baltimore Sun & 13 August 1995
- ^ a b Biondich 2004, p. 438
- ^ a b Leutloff-Grandits 2006, pp. 3–4
- ^ a b HRW 18-7 2006, p. 1
- ^ a b Department of State & 8 April 2011
- ^ Večernji list & 19 July 2010
- ^ a b ICTY & November 2012, p. 33
- ^ HRW & March 1999
- ^ a b HRW & 1 January 1999
- ^ HRW 18-7 2006, pp. 4–8
- ^ Narodne novine & 27 September 1996
- ^ a b Amnesty & 1 January 2017, pp. 131–133
- ^ Schabas 2006, pp. 3–4
- ^ ICTY & 17 May 2007
- ^ ICTY & 21 May 2001
- ^ The New York Times & 30 April 2003
- ^ The New York Times & 12 March 2008
- ^ ICTY & 15 April 2011 (a)
- ^ ICTY & 16 November 2012
- ^ ICTY & November 2012, pp. 30–34
- ^ The Guardian & 16 November 2012
- ^ Sadat 2018, p. 403.
- ^ Huffman 2012, p. 1.
- ^ Decoeur 2012.
- ^ Borda 2013, pp. 65–82.
- ^ The Direct and Indirect Approaches to Precedent in International Criminal Courts and Tribunals 2014.
- ^ Acquittal of Gotovina and Haradinaj 2014.
- ^ Pearl & Cooper 2002, p. 224
- ^ Calic 2009, p. 129
- ^ Toal & Dahlman 2011, p. 133
- ^ LeBor 2002, p. 229
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 156
- ^ B92 & 19 April 2011
- ^ Gotovina Defence Final Trial Brief, 27 July 2010, pp. 96–99
- ^ ICTY Transcript, 19 June 2009, p. 18934.
The president of the republic said that he had consultations with him and that they agreed, that he had proposed—that he had put forward a proposal, and this was the opinion of the staff, that people should not be left to their own devices and at the mercy of whoever, that they should be removed from Krajina to Srb.
- ^ a b BBC News & 3 February 2015
- ^ ICJ & 3 February 2015, pp. 4, 141, 142
- ^ ICJ & 3 February 2015, pp. 131, 139
- ^ ICJ & 3 February 2015, pp. 140–141
- ^ a b ICJ & 3 February 2015, pp. 4, 132, 133
- ^ Deutsche Welle & 4 August 2011
- ^ ICTY & 15 April 2011 (b), p. 30
- ^ RTS & 18 November 2012
- ^ ABC News & 17 November 2012
- ^ HRW 1996, p. 2, note 1
- ^ HRW 1996, p. 19
- ^ Blaskovich 1997, p. 96
- ^ HRW 1996, p. 2
- ^ Clark 2014, p. 130.
- ^ Večernji list & 27 November 2012
- ^ B92 & 21 November 2012
- ^ Vladisavljevic, Anja; Stojanovic, Milica (5 August 2020). "Court Records Reveal Croatian Units' Role in Operation Storm Killings". BalkanInsight. BIRN.
- ^ a b c CIA 2002, pp. 374–377
- ^ Daalder 2000, p. 173
- ^ Time & 11 September 1995
- ^ Ramet & Matić 2007, p. 46
- ^ The New York Times & 12 November 1995
- ^ Ahrens 2007, p. 173
- ^ a b c Ahrens 2007, pp. 176–179
- ^ a b Sadkovich 1998, p. 137
- ^ Time & 14 August 1995
- ^ Holbrooke 1999, p. 73
- ^ Riley 2010, pp. 214–215
- ^ The Independent & 5 August 1995
- ^ The Independent & 6 August 1995
- ^ The Independent & 9 August 1995 (a)
- ^ Narodne novine & 7 August 1995
- ^ Tanner 2001, p. 298
- ^ Office of the President
- ^ Hockenos 2003, p. 100
- ^ Nacional & 17 May 2005
- ^ B92 & 4 August 2012
- ^ HRT & 5 August 2012
- ^ Politika & 4 August 2010
- ^ Žabec, Krešimir (5 August 2018). "U Kninu na proslavi Oluje nikad manje posjetitelja, sve je prošlo bez euforije, u kafićima razočarani: 'A kako će biti gužvi kada su svi u Irskoj'". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ "Montenegrin Officer Slammed for Attending Croatian 'Storm' Ceremony". Balkan Insight. 6 August 2018. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ ""Ljudski izrod" - uvrede za atašea Crne Gore zbog Oluje". Express (in Croatian). 7 August 2018. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ Hina (7 August 2018). "Montenegro Defends Participation in Operation Storm Celebrations". Total Croatia News. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ D. M.; Hina (7 August 2018). "Crna Gora brani nazočnost svojeg izaslanika na proslavi Oluje". Hrvatska radiotelevizija (in Croatian). Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ a b "Croatia marks 25 years since war with tolerance message". Al Jazeera. 5 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ^ Vuković, Rozita (1 August 2020). "Nakon 25 godina došlo je do prekretnice za Srbe u Hrvatskoj: 'Moramo iskazati počast svim žrtvama'". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ^ "Pupovac: Boris Milošević zaslužuje podršku svih - i u Hrvatskoj i izvan nje". N1 Hrvatska (in Croatian). 3 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ^ Hina (5 August 2020). "Škoro: Nema razloga ni za kakvo pomirenje, a u Kninu ima više policije i vojske nego naroda". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ^ a b Vladisavljević, Anja; Stojanović, Milica (5 August 2020). "Croatia Hails 25th Anniversary of Operation Storm Victory; Serbs Mourn". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ^ Hina (5 August 2020). "Gotovina komentirao HOS-ovce u Kninu: 'U svemu pa i u slobodi postoji disciplina'". rtl.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 7 August 2020.
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enlaces externos
- An analysis of Operation Storm and TV footage of the operation, Croatian Radiotelevision, 5 August 2011 (in Croatian)
- Military Operation Storm and Its Aftermath Croatian Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, Zagreb 2001.
- Vladisavljevic, Anja (5 August 2020). "While Croats Celebrate August 1995, Serbs Look Back in Sorrow". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
Coordinates: 44°02′N 16°12′E / 44.04°N 16.20°E / 44.04; 16.20