La ciencia y la tecnología en Israel es uno de los sectores más desarrollados del país. Israel gastó el 4,3% de su producto interno bruto (PIB) en investigación y desarrollo civil en 2015, la proporción más alta del mundo . [1] En 2019, Israel fue clasificado como el quinto país más innovador del mundo por el Índice de Innovación de Bloomberg . [2] Ocupa el decimotercer lugar en el mundo en producción científica, medido por el número de publicaciones científicas por millón de ciudadanos. [3] En 2014, la proporción de artículos científicos publicados por Israel en todo el mundo (0,9%) fue mucho más alta que su proporción de la población mundial (0,1%). [4] [1]
Israel cuenta con 140 científicos y técnicos por cada 10,000 empleados, una de las proporciones más altas del mundo. En comparación, hay 85 por 10,000 en los Estados Unidos y 83 por 10,000 en Japón . [5] En 2012, Israel contaba con 8.337 investigadores equivalentes a tiempo completo por millón de habitantes. [1] Esto se compara con 3.984 en los EE. UU., 6.533 en la República de Corea del Sur y 5.195 en Japón. La industria de alta tecnología de Israel se ha beneficiado de la fuerza laboral altamente educada y tecnológicamente calificada del país, junto con la fuerte presencia de empresas extranjeras de alta tecnología y sofisticados centros de investigación. [6] [1]
Israel es el hogar de los principales actores de la industria de alta tecnología y tiene una de las poblaciones más alfabetizadas tecnológicamente del mundo . [7] En 1998, Newsweek nombró a Tel Aviv como una de las diez ciudades tecnológicamente más influyentes del mundo. [8] Desde 2000, Israel ha sido miembro de EUREKA , la organización paneuropea de coordinación y financiación de la investigación y el desarrollo, y ocupó la presidencia rotatoria de la organización durante 2010-2011. [9] [10] En 2010, el periodista estadounidense David Kaufman escribió que el área de alta tecnología de Yokneam , Israel, tiene la "mayor concentración mundial de empresas de tecnología estética". [11] El presidente de Google , Eric Schmidt, felicitó al país durante una visita allí y dijo que "Israel tiene el centro de alta tecnología más importante del mundo después de Estados Unidos". [12]
Historia
El asentamiento judío en el Mandato Palestino fue motivado tanto por la ideología como por la huida de la persecución. [13] El regreso a la patria fue un aspecto importante de la inmigración judía y muchos lo percibieron como un regreso al suelo. Para establecer las aldeas rurales que formaron el núcleo de la ideología sionista y producir agricultores judíos autosuficientes, se llevaron a cabo experimentos agronómicos. [14] Los cimientos de la investigación agrícola en Israel fueron sentados por los maestros y graduados de la Escuela Mikveh Yisrael , la primera escuela agrícola del país, establecida por la Alianza Israelita Universal en 1870. [15] En un viaje de campo al Monte Hermón en 1906. , el agrónomo Aaron Aaronsohn descubrió Triticum dicoccoides , o trigo emmer , que se cree que es la "madre de todo el trigo". [16] En 1909, fundó una estación de investigación agrícola en Atlit, donde construyó una extensa biblioteca y recolectó muestras geológicas y botánicas. [17] La Estación Agrícola, fundada en Rehovot en 1921, se dedicó a la investigación del suelo y otros aspectos de la agricultura en las difíciles condiciones climáticas del país. [18] Esta estación, que se convirtió en la Organización de Investigación Agrícola (ARO), es ahora la principal institución de investigación y desarrollo agrícola de Israel.
En 1912, la primera piedra angular del Technion - Instituto de Tecnología de Israel se colocó en una ceremonia festiva en Haifa, que luego fue ocupada por el Imperio Otomano . El Technion se convertiría en una universidad única en todo el mundo en su pretensión de preceder y crear una nación. Como a los judíos a menudo se les prohibía la educación técnica en Europa, [19] el Technion afirma haber traído las habilidades necesarias para construir un estado moderno. [20]
Establecida antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial, la Estación de Salud Hebrea en Jerusalén, fundada por Nathan Straus dedicada a la investigación médica y de salud pública, departamentos operativos de higiene pública, enfermedades oculares y bacteriología. [21] La estación fabricó vacunas contra el tifus y el cólera y desarrolló métodos de control de plagas para eliminar los ratones de campo. El Instituto Pasteur afiliado a la estación desarrolló una vacuna contra la rabia. [21] Se abrieron departamentos de microbiología, bioquímica, bacteriología e higiene en la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén , fundada en el Monte Scopus en 1925. En 1936, trabajadores judíos en el centro del país donaron dos días de paga para el establecimiento de el "Hospital de Judea y Sharon", más tarde rebautizado como Hospital Beilinson . En 1938, Beilinson estableció el primer banco de sangre del país . [22] El Hospital Universitario Rothschild-Hadassah en Mount Scopus abrió sus puertas en 1939 y fue el primer hospital universitario y centro médico del país. Desde que se renombró como Centro Médico Hadassah , se ha convertido en un líder en investigación médica. [23]
La investigación industrial comenzó en el Technion - Instituto de Tecnología de Israel , también se inició en el Centro de Investigación Daniel Sieff (más tarde el Instituto de Ciencia Weizmann ), establecido en 1934 en Rehovot . Los Laboratorios del Mar Muerto se abrieron en la década de 1930. La primera computadora electrónica moderna en Israel y el Medio Oriente, y una de las primeras computadoras electrónicas de programas almacenados a gran escala en el mundo, llamada WEIZAC , se construyó en el Instituto Weizmann durante 1954-1955, con base en el Instituto para Arquitectura de estudios avanzados (IAS) desarrollada por John von Neumann . [24] WEIZAC ha sido reconocido por IEEE como un hito en la historia de la ingeniería eléctrica y la informática. [25] IBM Israel , registrada el 8 de junio de 1950, fue la primera empresa de alta tecnología del país. La empresa, ubicada en Allenby Street en Tel Aviv , ensambló y reparó máquinas de tarjetas perforadas, clasificadoras y tabuladores. En 1956, se abrió una planta local para producir tarjetas perforadas y, un año después, se abrió el primer centro de servicios, que ofrece servicios de procesamiento de datos computarizados. [26]
La investigación científica y tecnológica en Israel fue impulsada por el nombramiento de un científico jefe del Ministerio de Industria y Comercio por recomendación de un comité encabezado por Ephraim Katzir , más tarde presidente de Israel . [27] El gobierno israelí otorgó subvenciones que cubrían entre el 50 y el 80 por ciento del desembolso para nuevas empresas, sin condiciones, sin participación accionaria y sin participación en la gestión. [27] A principios de la década de 1980, Control Data Corporation , socio de Elron Electronic Industries , formó la primera empresa de capital de riesgo del país . [27]
Origen de la industria israelí de alta tecnología
Las industrias de alta tecnología de Israel son un derivado del rápido desarrollo de la informática y la tecnología en la década de 1980 en lugares como Silicon Valley y Massachusetts Route 128 en los EE. UU., Que marcó el comienzo de la actual era de alta tecnología. Hasta ese momento, la economía de Israel se había basado esencialmente en la agricultura, la minería y sectores secundarios como el pulido de diamantes y la fabricación de textiles, fertilizantes y plásticos.
El factor clave que permitió que las industrias de alta tecnología basadas en las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación se arraigaran y florecieran en Israel fue la inversión de las industrias de defensa y aeroespacial, que generaron nuevas tecnologías y conocimientos técnicos. Israel dedicó el 17,1% de su PIB al gasto militar en 1988. Aunque esta proporción se redujo al 5,8% del PIB en 2016, el gasto militar de Israel sigue siendo uno de los más altos del mundo. A efectos de comparación, Estados Unidos dedicó el 5,7% de su PIB a gastos militares en 1988 y el 3,3% en 2016. [28] Esta fuerte inversión en defensa y aeroespacial formó la base de las industrias de alta tecnología de Israel en dispositivos médicos, electrónica. , telecomunicaciones, software y hardware informático.
La inmigración rusa masiva de la década de 1990 reforzó este fenómeno, duplicando el número de ingenieros y científicos en Israel de la noche a la mañana. Entre 1989 y 2006, alrededor de 979 000 judíos rusos y sus familiares emigraron a Israel, que tenía una población de solo 4,5 millones en 1989 [1].
La compra de Mirabilis en 1998 fue la primera gran salida de la alta tecnología en Israel y provocó una avalancha de empresas israelíes como parte de la burbuja de las Dot-com .
Hoy, Israel tiene el sector empresarial más intensivo en investigación del mundo; en 2013, solo representó el 3,49% del PIB. Las subvenciones competitivas y los incentivos fiscales son los dos principales instrumentos de política que apoyan la investigación y el desarrollo empresarial. Gracias a los incentivos gubernamentales y la disponibilidad de capital humano altamente capacitado, Israel se ha convertido en un lugar atractivo para los centros de investigación de las principales multinacionales. El ecosistema de innovación nacional del país depende tanto de multinacionales extranjeras como de grandes inversores corporativos en investigación y desarrollo, así como de empresas emergentes. Según la Base de datos de capital de riesgo de Israel, 264 centros de investigación extranjeros están activos actualmente en Israel. Muchos de estos centros son propiedad de grandes empresas multinacionales que han adquirido empresas, tecnología y conocimientos técnicos israelíes y los han transformado mediante fusiones y adquisiciones en sus propias instalaciones de investigación locales. La actividad de algunos centros de investigación abarca incluso más de tres décadas, como los de Intel, Applied Materials, Motorola e IBM. [1]
En 2011, los centros de investigación extranjeros empleaban a 33.700 trabajadores a través de filiales locales, dos tercios de los cuales (23.700) trabajaban en investigación y desarrollo. El mismo año, estos centros de investigación gastaron un total de 14,17 mil millones de NIS en investigación y desarrollo en todo el espectro de la industria, en comparación con el 17% del año anterior. [1]
Política de educación superior
Sexto Plan de Educación Superior
El sistema de educación superior de Israel está regulado por el Consejo de Educación Superior y su Comité de Planificación y Presupuesto. El sistema de educación superior israelí opera bajo un plan plurianual acordado por el Comité de Planificación y Presupuesto (PBC) y el Ministerio de Finanzas. Cada plan determina los objetivos de la política y, en consecuencia, los presupuestos que se asignarán para lograr estos objetivos. [1]
La asignación anual del gobierno a las universidades ascendió a aproximadamente US $ 1,75 mil millones en 2015, proporcionando entre el 50% y el 75% de sus presupuestos operativos. Gran parte del resto de su presupuesto operativo (15-20%) proviene de las tasas anuales de matrícula de los estudiantes, que son uniformes en aproximadamente US $ 2.750 por año. El Sexto Plan de Educación Superior (2011-2016) prevé un aumento del 30% en el presupuesto del Consejo de Educación Superior. El Sexto Plan cambia el modelo presupuestario del PBC al poner mayor énfasis en la excelencia en la investigación, junto con medidas cuantitativas para el número de estudiantes. Según este modelo, el 75% del presupuesto del comité (7.000 millones de NIS durante seis años) se asigna a instituciones que ofrecen educación superior. El Sexto Plan de Educación Superior lanzó el programa de Centros de Excelencia en Investigación de Israel (I-CORE) en octubre de 2011. Esto refleja un interés renovado en financiar la investigación académica y constituye un fuerte indicio de un cambio en la política gubernamental. [1]
Centros israelíes de excelencia en investigación
El programa de Centros de Excelencia en Investigación de Israel (I-CORE), que data de 2011, prevé el establecimiento de grupos interinstitucionales de los mejores investigadores en campos específicos y jóvenes científicos israelíes que regresan del extranjero, con cada centro dotado con el estado de infraestructura de investigación de vanguardia. El Sexto Plan de Educación Superior invierte 300 millones de NIS durante seis años en mejorar y renovar la infraestructura académica y las instalaciones de investigación. [1]
I-CORE es administrado conjuntamente por el Comité de Planificación y Presupuesto del Consejo de Educación Superior y la Fundación de Ciencias de Israel. Para 2015, se habían establecido 16 centros en dos oleadas en un amplio espectro de áreas de investigación: seis se especializan en ciencias de la vida y medicina, cinco en ciencias exactas e ingeniería, tres en ciencias sociales y derecho y dos en humanidades. Cada centro de excelencia ha sido seleccionado a través de un proceso de revisión por pares realizado por la Fundación de Ciencias de Israel. En mayo de 2014, alrededor de 60 jóvenes investigadores habían sido incorporados a estos centros, muchos de los cuales habían trabajado anteriormente en el extranjero. [1]
Los temas de investigación de cada centro se seleccionan a través de un amplio proceso ascendente que consiste en consultas con la comunidad académica israelí, a fin de garantizar que reflejen las prioridades genuinas y los intereses científicos de los investigadores israelíes. [1]
I-CORE está financiado por el Consejo de Educación Superior, las instituciones anfitrionas y los socios comerciales estratégicos, con un presupuesto total de NIS 1.35 mil millones (US $ 365 millones). El objetivo original era establecer 30 centros de investigación de excelencia en Israel para 2016. Sin embargo, el establecimiento de los 14 centros restantes se ha dejado de lado provisionalmente por falta de capital externo suficiente. [1]
En 2013-2014, el presupuesto del Comité de Planificación y Presupuesto para todo el programa I-CORE ascendió a 87,9 millones de NIS, lo que equivale aproximadamente al 1% del total de la educación superior ese año. Este presupuesto parece insuficiente para crear la masa crítica de investigadores en diversos campos académicos y, por lo tanto, no alcanza el objetivo del programa. El nivel de apoyo gubernamental a los centros de excelencia ha aumentado cada año desde 2011 a medida que se establecieron nuevos centros y se espera que alcance los 93,6 millones de NIS en 2015-2016 antes de descender a 33,7 millones en 2017-2018. Según el modelo de financiación, el apoyo del gobierno debería representar un tercio de todos los fondos, otro tercio debe ser financiado por las universidades participantes y el tercio restante por donantes o inversores. [1]
Objetivos de contratación universitaria
En el año académico 2012-2013, había 4.066 profesores. Los objetivos fijados por el Comité de Planificación y Presupuesto para la contratación de profesores son ambiciosos: las universidades deben contratar a otros 1600 profesores de alto nivel dentro del período de seis años, aproximadamente la mitad de los cuales ocuparán nuevos puestos y la otra mitad reemplazará a los profesores que se espera que se jubilen. Esto constituirá un aumento neto de más del 15% en el profesorado universitario. En las universidades se crearán otros 400 nuevos puestos, lo que supondrá un incremento neto del 25%. La nueva facultad será contratada a través de los canales de reclutamiento regulares de las instituciones, algunos en áreas de investigación específicas, a través del programa de Centros de Excelencia en Investigación de Israel. [1]
El aumento en el número de profesores también reducirá la proporción de estudiantes por facultad, el objetivo es lograr una proporción de 21,5 estudiantes universitarios por cada miembro de la facultad, en comparación con 24,3 en la actualidad, y 35 estudiantes por cada miembro de la facultad en las universidades, en comparación con 38 en la actualidad. Este aumento en el número de puestos de profesores, junto con la mejora de la infraestructura de investigación y enseñanza y el aumento de los fondos de investigación competitivos, debería ayudar a Israel a frenar la fuga de cerebros al permitir que los mejores investigadores israelíes en el país y en el extranjero realicen su trabajo académico en Israel. si así lo desean, en instituciones que ofrezcan los más altos estándares académicos. [1]
El nuevo esquema presupuestario descrito anteriormente se ocupa principalmente de la infraestructura humana y de investigación en las universidades. La mayor parte del desarrollo físico (por ejemplo, edificios) y la infraestructura científica (por ejemplo, laboratorios y equipos costosos) de las universidades proviene de donaciones filantrópicas, principalmente de la comunidad judía estadounidense (CHE, 2014). Esta última fuente de financiación ha compensado en gran medida la falta de financiación gubernamental suficiente para las universidades hasta ahora, pero se espera que disminuya significativamente en los próximos años. A menos que el gobierno invierta más en infraestructura de investigación, las universidades de Israel estarán mal equipadas y no contarán con los fondos suficientes para enfrentar los desafíos del siglo XXI. [1]
Ampliar el acceso a la educación superior
Israel ha ofrecido acceso prácticamente universal a sus universidades y colegios académicos desde que la ola de inmigración judía de la ex Unión Soviética en la década de 1990 impulsó el establecimiento de numerosas instituciones terciarias para absorber la demanda adicional. Sin embargo, las minorías árabes y ultraortodoxas siguen asistiendo a la universidad en un número insuficiente. El Sexto Plan de Educación Superior hace hincapié en alentar a los grupos minoritarios a inscribirse en la educación superior. Dos años después de que se implementara el programa Mahar a fines de 2012 para la población ultraortodoxa, la matrícula de estudiantes había aumentado en 1400. Desde entonces se han establecido doce nuevos programas para estudiantes ultraortodoxos, tres de ellos en campus universitarios. Mientras tanto, el programa Pluralismo e igualdad de oportunidades en la educación superior aborda las barreras a la integración de la minoría árabe en el sistema de educación superior. Su alcance va desde la orientación de la escuela secundaria a través de la preparación para los estudios académicos hasta la oferta de un apoyo integral a los estudiantes en su primer año de estudios, etapa que normalmente se caracteriza por una alta tasa de deserción. El programa renueva el fondo Ma'of que apoya a destacados profesores jóvenes árabes. Desde la introducción de este programa en 1995, el fondo Ma'of ha abierto oportunidades de permanencia en el cargo para casi 100 profesores árabes, que actúan como modelos a seguir para los estudiantes árabes más jóvenes que se embarcan en sus propias carreras académicas. [1]
Política de ciencia, tecnología e innovación
Marco político
Aunque Israel no tiene una política de `` tipo paraguas '' para ciencia, tecnología e innovación que optimice las prioridades y asigne recursos, sí implementa, de facto , un conjunto no declarado de mejores prácticas que combinan procesos ascendentes y descendentes a través de oficinas gubernamentales, como como los del Científico Jefe o el Ministro de Ciencia, Tecnología y Espacio, así como organizaciones ad hoc como el foro Telem. El procedimiento para seleccionar proyectos de investigación para los centros israelíes de excelencia en investigación es un ejemplo de este proceso ascendente. [1]
Israel no tiene una legislación específica que regule la transferencia de conocimientos del sector académico al público en general y a la industria. Sin embargo, el gobierno israelí influye en la formulación de políticas por parte de las universidades y la transferencia de tecnología al proporcionar incentivos y subsidios a través de programas como Magnet y Magneton, así como a través de la regulación. Hubo intentos en 2004 y 2005 de introducir proyectos de ley que alienten la transferencia de conocimiento y tecnología para el beneficio público pero, como estos intentos fracasaron, cada universidad ha definido su propia política. [1]
La economía israelí está impulsada por industrias basadas en la electrónica, las computadoras y las tecnologías de la comunicación, el resultado de más de 50 años de inversión en la infraestructura de defensa del país. Las industrias de defensa israelíes se han centrado tradicionalmente en la electrónica, la aviónica y sistemas relacionados. El desarrollo de estos sistemas ha dado a las industrias israelíes de alta tecnología una ventaja cualitativa en los derivados civiles de los sectores de software, comunicaciones e Internet. Sin embargo, se espera que las próximas olas de altas tecnologías emanen de otras disciplinas, incluida la biología molecular, la biotecnología y los productos farmacéuticos, la nanotecnología, las ciencias de los materiales y la química, en íntima sinergia con las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación. Estas disciplinas tienen sus raíces en los laboratorios de investigación básica de las universidades más que en las industrias de defensa. Esto plantea un dilema. En ausencia de una política nacional para las universidades, y mucho menos para el sistema de educación superior en su conjunto, no está claro cómo estas instituciones lograrán proporcionar el conocimiento, las habilidades y los recursos humanos necesarios para estas nuevas industrias basadas en la ciencia. [1]
Evaluación de instrumentos de política científica
Los diversos instrumentos de política del país son evaluados por el Consejo de Educación Superior, el Consejo Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo, la Oficina del Científico Jefe, la Academia de Ciencias y Humanidades y el Ministerio de Finanzas. En los últimos años, la administración Magnet de la Oficina del Científico Jefe ha iniciado varias evaluaciones de sus propios instrumentos de política, la mayoría de las cuales han sido realizadas por instituciones de investigación independientes. Una de esas evaluaciones fue realizada en 2010 por el Instituto Samuel Neaman; se refería al programa Nofar dentro de la dirección Magnet. Nofar intenta unir la investigación básica y aplicada, antes de que el potencial comercial de un proyecto haya captado la atención de la industria. La principal recomendación fue que Nofar extendiera la financiación del programa a dominios tecnológicos emergentes más allá de la biotecnología y la nanotecnología. La Oficina del Científico Jefe aceptó esta recomendación y, en consecuencia, decidió financiar proyectos en los campos de dispositivos médicos, tecnología del agua y la energía e investigación multidisciplinaria. [1]
En 2008, Applied Economics, una consultora basada en investigaciones económicas y de gestión, llevó a cabo una evaluación adicional sobre la contribución del sector de alta tecnología a la productividad económica en Israel. Encontró que la producción por trabajador en las empresas que recibieron apoyo de la Oficina del Científico Jefe era un 19% más alta que en las empresas "gemelas" que no habían recibido este apoyo. El mismo año, un comité encabezado por Israel Makov examinó el apoyo de la Oficina del Científico Jefe a la investigación y el desarrollo en grandes empresas. El comité encontró una justificación económica para ofrecer incentivos a estas empresas. [1]
Research funding programmes
The Israeli Science Foundation is the main source of research funding in Israel and receives administrative support from the Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The foundation provides competitive grants in three areas: exact sciences and technology; life sciences and medicine; and humanities and social sciences. Complementary funding is provided by binational foundations, such as the USA–Israel Binational Science Foundation (est. 1972) and the German–Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (est. 1986).[1]
The Ministry of Science, Technology and Space funds thematic research centres and is responsible for international scientific co-operation. The Ministry's National Infrastructure Programme aims to create a critical mass of knowledge in national priority fields and to nurture the younger generation of scientists. Investment in the programme mainly takes the form of research grants, scholarships and knowledge centres. Over 80% of the ministry's budget is channelled towards research in academic institutions and research institutes, as well as towards revamping scientific infrastructure by upgrading existing research facilities and establishing new ones. In 2012, the ministry resolved to invest NIS 120 million over three years in four designated priority areas for research: brain science; supercomputing and cybersecurity; oceanography; and alternative transportation fuels. An expert panel headed by the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space chose these four broad disciplines in the belief that they would be likely to exert the greatest practical impact on Israeli life in the near future.[1]
The main ongoing programmes managed by the Office of the Chief Scientist within the Ministry of the Economy are: the Research and Development Fund; Magnet Tracks (est. 1994; Tnufa (est. 2001) and the Incubator Programme (est.1991). Between 2010 and 2014, the Office of the Chief Scientist initiated several new programmes:[1]
- Grand Challenges Israel (since 2014): an Israeli contribution to the Grand Challenges in Global Health programme, which is dedicated to tackling global health and food security challenges in developing countries; Grand Challenges Israel is offering grants of up to NIS 500 000 at the proof of concept/feasibility study stage.
- Research and development in the field of space technology (2012): encourages research to find technological solutions in various fields.
- Technological Entrepreneurship Incubators (2014): encourages entrepreneurial technology and supports start-up technology companies.
- Magnet – Kamin programme (2014) provides direct support for applied research in academia that has potential for commercial application.
- Cyber – Kidma programme (2014): promotes Israel's cybersecurity industry.
- Cleantech – Renewable Energy Technology Centre (2012): supports research through projects involving private–public partnerships in the field of renewable energy.
- Life Sciences Fund (2010): finances the projects of Israeli companies, with emphasis on biopharmaceuticals, established together with the Ministry of Finance and the private sector.
- Biotechnology – Tzatam programme (2011): provides equipment to support research and development in life sciences. The Chief Scientist supports industrial organizations and the PBC provides research institutions with assistance.
- Investment in high-tech industries (2011): encourages financial institutions to invest in knowledge-based industries, through a collaboration between the Office of the Chief Scientist and the Ministry of Finance.
Another source of public research funding is the Forum for National Research and Development Infrastructure (Telem). This voluntary partnership involves the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of the Economy and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space, the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Ministry of Finance. Telem projects focus on establishing infrastructure for research and development in areas that are of common interest to most Telem partners. These projects are financed by the Telem members’ own resources.[1]
Trends in research funding
In 2014, Israel topped the world for research intensity, reflecting the importance of research and innovation for the economy. Since 2008, however, Israel's research intensity has weakened somewhat (4.21% of GDP in 2013), even as this ratio has experienced impressive growth in the Republic of Korea (4.15% in 2014), Denmark (3.06% in 2013) and Germany (2.94% in 2013). The OECD average was 2.40% of GDP in 2014. Business expenditure on research and development (BERD) continues to account for ~84% of GERD, or 3.49% of GDP.[1]
The share of higher education in gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) has decreased since 2003 from 0.69% of GDP to 0.59% of GDP (2013). Despite this drop, Israel ranks 8th among OECD countries for this indicator. The lion's share of GERD (45.6%) in Israel is financed by foreign companies, reflecting the large scale of activity by foreign multinational companies and research centres in the country.[1]
The share of foreign funding in university-performed research is also quite significant (21.8%). By the end of 2014, Israel had received €875.6 million from the European Union's (EU's) Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), 70% of which had gone to universities. Its successor, Horizon 2020 (2014–2020), has been endowed with nearly €80 billion in funding, making it the EU's most ambitious research and innovation programme ever. As of February 2015, Israel had received €119.8 million from the Horizon 2020 programme.[1]
In 2013, more than half (51.5%) of government spending was allocated to university research and an additional 29.9% to the development of industrial technologies. Research expenditure on health and the environment has doubled in absolute terms in the past decade but still accounts for less than 1% of total government GERD. Israel is unique among OECD countries in its distribution of government support by objective. Israel ranks at the bottom in government support of research in health care, environmental quality and infrastructure development.[1]
There has been insufficient government funding for universities in recent years. University research in Israel is largely grounded in basic research, even though it also engages in applied research and partnerships with industry. Basic research in Israel only accounted for 13% of research expenditure in 2013, compared to 16% in 2006. There has since been an increase in General University Funds and those destined for non-oriented research.[1]
Trends in human resources
In 2012, there were 77 282 full-time equivalent researchers in Israel, 82% of whom had acquired an academic education, 10% of whom were practical engineers and technicians and 8% of whom held other qualifications. Eight out of ten (83.8%) were employed in the business sector, 1.1% in the government sector, 14.4% in the higher education sector and 0.7% in non-profit institutions.[1]
In 2011, 28% of senior academic staff were women, up by 5% over the previous decade (from 25% in 2005). Although the representation of women has increased, it remains very low in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) relative to education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%).[1]
There is a visible ageing of scientists and engineers in some fields. For instance, about three-quarters of researchers in the physical sciences are over the age of 50 and the proportion is even higher for practical engineers and technicians. The shortage of professional staff will be a major handicap for the national innovation system in the coming years, as the growing demand for engineers and technical professionals begins to outpace supply. [1]
During the 2012/2013 academic year, 34% of bachelor's degrees were obtained in fields related to science and engineering in Israel. This compares well with the proportion in the Republic of Korea (40%) and most Western countries (about 30% on average). The proportion of Israeli graduates in scientific disciplines and engineering was slightly lower at the master's level (27%) but dominated at PhD level (56%).[1]
Recent statistics support the assertion that Israel may be living on the ‘fruits of the past’, that is to say, on the heavy investment made in primary, secondary and tertiary education during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Between 2007 and 2013, the number of graduates in physical sciences, biological sciences and agriculture dropped, even though the total number of university graduates progressed by 19% (to 39 654). Recent data reveal that Israeli educational achievements in the core curricular subjects of mathematics and science are low in comparison to other OECD countries, as revealed by the exam results of Israeli 15-year-olds in the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment. Public spending on primary education has also fallen below the OECD average. The public education budget accounted for 6.9% of GDP in 2002 but only 5.6% in 2011. The share of this budget going to tertiary education has remained stable at 16–18% but, as a share of GDP, has passed under the bar of 1%. There is concern at the deteriorating quality of teachers at all levels of education and the lack of stringent demands on students to strive for excellence.[1]
In recent years, Israel encountered the problem of shortage of specialists in the high-tech industry. Now high technology sector is rapidly growing and demand for tech talent increasing as well - the further growth of the industry depends on it.[29][30] The shortage also generates a significant and disproportionate increase in salaries, which causes companies to look for new employees abroad.[31][32] To solve the problem Israel's Council for Higher Education has already launched a five-years program to increase the number of graduates from computer science and engineering programs by 40%.[33]
Universidades de investigación
Israel has seven research universities: Bar-Ilan University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the University of Haifa, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Tel Aviv University and the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot. Other scientific research institutions include the Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research in Beit Dagan, the Israel Institute for Biological Research and the Soreq Nuclear Research Center. The Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center at Sde Boker is an alternative energy research institute established in 1987 by the Ministry of National Infrastructures to study alternative and clean energy technologies.
Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 academic institutions in the world in the following scientific disciplines: in chemistry (Technion);[34] in computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University);[35] in mathematics and natural sciences (Hebrew University, Technion)[36] and in engineering (Technion).[37]
In 2009, Mor Tzaban, an Israeli high school student from Netivot, won first prize in the First Step to Nobel Prize in Physics competition. In 2012, Yuval Katzenelson of Kiryat Gat won first prize with a paper entitled "Kinetic energy of inert gas in a regenerative system of activated carbon." The Israeli delegation won 14 more prizes in the competition: 9 Israelis students won second prize, one won third prize and one won fourth prize.[38]
Centro de investigación y desarrollo
Except universities, Israel has seven R&D center in the periphery. These centers were established by the Ministry of Science and Technology, and include Migal [39] and the Dead Sea and Arava science center.[40] Their orientation is based on applied science and the dissemination of scientific knowledge to the general population. To date, seven centers are working with significant academic impact and relevance to the region.
Salida científica
The number of Israeli publications stagnated between 2005 and 2014, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). Consequently, the number of Israeli publications per million inhabitants also declined: between 2008 and 2013, it dropped from 1 488 to 1 431; this trend reflects a relative constancy in scholarly output in the face of relatively high population growth (1.1% in 2014) for a developed country and near-zero growth in the number of full-time equivalent researchers in universities. Between 2005 and 2014, Israeli scientific output was particularly high in life sciences. Israeli universities do particularly well in computer science but publications in this field tend to appear mostly in conference proceedings, which are not included in the Web of Science.[1]
Israeli publications have a high citation rate and a high share of papers count among the 10 percent most-cited. The share of papers with foreign co-authors is almost twice the OECD average, which is typical of small countries with a developed scientific and technological ecosystem. A team of 50 Israeli scientists work full-time at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which operates the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. Israel was granted observer status in 1991 before becoming a fully fledged member in 2014. An Israeli delegation headed by President Shimon Peres visited the particle accelerator in 2011.[41]
Israeli scientists collaborate mostly with Western countries such as the European Union and the United States but there has been strong growth in recent years in collaboration with East Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea as well as India and Singapore.[1]
Transferencia tecnológica
History
Research conducted at Israeli universities and institutes is shared with the private sector through technology transfer (TT) units.[42] Israel's first university TT unit, Yeda, was established by the Weizmann Institute of Science in the 1950s.[43] Research in such fields as arid and semi-arid zone agricultural engineering was transferred to kibbutzim and private farmers on a gratis basis and agricultural knowledge was shared with developing countries.[44]
In 1964, Yissum, the technology transfer company of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, was founded.[45]
Since the 1990s, the traditional dual mission of universities of teaching and research has broadened to include a third mission: engagement with society and industry. This evolution has been a corollary of the rise of the electronics industry and information technology services, along with a surge in the number of research personnel following the wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union.[1]
Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.[1]
University-industry collaboration
All Israeli research universities have technology transfer offices. Recent research conducted by the Samuel Neaman Institute has revealed that, between 2004 and 2013, the universities’ share of patent applications constituted 10–12% of the total inventive activity of Israeli applicants. This is one of the highest shares in the world and is largely due to the intensive activity of the universities’ technology transfer offices. The Weizmann Institute's technology transfer office, Yeda, has been ranked the third-most profitable in the world. Through exemplary university–industry collaboration, the Weizmann Institute of Science and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries have discovered and developed the Copaxone drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Copaxone is Teva's biggest-selling drug, with US$1.68 billion in sales in the first half of 2011. Since the drug's approval by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1996, it is estimated that the Weizmann Institute of Science has earned nearly US$2 billion in royalties from the commercialization of its intellectual property.[1]
International technology transfer
In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly's Economic and Financial Committee adopted an Israeli-sponsored draft resolution on agricultural technology transfer to developing countries. The resolution called on developed countries to make their knowledge and know-how accessible to the developing world as part of the UN campaign to eradicate hunger and dire poverty by 2015. The initiative is an outgrowth of Israel's many years of contributing its know-how to developing nations, especially Africa, in the spheres of agriculture, fighting desertification, rural development, irrigation, medical development, computers and the empowerment of women.[46]
Capital riesgo
As new technology companies require money and seed capital to grow and thrive, Israel's science and technology sector is backed by a strong venture capital industry. Between 2004 and 2013, the Israeli venture capital industry played a fundamental role in funding the development of Israel's high-tech sector. In 2013, Israeli companies had raised more venture capital as a share of GDP than companies in any other country as it attracted US$2 346 million alone during that year. Today, Israel is considered one of the biggest venture capital centers in the world outside the United States of America. Several factors have contributed to this growth. These include tax exemptions on Israeli venture capital, funds established in conjunction with large international banks and financial companies and the involvement of major organizations desirous to capitalize on the strengths of Israeli high-tech companies. These organizations include some of the world's largest multinational technology companies, including Apple, Cisco, Google, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, Oracle, Siemens and Samsung. In recent years, the share of venture capital invested in the growth stages of enterprises has flourished at the expense of early stage investments.[1] Nowadays, Israeli companies are considered to be more popular than their American peers. For comparison, investments volume in Israeli startups grew by 140% during 2014-2018 and investments in technological startups from the U.S. grew by 64%.[47][48]
Derechos de propiedad intelectual
Intellectual property rights in Israel protect copyright and performers’ rights, trademarks, geographical indicators, patents, industrial designs, topographies of integrated circuits, plant breeds and undisclosed business secrets. Both contemporary Israeli legislation and case law are influenced by laws and practices in modern countries, particularly Anglo-American law, the emerging body of EU law and proposals by international organizations.[1]
Israel has made a concerted effort to improve the economy's ability to benefit from an enhanced system of intellectual property rights. This includes increasing the resources of the Israel Patent Office, upgrading enforcement activities and implementing programmes to bring ideas funded by government research to the market. Between 2002 and 2012, foreigners accounted for nearly 80% of the patent applications filed with the Israel Patent Office. A sizeable[clarification needed] share of foreign applicants seeking protection from the Israel Patent Office are pharmaceutical companies such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Janssen, Novartis, Merck, Bayer-Schering, Sanofi-Aventis and Pfizer, which happen to be the main business competitors of Israel's own Teva Pharmaceutical Industries.[1]
Israel ranks tenth in the world for the number of patent applications filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) by country of residence of the first-named inventor. Israeli inventors file far more applications with USPTO (5 436 in 2011) than with the European Patent Office (EPO). Moreover, the number of Israeli filings with EPO dropped from 1400 to 1063 between 2006 and 2011. This preference for USPTO is largely because foreign research centres implanted in Israel are primarily owned by US firms such as IBM, Intel, Sandisk, Microsoft, Applied Materials, Qualcomm, Motorola, Google or Hewlett–Packard. The inventions of these companies are attributed to Israel as the inventor of the patent but not as the owner (applicant or assignee). The loss of intellectual property into the hands of multinationals occurs mainly through the recruitment of the best Israeli talent by the local research centres of multinational firms. Although the Israeli economy benefits from the activity of the multinationals’ subsidiaries through job creation and other means, the advantages are relatively small compared to the potential economic gains that might have been achieved, had this intellectual property been utilized to support and foster the expansion of mature Israeli companies of a considerable size.[1]
Ciencias e ingeniería aplicadas
Energy
Solar power
As of 2014, Israel leads the 2014 Global Cleantech Innovation Index.[50] The country's lack of conventional energy sources has spurred extensive research and development of alternative energy sources and Israel has developed innovative technologies in the solar energy field.[51] Israel has become the world's largest per capita user of solar water heaters in the home. A new, high-efficiency receiver to collect concentrated sunlight has been developed, which will enhance the use of solar energy in industry as well.[52]
In a 2009 report by the CleanTech Group, Israel ranked number 5 clean tech country in the world.[53] The Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio process a patented system which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.[54]
In 2010, Technion – the Israel Institute of Technology – established the Grand Technion Energy Program (GTEP). This multidisciplinary task-force brings together Technion's top researchers in energy science and technology from over nine different faculties. GTEP's 4-point strategy targets research and development of alternative fuels; renewable energy sources; energy storage and conversion; and energy conservation. GTEP is presently the only center in Israel offering graduate studies in energy science and technology to bring the energy skills and know-how to address the energy challenges of the future.
Natural gas
Since 1999, large reserves of natural gas have been discovered off Israel's coast. This fossil fuel has become the primary fuel for electricity generation in Israel and is gradually replacing oil and coal. In 2010, 37% of electricity in Israel was generated from natural gas, leading to savings of US$1.4 billion for the economy. In 2015, this rate is expected to surpass 55%.[55]
In addition, the usage of natural gas in industry – both as a source of energy and as a raw material – is rapidly expanding, alongside the requisite infrastructure. This is giving companies a competitive advantage by reducing their energy costs and lowering national emissions. Since early 2013, almost the entire natural gas consumption of Israel has been supplied by the Tamar field, an Israeli–American private partnership. The estimated reserves amount to about 1 000 BCM, securing Israel's energy needs for many decades to come and making Israel a potentially major regional exporter of natural gas. In 2014, initial export agreements were signed with the Palestinian Authority, Jordan and Egypt; there are also plans to export natural gas to Turkey and the EU via Greece.[55]
In 2011, the government asked the Academy of Sciences and Humanities to convene a panel of experts to consider the full range of implications of the most recent discoveries of natural gas. The panel recommended encouraging research into fossil fuels, training engineers and focusing research efforts on the impact of gas production on the Mediterranean Sea's ecosystem. The Mediterranean Sea Research Centre of Israel was established in 2012 with an initial budget of NIS 70 million; new study programmes have since been launched at the centre to train engineers and other professionals for the oil and gas industry. Meanwhile, the Office of the Chief Scientist, among others, plans to use Israel's fledgling natural gas industry as a stepping stone to building capacity in advanced technology and opening up opportunities for Israeli innovation targeting the global oil and gas markets.[55]
Space science and technology
During the 1970s and 1980s Israel began developing the infrastructure needed for research and development in space exploration and related sciences. In November 1982, the Minister of Science and Technology, Yuval Ne'eman, established the Israel Space Agency (ISA), to coordinate and supervise a national space program as well as to conduct space, planetary, and aviation research. Because of geographical constraints, as well as safety considerations, the Israeli space program focuses on very small satellites loaded with payloads of a high degree of sophistication, and cooperation with other national space agencies.[56] The Technion Asher Space Research Institute plays a central role in educating the aerospace engineers of the next generation.[57] In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency.[58]
Israel became the eighth nation in the world to have an orbital launch capability when it deployed its first satellite, Ofeq-1, using the locally built Shavit launch vehicle on September 19, 1988, and has made important[clarification needed] contributions in a number of areas in space research, including laser communication, research into embryo development and osteoporosis in space, pollution monitoring, and mapping geology, soil and vegetation in semi-arid environments.[59]
Key projects include the TAUVEX telescope, the Tel Aviv University Ultra Violet Experiment, a UV telescope for astronomical observations which was developed in the 1990s to be accommodated on an Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) geo-synchronous satellite GSAT-4, for joint operation and use by Indian and Israeli scientists; the VENUS microsatellite, developed in collaboration with the French space agency, CNES, which will use an Israeli-developed space camera, electric space engine and algorithms; and MEIDEX (Mediterranean – Israel Dust Experiment), in collaboration with NASA.[60]
Ilan Ramon was Israel's first astronaut. Ramon was the space shuttle payload specialist on board the fatal STS-107 mission of Space Shuttle Columbia, in which he and the six other crew members were killed in a re-entry accident over the southern United States. Ramon had been selected as a payload specialist in 1997 and trained at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, from 1998 until 2003.[61] Among other experiments, Ramon was responsible for the MEIDEX project in which he was required to take pictures of atmospheric aerosol (dust) in the Mediterranean area using a multispectral camera designed to provide scientific information about atmospheric aerosols and the influence of global changes on the climate, and data for the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments. Researchers from Tel Aviv University (TAU) were responsible for the scientific aspect of the experiment. The TAU team also worked with a US company, Orbital Sciences Corporation, to construct and test special flight instruments for the project.[62]
Aerospace engineering
Aerospace engineering related to the country's defense needs has generated technological development with consequent civilian spin-offs. The Arava short take-off and landing (STOL) plane manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries was the first aircraft to be produced in Israel, in the late 1960s, for both military and civilian uses.[63] This was followed by the production of the Westwind business jet[64] from 1965 to 1987, and later variants, the Astra[65] and the Gulfstream G100, which are still in active service.
Israel is among the few countries capable of launching satellites into orbit and locally designed and manufactured satellites have been produced and launched by Israel Aerospace Industries(IAI), Israel's largest military engineering company, in cooperation with the Israel Space Agency. The AMOS-1 geostationary satellite began operations in 1996 as Israel's first commercial communications satellite. It was built primarily for direct-to-home television broadcasting, TV distribution and VSAT services. AMOS-2 was launched in December 2003 and a further series of AMOS communications satellites (AMOS 2 – 5i) are operated or in development by the Spacecom Satellite Communications company, headquartered in Ramat-Gan, Israel. Spacecom provides satellite telecommunications services to countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.[66] Another satellite, the Gurwin-II TechSAT, designed and manufactured by the Technion, was launched in July 1998 to provide communications, remote sensing and research services. EROS, launched in 2000, is a non-geostationary orbit satellite for commercial photography and surveillance services.[67]
Israel also develops, manufactures, and exports a large number of related aerospace products, including rockets and satellites, display systems, aeronautical computers, instrumentation systems, drones and flight simulators. Israel's second largest defense company is Elbit Systems, which makes electro-optical systems for air, sea and ground forces; drones; control and monitoring systems; communications systems and more.[68] The Technion - Israel Institute of Technology is home to the Asher Space Research Institute, which is unique in Israel as a university-based center of space research. At ASRI, Israeli students designed, built and launched their own satellite: Gurwin TechSat.[69]
Agricultural engineering
Israel's agricultural sector is characterized by an intensive system of production stemming from the need to overcome the scarcity in natural resource, particularly water and arable land, in a country where more than half of its area is desert. The growth in agricultural production is based on close cooperation of scientists, farmers and agriculture-related industries and has resulted in the development of advanced agricultural technology, water-conserving irrigation methods, anaerobic digestion, greenhouse technology, desert agriculture and salinity research.[70] Israeli companies also supply irrigation, water conservation and greenhouse technologies and know-how to other countries.[71][72][73]
The modern technology of drip irrigation was invented in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passageways by using velocity to slow water inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 when Blass partnered with Kibbutz Hatzerim to create an irrigation company called Netafim. Together they developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter.[74] This method was very successful and had spread to Australia, North America and South America by the late 1960s.
Israeli farmers rely heavily on greenhouse technology to ensure a constant, year-round supply of high quality produce, while overcoming the obstacles posed by adverse climatic conditions, and water and land shortages. Technologies include computerized greenhouse climate control, greenhouse shading, irrigation, fertigation, greenhouse water recycling and biological control of plant disease and insects, allow farmers to control most production parameters. As a result, Israeli farmers successfully grow 3 million roses per hectare in season and an average of 300 tons of tomatoes per hectare, four times the amount harvested in open fields.[75]
Computer engineering
Israeli companies excel in computer software and hardware development, particularly computer security technologies, semiconductors and communications. Israeli firms include Check Point, a leading firewall firm; Amdocs, which makes business and operations support systems for telecoms; Comverse, a voice-mail company; and Mercury Interactive, which measures software performance.[76] A high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain of Israel has led to the nickname Silicon Wadi (lit: "Silicon Valley").[77] Both Israeli and international companies are based there. Intel,[78] Microsoft,[79] and Apple[80][81] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. Intel developed its dual-core Core Duo processor at its Israel Development Center in Haifa.[82] More than 3,850 start-ups have been established in Israel, making it second only to the US in this sector[83] and has the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[84]
Optics, electro-optics, and lasers are significant fields and Israel produces fiber-optics, electro-optic inspection systems for printed circuit boards, thermal imaging night-vision systems, and electro-optics-based robotic manufacturing systems.[85] Research into robotics first began in the late 1970s, has resulted in the production of robots designed to perform a wide variety of computer aided manufacturing tasks, including diamond polishing, welding, packing, and building. Research is also conducted in the application of artificial intelligence to robots.[85]
Israel's Weizmann Institute of Science and Technion – Israel Institute of Technology are ranked among the top 20 academic institutions in the world in computer science.[35] An Israeli, CEO and president of M-Systems, Dov Moran, invented the first flash drive in 1998.[86]
Cybersecurity
In November 2010, the Israeli prime minister entrusted a task force with responsibility for formulating national plans to place Israel among the top five countries in the world for cybersecurity. On 7 August 2011, the government approved the establishment of the National Cyber Bureau to promote the Israeli cyberdefence industry. The bureau is based in the Prime Minister's Office. The National Cyber Bureau allocated NIS 180 million (circa US$50 million) over 2012–2014 to encourage cyber research and dual military–civilian R&D the funding is also being used to develop human capital, including through the creation of cybersecurity centres at Israeli universities that are funded jointly by the National Cyber Bureau and the universities themselves.[55]
In January 2014, the prime minister launched CyberSpark, Israel's cyber innovation park, as part of plans to turn Israel into a global cyber hub. Located in the city of Beer-Sheva to foster economic development in southern Israel, CyberSpark is a geographical cluster of leading cyber companies, multinational corporations and universities, involving Ben Gurion University of the Negev, technology defence units, specialized educational platforms and the national Cyber Event Readiness Team.[55]
About half of the firms in CyberSpark are Israeli, mostly small to medium-sized. Multinational companies operating in CyberSpark include EMC2, IBM, Lockheed Martin and Deutsche Telekom. PayPal recently acquired the Israeli start-up CyActive and has since announced plans to set up its second Israeli research centre in CyberSpark, with a focus on cybersecurity. This acquisition is just one of the many Israeli cybersecurity start-ups acquired by multinational companies in the past few years. Major acquisitions of Israeli start-ups in 2014 include Intellinx, purchased by Bottomline Technologies, and Cyvera, purchased by Palo Alto Networks.[55]
The National Cyber Bureau has estimated that the number of Israeli cyberdefence companies had doubled in the past five years to about 300 by 2014. Israeli companies account for an estimated 10% of global sales, which currently total an estimated US$60 billion. Total research spending on cyberdefence in Israel quadrupled between 2010 and 2014 from US$50 million to US$200 million, bringing Israel's spending to about 15% of global research spending on cyberdefence in 2014. Cybersecurity technologies are exported by Israel in accordance with the Wassenaar Arrangement, a multilateral agreement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.[55]
The Israeli cyberarms firm, NSO Group Technologies had reportedly been selling its Pegasus spyware to the UAE, Saudi Arabia and other repressive Gulf states, with official mediation of the Israeli government. The software permits law enforcement authorities to hack into cellphones, copy their contents and sometimes even to control their camera and audio recording capabilities.[87] In 2018, a lawsuit was filed against NSO accusing it of secretly helping Saudi Arabia to spy Jamal Khashoggi, a Washington Post columnist, later murdered in the Saudi Arabian consulate in Istanbul.[88] In 2019, WhatsApp sued NSO accusing it of helping government spies in a hacking spree, where they broke into the phones of roughly 1,400 users across 20 countries, targeting diplomats, political dissidents, journalists and senior government officials.[89]
Hydraulic engineering
Since rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and water engineering is vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large-scale projects to direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, to make optimal use of groundwater, and to reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. The largest such project was a national water distribution system called the National Carrier, completed in 1964, flowing from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern Negev desert, through huge channels, pipes and tunnels.[90] The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was the largest in the world at the time it was built.[91] The project was developed as a BOT (build-operate-transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran.[92]
Water-saving technologies
According to water experts, pipe leakage is one of the major problems confronting the global water supply today. For Israel, which is two-thirds desert, water-saving technologies are of critical importance. The International Water Association has cited Israel as one of the leaders in innovative methods to reduce "non-revenue water," i.e., water lost in the system before reaching the customer.[93]
Military engineering
Rejection of requests for weapons and technologies, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Arab countries prodded Israel into the development of a broad-based indigenous arms industry.[94] The Israel Defense Forces relies heavily on local military technology and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel. Israeli-developed military equipment includes small arms, anti-tank rockets and missiles, boats and submarines, tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, unmanned surface vehicles, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), air-defense systems, weapon stations and radar. An impetus for the development of the industry was the embargo on arms sales to Israel during the Six-Day War which prompted Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), founded as a maintenance facility in 1953, to begin developing and assembling its own aircraft, including the Kfir, the Arava and the Nesher.[95]
Notable technology includes the Uzi submachine gun, introduced in 1954,[96] the country's main battle tank, the Merkava, and the jointly designed Israeli and U.S. Arrow missile, one of the world's only operational, advanced anti-ballistic missile systems.[97] The Iron Dome mobile air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems is designed to intercept short-range rockets and artillery shells. The system was created as a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population on its northern and southern borders, and was declared operational and initially deployed in the first quarter of 2011.[98] It is designed to intercept very short-range threats up to 70 kilometers in all-weather situations.[99] On April 7, 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza, marking the first time in history a short-range rocket was ever intercepted.[100]
Israel has also developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[101] The Ofeq (lit. Horizon) series (Ofeq 1 – Ofeq 7) were launched between 1988 and 2007.[102] The satellites were carried by Shavit rockets launched from Palmachim Airbase. Both the satellites and the launchers were designed and manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), with Elbit Systems' El-Op division supplying the optical payload.
Israel also has the first all-around operational active defense system for tanks named Trophy, successfully intercepting anti tank missiles fired at Merkava tanks.[citation needed]
Life sciences
Israel has an advanced[clarification needed] infrastructure of medical and paramedical research and bioengineering capabilities. Biotechnology, biomedical, and clinical research account for over half of the country's scientific publications, and the industrial sector has used this extensive knowledge to develop pharmaceuticals, medical equipment and treatment therapies.[103]
Biotechnology
Israel has over 900 biotechnology and life sciences companies in operation throughout the country with nearly 50 to 60 formed each year. Many multinational corporations such as J&J, Perrigo, GE Healthcare and Phillips Medical have all established branches in Israel.[6]
Genetics and cancer research
Israeli scientists have developed methods for producing a human growth hormone and interferon, a group of proteins effective against viral infections. Copaxone, a medicine effective in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, was developed in Israel from basic research to industrial production. Genetic engineering has resulted in a wide range of diagnostic kits based on monoclonal antibodies, with other microbiological products.[103]
Advanced stem cell research takes place in Israel. The first steps in the development of stem cell studies occurred in Israel, with research in this field dating back to studies of bone marrow stem cells in the early 1960s. By 2006, Israeli scientists were leaders on a per capita basis in the number of articles published in scientific journals related to stem cell research.[104] In 2011, Israeli scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction.[105] In 2012, Israel was one of the world leaders in stem cell research, with the largest number of articles, patents and research studies per capita.[106]
Solomon Wasser, a professor from Haifa University, has found that Cyathus striatus is effective in treating pancreatic cancer based on early animal trials.[107]
Biomedical engineering
Sophisticated medical equipment for both diagnostic and treatment purposes has been developed and marketed worldwide, such as computer tomography (CT) scanners, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems, ultrasound scanners, nuclear medical cameras, and surgical lasers. Other innovations include a controlled-release liquid polymer to prevent accumulation of tooth plaque, a device to reduce both benign and malignant swellings of the prostate gland, the use of botulin to correct eye squint, and a miniature camera encased in a swallowable capsule used to diagnose gastrointestinal disease,[103] developed by Given Imaging.[108] MeMic Medical LTD. founded in 2012 received its FDA approval in 2021 for its robotic platform for natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) for myomectomy through the vagina.[109]
In 2009, scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a robotic prosthetic hand, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one, allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.[110] A new MRI system for identifying and diagnosing tumors developed at the Weizmann Institute has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is already being used in diagnosing breast and testicular cancer. The new system will replace invasive procedures and eliminate waiting time for the results.[111]
Pharmaceutical sciences
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, headquartered in Petah Tikva, Israel, is the largest generic drug manufacturer in the world and one of the 20 largest pharmaceutical companies worldwide.[112] It specializes in generic drugs and active pharmaceutical ingredients and has developed proprietary pharmaceuticals such as Copaxone and Laquinimod for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, and Rasagiline for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.[113]
Premios Nobel
Six Israelis have won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In 2004, biologists Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology were two of the three winners of the prize, for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation.[114] In 2009, Ada Yonath was a co-winner of the prize for her studies of the structure and function of the ribosome. She is the first Israeli woman to win a Nobel Prize.[115] Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2013 for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems.[116]
Additionally, 1958 Medicine laureate Joshua Lederberg was born to Israeli Jewish parents, and 2004 Physics laureate David Gross grew up partly in Israel, where he obtained his undergraduate degree. In the social sciences, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to Daniel Kahneman in 2002, and to Robert Aumann of the Hebrew University in 2005.
Empresas notables
- Automotive
- Better Place
- Ituran
- Mobileye
- Robomow
- Chemicals
- Adama
- Ahava
- Israel Chemicals
- Clean technology
- BrightSource Energy
- Netafim
- Ormat Industries
- Plastro Irrigation Systems
- SolarEdge
- Solel
- Medicine
- BioLineRx
- Compugen
- D. Medical Industries
- Given Imaging
- Insightec
- Kite Pharma
- Perrigo
- Pluristem Therapeutics
- Rosetta Genomics
- Syneron Medical
- Taro Pharmaceuticals
- Teva Pharmaceutical Industries
- Defense contracting
- Elbit Systems
- Elisra
- Elta
- Israel Aerospace Industries
- Israel Military Industries
- Israel Shipyards
- Israel Weapon Industries
- Plasan
- Rafael Advanced Defense Systems
- Soltam Systems
- Semiconductors
- Anobit
- Altair Semiconductor
- CEVA, Inc.
- EZchip Semiconductor
- Mellanox Technologies
- Nova Measuring Instruments
- Orbotech
- Tower Semiconductor
- Wilocity
- Zoran Corporation
- Software and IT
- Aladdin Knowledge Systems
- Amdocs
- Babylon
- Boxee
- Check Point
- ClickSoftware Technologies
- Commtouch
- CTERA Networks
- Magic Software Enterprises
- Marvell Software Solutions Israel
- Mirabilis
- Moovit
- M-Systems
- Ness Technologies
- NICE Systems
- Onavo
- Panorama Software
- Plarium
- Precise Software
- Retalix
- Sapiens International Corporation
- Scitex Vision
- Secure Islands
- Shopping.com
- Wanova
- Waze
- Wix
- Zend Technologies
- Telecommunications
and computing
- Allot Communications
- Alvarion
- ASOCS
- AudioCodes
- Bezeq
- Ceragon
- Comverse
- ECI Telecom
- Humavox
- Gilat Satellite Networks
- Mellanox Technologies
- RAD Data Communications
- Radcom Ltd
- Radvision
- Radware
- Radwin
- Tadiran Telecom
Ver también
- Economy of Israel
- History of IBM research in Israel
- Israel National Museum of Science, Technology, and Space
- Israel Patent Office
- List of Israeli companies quoted on the Nasdaq
- List of Israeli inventions and discoveries
- List of multinationals with research and development centres in Israel
- Science and technology in Asia
- Science and Technology Minister of Israel
- Silicon Wadi
- Start-up Nation
- Telecommunications in Israel
- Venture capital in Israel
Fuentes
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 409-429, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
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Otras lecturas
- Senor, Dan; Singer, Saul (2009). Start-up Nation. Twelve. ISBN 978-0446541466.
- Davis, Helen; Davis, Douglas (2005). Israel in the World: Changing Lives Through Innovation. WN. ISBN 978-0297844099.
- Fiegenbaum, Avi (2007). The Take-off of Israeli High-Tech Entrepreneurship in the 1990s. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-0080450995.
- Sherman, Arnold; Hirschhorn, Paul (1984). Israel High Technology. Jerusalem: La Semana Publishing.
- Peled, Dan (March 2001). "Defense R&D and Economic Growth in Israel: A Research Agenda" (PDF). Samuel Neaman Institute. Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- "Investing in the Israeli Life Sciences Industry 2012" (PDF). Bioassociate. January 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- Levav, Amos (1998). The Birth of Israel's High-Tech. Zmora Bitan (in Hebrew).
- Gewirtz, Jason (2016). Israel's Edge: The Story of The IDF's Most Elite Unit - Talpiot. Gefen Publishing House.
- Siegel, Seth M. (2017) Let There Be Water: Israel's Solution for a Water-Starved World. A Thomas Dunne Book for St. Martin's Griffin.
- Katz, Yaakov; Bohbot, Amir (2017). The Weapon Wizards: How Israel Became a High-Tech Military Superpower. St. Martin's Press.
- Kainan, Noga; Reuter, Adam (2018). Israel - Island of Success
- Hemi, Galit; Shulman, Sophie (2018). The Israeli Mind: the story of the Israeli innovation. Yedioth Books (in Hebrew).
- Jorisch, Avi (2018). Thou Shalt Innovate: How Israeli Ingenuity Repairs the World. Gefen Publishing House.
enlaces externos
- Official website of the Israeli Ministry of Science, Technology and Space
- Science and Technology at the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- How Israel turned itself into a high-tech hub, BBC
- Science & Technology in Israel at the Jewish Virtual Library
- Israel Advanced Technology Industries, umbrella organization for high tech and life science sectors
- Official website of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
- ISRAEL21c
- NoCamels.com - news website covering breakthrough innovation from Israel, startups and research in the fields of technology, medicine and the environment.
- Startup Village Yokneam web site