El jabalí ( Sus scrofa ), también conocido como "cerdo salvaje", [3] "cerdo salvaje común", [4] o simplemente "cerdo salvaje", [5] es un suido nativo de gran parte de Eurasia y el norte de África. , y se ha introducido en las Américas y Oceanía . La especie es ahora uno de los mamíferos más extendidos del mundo, así como el suiforme más extendido . [4] Ha sido evaluado como de menor preocupación en la Lista Roja de la UICN debido a su amplia variedad, alto número y adaptabilidad a una diversidad de hábitats. [1]Se ha convertido en una especie invasora en parte de su área de distribución introducida. Los jabalíes probablemente se originaron en el sudeste asiático durante el Pleistoceno temprano [6] y superaron a otras especies de suidos a medida que se extendían por el Viejo Mundo . [7]
Jabalí Rango temporal: Pleistoceno temprano - Holoceno | |
---|---|
Macho de jabalí centroeuropeo ( S. s. Scrofa ) | |
clasificación cientifica | |
Reino: | Animalia |
Filo: | Chordata |
Clase: | Mammalia |
Pedido: | Artiodactyla |
Familia: | Suidae |
Género: | Sus |
Especies: | S. scrofa |
Nombre binomial | |
Sus scrofa | |
Distribución reconstruida de jabalíes (verde) y poblaciones introducidas (azul): No se muestran las poblaciones introducidas más pequeñas en el Caribe , Nueva Zelanda , África subsahariana y en otras partes de las Bermudas , el norte, el noreste y el noroeste de Canadá y Alaska . [1] | |
Sinónimos | |
Sinonimia de especies [2]
|
A partir de 1990, se reconocen hasta 16 subespecies , que se dividen en cuatro grupos regionales según la altura del cráneo y la longitud del hueso lagrimal . [2] La especie vive en sociedades matriarcales que consisten en hembras interrelacionadas y sus crías (tanto machos como hembras). Los machos completamente desarrollados suelen estar solitarios fuera de la temporada de reproducción . [8] El lobo gris es el principal depredador del jabalí en la mayor parte de su área de distribución natural, excepto en el Lejano Oriente y las Islas Menores de la Sonda , donde es reemplazado por el tigre y el dragón de Komodo, respectivamente. [9] [10] El jabalí tiene una larga historia de asociación con los humanos , habiendo sido el antepasado de la mayoría de las razas de cerdos domésticos y un animal de caza mayor durante milenios. Los verracos también se han vuelto a hibridar en las últimas décadas con los jabalíes ; Estos híbridos de jabalí y cerdo se han convertido en una plaga animal salvaje en las Américas y Australia .
Terminología
Como los verdaderos jabalíes se extinguieron en Gran Bretaña antes del desarrollo del inglés moderno , los mismos términos se utilizan a menudo tanto para verdaderos jabalíes como para cerdos, especialmente los grandes o semi-salvajes. El Inglés 'jabalí' se deriva del Inglés Antiguo de barras , que se cree que se deriva del germánico occidental * bairaz , de origen desconocido. [11] Jabalí se usa a veces específicamente para referirse a los machos, y también puede usarse para referirse a los cerdos machos domesticados, especialmente a los machos reproductores que no han sido castrados.
'Sow', el nombre tradicional de una hembra, proviene nuevamente del inglés antiguo y del germánico; proviene del protoindoeuropeo y está relacionado con el latín : sus y el griego hus , y más estrechamente con el nuevo alto alemán Sau . Las crías pueden llamarse "lechones" o verracos. [12]
El nombre específico de los animales, scrofa, significa "cerda" en latín . [13]
Caza
En la terminología de la caza, los verracos reciben diferentes designaciones según su edad: [14]
Designacion | Edad | Imagen |
---|---|---|
Chirriador | 0-10 meses | |
Juvenil | 10-12 meses | |
Cerdo de la sonda | Dos años | |
Jabalí de 4o / 5o / 6o año | 3-5 años | |
Jabalí viejo | Seis años | |
Gran jabalí | Más de siete años | |
"Jabalí solitario" |
Taxonomía y evolución
Los estudios de ADNmt indican que el jabalí se originó en islas del sudeste asiático, como Indonesia y Filipinas , y posteriormente se extendió a la parte continental de Eurasia y el norte de África. [6] Los primeros hallazgos fósiles de la especie provienen tanto de Europa como de Asia, y se remontan al Pleistoceno temprano . [15] A finales de Villafranquio , S. scrofa desplazó en gran medida al relacionado S. strozzii , un suid grande, posiblemente adaptado a los pantanos, ancestral del moderno S. verrucosus en todo el continente euroasiático, restringiéndolo a Asia insular. [7] Su pariente salvaje más cercano es el cerdo barbudo de Malaca y las islas circundantes. [3]
Subespecie
Desde 2005[actualizar], [2] Se reconocen 16 subespecies, que se dividen en cuatro agrupaciones regionales:
- Occidental: incluye S. s. scrofa , S. s. meridionalis , S. s. algira , S. s. atila , S. s. lybicus y S. s. nigripes . Estas subespecies son típicamente de calavera alta (aunque el lybicus y algunos scrofa son de calavera baja), con la lana espesa y (excepto scrofa y attila ) melenas poco desarrolladas. [dieciséis]
- Indio: incluye S. s. davidi y S. s. cristatus . Estas subespecies tienen la lana escasa o ausente, con melenas largas y bandas prominentes en el hocico y la boca. Mientras que S. s. cristatus es de calavera alta, S. s. davidi es de baja calavera. [dieciséis]
- Oriental: incluye S. s. sibiricus , S. s. ussuricus , S. s. leucomystax , S. s. riukiuanus , S. s. taivanus y S. s. moupinensis . Estas subespecies se caracterizan por una franja blanquecina que se extiende desde las comisuras de la boca hasta la mandíbula inferior. Con la excepción de S. s. ussuricus , la mayoría son de alta calavera. La lana es espesa, excepto en S. s. moupinensis , y la melena está en gran parte ausente. [dieciséis]
- Indonesia: Representado únicamente por S. s. vittatus , se caracteriza por su escaso vello corporal, falta de lana, melena bastante larga, una amplia banda rojiza que se extiende desde el hocico hasta los lados del cuello. [16] Es el más basal de los cuatro grupos, con el menor tamaño relativo del cerebro, una dentición más primitiva y una estructura craneal no especializada. [17]
Subespecie | Imagen | Autoridad trinomial | Descripción | Distancia | Sinónimos |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jabalí centroeuropeo S. s. scrofa Nominar subespecies | Linneo, 1758 | Una subespecie de tamaño mediano, de cabello castaño oscuro a oxidado con huesos lagrimales largos y relativamente estrechos [3] | Gran parte de Europa continental y Eurasia | anglicus (Reichenbach, 1846), aper (Erxleben, 1777), asiaticus (Sanson, 1878), bavaricus (Reichenbach, 1846), campanogallicus (Reichenbach, 1846), capensis (Reichenbach, 1846), castilianus (Thomas, 1911), celticus (Sanson, 1878), chinensis (Linnaeus, 1758), crispus (Fitzinger, 1858), deliciosus (Reichenbach, 1846), domesticus (Erxleben, 1777), europaeus (Pallas, 1811), fasciatus (von Schreber, 1790), ferox (Moore, 1870), ferus (Gmelin, 1788), gambianus (Gray, 1847), hispidus (von Schreber, 1790), hungaricus (Reichenbach, 1846), ibericus (Sanson, 1878), italicus (Reichenbach, 1846), juticus (Fitzinger, 1858), lusitanicus (Reichenbach, 1846), macrotis (Fitzinger, 1858), monungulus (G. Fischer [von Waldheim], 1814), moravicus (Reichenbach, 1846), nanus (Nehring, 1884), palustris (Rütimeyer , 1862), pliciceps (Gray, 1862), polonicus (Reichenbach, 1846), sardous (Reichenbach, 1846), scropha (Gray, 1827), sennaarensis (Fitzinger, 1858), sennaarensis (Gray, 1868), sennaariensis (Fitzinger, 186 0), setosus (Boddaert, 1785), siamensis (von Schreber, 1790), sinensis (Erxleben, 1777), suevicus (Reichenbach, 1846), syrmiensis (Reichenbach, 1846), turcicus (Reichenbach, 1846), variegatus (Reichenbach, 1846), vulgaris (SDW, 1836), wittei (Reichenbach, 1846) | |
Jabalí norteafricano S. s. algira | Loche, 1867 | A veces considerado un sinónimo menor de S. s. scrofa , pero más pequeña y con colmillos proporcionalmente más largos [18] | Túnez , Argelia y Marruecos | barbarus (Sclater, 1860) sahariensis (Heim de Balzac, 1937) | |
Jabalí de los Cárpatos S. s. Atila | Thomas, 1912 | Una subespecie de gran tamaño con huesos lagrimales largos y pelo oscuro, aunque de color más claro que S. s. scrofa [3] | Rumania , Hungría , Ucrania , los Balcanes , el Cáucaso , Transcaucasia , la costa del Caspio , Asia Menor y el norte de Irán | falzfeini (Matschie, 1918) | |
Jabalí indio S. s. cristatus | Wagner, 1839 | Una subespecie de crin larga con un pelaje negro atigrado a diferencia de S. s. davidi , [19] es de construcción más ligera que S. s. scrofa . Su cabeza es más grande y puntiaguda que la de S. s. scrofa y sus orejas más pequeñas y puntiagudas. El plano de la frente es recto, mientras que en S. s es cóncavo . scrofa . [20] | India , Nepal , Birmania , Tailandia occidental y Sri Lanka | affinis (Gray, 1847), aipomus (Gray, 1868), aipomus (Hodgson, 1842), bengalensis (Blyth, 1860), indicus (Gray, 1843), isonotus (Gray, 1868), isonotus (Hodgson, 1842), jubatus (Miller, 1906), typicus (Lydekker, 1900), zeylonensis (Blyth, 1851) | |
Jabalí de Asia Central S. s. davidi | Groves, 1981 | Una subespecie pequeña, de crin larga y marrón claro [19] | Pakistán y el noroeste de la India hasta el sureste de Irán | ||
Jabalí japonés S. s. leucomystax | Temminck, 1842 | Una subespecie pequeña, casi sin melena, de color marrón amarillento [19] | Todo Japón , excepto Hokkaido y las islas Ryukyu | japonica (Nehring, 1885) nipponicus (Heude, 1899) | |
Jabalí de Anatolia S. s. libycus | Gris, 1868 | Una subespecie pequeña, pálida y casi sin melena [19] | Transcaucasia , Turquía , Levante y ex Yugoslavia | lybicus (Groves, 1981) mediterraneus (Ulmansky, 1911) | |
Jabalí Maremman S. s. majori | De Beaux y Festa, 1927 | Más pequeño que S. s. scrofa , con un cráneo más alto y ancho; desde la década de 1950, se ha cruzado extensamente con S. s. scrofa , en gran parte debido a que los dos se mantienen juntos en granjas de carne y a las introducciones artificiales por parte de los cazadores de S. s. scrofa especímenes en S. s. hábitats majori . [21] Su separación de S. s. scrofa es dudoso. [22] | Maremma (centro de Italia) | ||
Jabalí mediterráneo S. s. meridionalis | Forsyth Major, 1882 | La subespecie es significativamente más pequeña que S. s. scrofa . El pelaje es de un leonado oliváceo opaco, la capa interna es escasa y los individuos carecen en su mayoría de melena. [23] | Andalucía , Córcega y Cerdeña | baeticus (Thomas, 1912) sardous (Ströbel, 1882) | |
Jabalí del norte de China S. s. moupinensis | Milne-Edwards, 1871 | Existen variaciones significativas dentro de esta subespecie y es posible que en realidad haya varias subespecies involucradas. [19] | Costa de China al sur de Vietnam y al oeste de Sichuan | acrocranius (Heude, 1892), chirodontus (Heude, 1888), chirodonticus (Heude, 1899), collinus (Heude, 1892), curtidens (Heude, 1892), dicrurus (Heude, 1888), flavescens (Heude, 1899), frontoso (Heude, 1892), laticeps (Heude, 1892), leucorhinus (Heude, 1888), melas (Heude, 1892), microdontus (Heude, 1892), oxyodontus (Heude, 1888), paludosus (Heude, 1892), palustris ( Heude, 1888), planiceps (Heude, 1892), scrofoides (Heude, 1892), spatharius (Heude, 1892), taininensis (Heude, 1888) | |
Jabalí de Asia Central S. s. nigripes | Blanford, 1875 | Subespecie de color claro con patas negras que, aunque de tamaño variado, generalmente es bastante grande, los huesos lagrimales y la región facial del cráneo son más cortos que los de S. s. scrofa y S. s. atila . [3] | Asia central , Kazajstán , el este de Tien Shan , el oeste de Mongolia , Kashgar y posiblemente Afganistán y el sur de Irán | ||
Ryukyu jabalí S. s. riukiuanus | Kuroda, 1924 | Una pequeña subespecie [19] | Las islas Ryukyu | ||
Jabalí Trans-Baikal S. s. sibiricus | Staffe, 1922 | La subespecie más pequeña de la antigua región soviética , tiene cabello castaño oscuro, casi negro y una mancha gris claro que se extiende desde las mejillas hasta las orejas. El cráneo es cuadrado y los huesos lagrimales cortos. [3] | La región del lago Baikal , Transbaikalia , norte y noreste de Mongolia | raddeanus (Adlerberg, 1930) | |
Jabalí de Formosa S. s. taivanus | Swinhoe, 1863 | Una pequeña subespecie negruzca [19] | Taiwán | ||
Jabalí Ussuri S. s. ussuricus | Heude, 1888 | La subespecie más grande, por lo general tiene cabello oscuro y una banda blanca que se extiende desde las comisuras de la boca hasta las orejas. Los huesos lagrimales se acortan, pero más largos que los de S. s. sibiricus . [3] | Este de China , Ussuri y Amur Bay | canescens (Heude, 1888), continentalis (Nehring, 1889), coreanus (Heude, 1897), gigas (Heude, 1892), mandchuricus (Heude, 1897), songaricus (Heude, 1897) | |
Cerdo anillado S. s. vittatus | Boie, 1828 | Una subespecie pequeña, de cara corta y escasa pelaje con una banda blanca en el hocico; podría ser una especie separada y muestra algunas similitudes con algunas otras especies de suidos en el sudeste asiático. [19] | Desde Malasia peninsular y en Indonesia desde Sumatra y Java al este hasta Komodo | andersoni (Thomas y Wroughton, 1909), jubatulus (Miller, 1906), milleri (Jentink, 1905), pallidiloris (Mees, 1957), peninsularis (Miller, 1906), rhionis (Miller, 1906), typicus (Heude, 1899) |
Domesticación
Con la excepción de los cerdos domésticos en Timor y Papua Nueva Guinea (que parecen ser de la estirpe de cerdos verrugosos de Sulawesi ), el jabalí es el antepasado de la mayoría de las razas de cerdos. [17] [25] La evidencia arqueológica sugiere que los cerdos fueron domesticados a partir de jabalíes desde 13,000-12,700 BCE en el Cercano Oriente en la Cuenca del Tigris , [26] siendo manejados en la naturaleza de una manera similar a la forma en que se manejan. por algunos modernos de Nueva Guinea. [27] Los restos de cerdos datan de antes del 11.400 a. C. en Chipre . Esos animales deben haber sido introducidos desde el continente, lo que sugiere la domesticación en el continente adyacente para entonces. [28] También hubo una domesticación separada en China, que tuvo lugar hace unos 8.000 años. [29] [30]
La evidencia de ADN de restos subfósiles de dientes y mandíbulas de cerdos neolíticos muestra que los primeros cerdos domésticos en Europa habían sido traídos del Cercano Oriente. Esto estimuló la domesticación de los jabalíes europeos locales, lo que resultó en un tercer evento de domesticación con la desaparición de los genes del Cercano Oriente en el ganado porcino europeo. Los cerdos domesticados modernos han implicado intercambios complejos, y las líneas domesticadas europeas se exportan a su vez al antiguo Cercano Oriente. [31] [32] Los registros históricos indican que los cerdos asiáticos se introdujeron en Europa durante el siglo XVIII y principios del XIX. [29] Los cerdos domésticos tienden a tener cuartos traseros mucho más desarrollados que sus ancestros jabalíes, hasta el punto en que el 70% de su peso corporal se concentra en la parte posterior, que es lo opuesto al jabalí, donde la mayoría de los músculos se concentran en la cabeza y los hombros. [33]
Descripción física
El jabalí es un suido voluminoso, de constitución maciza, con patas cortas y relativamente delgadas. El tronco es corto y robusto, mientras que los cuartos traseros están relativamente poco desarrollados. La región detrás de los omóplatos se eleva en una joroba y el cuello es corto y grueso hasta el punto de estar casi inmóvil. La cabeza del animal es muy grande, ocupando hasta un tercio de la longitud total del cuerpo. [3] La estructura del cabezal es adecuada para excavar. La cabeza actúa como un arado, mientras que los poderosos músculos del cuello permiten al animal remover cantidades considerables de tierra: [34] es capaz de cavar de 8 a 10 cm (3,1 a 3,9 pulgadas) en suelo congelado y puede levantar rocas que pesan 40– 50 kg (88-110 libras). [9] Los ojos son pequeños y hundidos y las orejas largas y anchas. La especie tiene dientes caninos bien desarrollados , que sobresalen de la boca de los machos adultos. Las pezuñas mediales son más grandes y alargadas que las laterales y son capaces de movimientos rápidos. [3] El animal puede correr a una velocidad máxima de 40 km / h (25 mph) y saltar a una altura de 140 a 150 cm (55 a 59 pulgadas). [9]
El dimorfismo sexual es muy pronunciado en la especie, siendo los machos típicamente un 5-10% más grandes y un 20-30% más pesados que las hembras. Los machos también lucen una melena que corre por la espalda, lo que es particularmente evidente durante el otoño y el invierno. [35] Los dientes caninos también son mucho más prominentes en los machos y crecen durante toda la vida. Los caninos superiores son relativamente cortos y crecen de lado a temprana edad, aunque se curvan gradualmente hacia arriba. Los caninos inferiores son mucho más afilados y más largos, con las partes expuestas que miden de 10 a 12 cm (3,9 a 4,7 pulgadas) de longitud. En el período de reproducción, los machos desarrollan una capa de tejido subcutáneo , que puede tener 2-3 cm (0,79-1,18 pulgadas) de espesor, que se extiende desde los omóplatos hasta la rabadilla, protegiendo así los órganos vitales durante las peleas. Los machos lucen un saco del tamaño de un huevo cerca de la abertura del pene, que recoge la orina y emite un olor fuerte. La función de este saco no se comprende completamente. [3]
Adult size and weight is largely determined by environmental factors; boars living in arid areas with little productivity tend to attain smaller sizes than their counterparts inhabiting areas with abundant food and water. In most of Europe, males average 75–100 kg (165–220 lb) in weight, 75–80 cm (30–31 in) in shoulder height and 150 cm (59 in) in body length, whereas females average 60–80 kg (130–180 lb) in weight, 70 cm (28 in) in shoulder height and 140 cm (55 in) in body length. In Europe's Mediterranean regions, males may reach average weights as low as 50 kg (110 lb) and females 45 kg (99 lb), with shoulder heights of 63–65 cm (25–26 in). In the more productive areas of Eastern Europe, males average 110–130 kg (240–290 lb) in weight, 95 cm (37 in) in shoulder height and 160 cm (63 in) in body length, while females weigh 95 kg (209 lb), reach 85–90 cm (33–35 in) in shoulder height, and reach 145 cm (57 in) in body length. In Western and Central Europe, the largest males weigh 200 kg (440 lb) and females 120 kg (260 lb). In Northeastern Asia, large males can reach brown bear-like sizes, weighing 270 kg (600 lb) and measuring 110–118 cm (43–46 in) in shoulder height. Some adult males in Ussuriland and Manchuria have been recorded to weigh 300–350 kg (660–770 lb) and measure 125 cm (49 in) in shoulder height. Adults of this size are generally immune from wolf predation.[36] Such giants are rare in modern times, due to past overhunting preventing animals from attaining their full growth.[3]
The winter coat consists of long, coarse bristles underlaid with short brown downy fur. The length of these bristles varies along the body, with the shortest being around the face and limbs and the longest running along the back. These back bristles form the aforementioned mane prominent in males and stand erect when the animal is agitated. Colour is highly variable; specimens around Lake Balkhash are very lightly coloured, and can even be white, while some boars from Belarus and Ussuriland can be black. Some subspecies sport a light-coloured patch running backward from the corners of the mouth. Coat colour also varies with age, with piglets having light brown or rusty-brown fur with pale bands extending from the flanks and back.[3]
The wild boar produces a number of different sounds which are divided into three categories:
- Contact calls: Grunting noises which differ in intensity according to the situation.[37] Adult males are usually silent, while females frequently grunt and piglets whine.[3] When feeding, boars express their contentment through purring. Studies have shown that piglets imitate the sounds of their mother, thus different litters may have unique vocalisations.[37]
- Alarm calls: Warning cries emitted in response to threats.[37] When frightened, boars make loud huffing ukh! ukh! sounds or emit screeches transcribed as gu-gu-gu.[3]
- Combat calls: High-pitched, piercing cries.[37]
Its sense of smell is very well developed to the point that the animal is used for drug detection in Germany.[38] Its hearing is also acute, though its eyesight is comparatively weak,[3] lacking color vision[38] and being unable to recognise a standing human 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) away.[9]
Pigs are one of four known mammalian taxa which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations.[39]
Comportamiento social y ciclo de vida
Boars are typically social animals, living in female-dominated sounders consisting of barren sows and mothers with young led by an old matriarch. Male boars leave their sounder at the age of 8–15 months, while females either remain with their mothers or establish new territories nearby. Subadult males may live in loosely knit groups, while adult and elderly males tend to be solitary outside the breeding season.[8][a]
The breeding period in most areas lasts from November to January, though most mating only lasts a month and a half. Prior to mating, the males develop their subcutaneous armour in preparation for confronting rivals. The testicles double in size and the glands secrete a foamy yellowish liquid. Once ready to reproduce, males travel long distances in search of a sounder of sows, eating little on the way. Once a sounder has been located, the male drives off all young animals and persistently chases the sows. At this point, the male fiercely fights potential rivals.[3] A single male can mate with 5–10 sows.[9] By the end of the rut, males are often badly mauled and have lost 20% of their body weight,[3] with bite-induced injuries to the penis being common.[41] The gestation period varies according to the age of the expecting mother. For first-time breeders, it lasts 114–130 days, while it lasts 133–140 days in older sows. Farrowing occurs between March and May, with litter sizes depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The average litter consists of 4–6 piglets, with the maximum being 10–12.[3][b] The piglets are whelped in a nest constructed from twigs, grasses and leaves. Should the mother die prematurely, the piglets are adopted by the other sows in the sounder.[43]
Newborn piglets weigh around 600–1,000 grams, lacking underfur and bearing a single milk incisor and canine on each half of the jaw.[3] There is intense competition between the piglets over the most milk-rich nipples, as the best-fed young grow faster and have stronger constitutions.[43] The piglets do not leave the lair for their first week of life. Should the mother be absent, the piglets lie closely pressed to each other. By two weeks of age, the piglets begin accompanying their mother on her journeys. Should danger be detected, the piglets take cover or stand immobile, relying on their camouflage to keep them hidden. The neonatal coat fades after three months, with adult colouration being attained at eight months. Although the lactation period lasts 2.5–3.5 months, the piglets begin displaying adult feeding behaviours at the age of 2–3 weeks. The permanent dentition is fully formed by 1–2 years. With the exception of the canines in males, the teeth stop growing during the middle of the fourth year. The canines in old males continue to grow throughout their lives, curving strongly as they age. Sows attain sexual maturity at the age of one year, with males attaining it a year later. However, estrus usually first occurs after two years in sows, while males begin participating in the rut after 4–5 years, as they are not permitted to mate by the older males.[3] The maximum lifespan in the wild is 10–14 years, though few specimens survive past 4–5 years.[44] Boars in captivity have lived for 20 years.[9]
Ecología
Habitat and sheltering behaviour
The wild boar inhabits a diverse array of habitats from boreal taigas to deserts.[3] In mountainous regions, it can even occupy alpine zones, occurring up to 1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the Carpathians, 2,600 m (8,500 ft) in the Caucasus and up to 3,600–4,000 m (11,800–13,100 ft) in the mountains in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.[3] In order to survive in a given area, wild boars require a habitat fulfilling three conditions: heavily brushed areas providing shelter from predators, water for drinking and bathing purposes and an absence of regular snowfall.[45]
The main habitats favored by boars in Europe are deciduous and mixed forests, with the most favorable areas consisting of forest composed of oak and beech enclosing marshes and meadows. In the Białowieża Forest, the animal's primary habitat consists of well-developed broad-leaved and mixed forests, along with marshy mixed forests, with coniferous forests and undergrowths being of secondary importance. Forests made up entirely of oak groves and beeches are used only during the fruit-bearing season. This is in contrast to the Caucasian and Transcaucasian mountain areas, where boars will occupy such fruit-bearing forests year-round. In the mountainous areas of the Russian Far East, the species inhabits nutpine groves, hilly mixed forests where Mongolian oak and Korean pine are present, swampy mixed taiga and coastal oak forests. In Transbaikalia, boars are restricted to river valleys with nut pine and shrubs. Boars are regularly encountered in pistachio groves in winter in some areas of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, while in spring they migrate to open deserts; boar have also colonized deserts in several areas they have been introduced to.[3][45][46]
On the islands of Komodo and Rinca, the boar mostly inhabits savanna or open monsoon forests, avoiding heavily forested areas unless pursued by humans.[10] Wild boar are known to be competent swimmers, capable of covering long distances. In 2013, one boar was reported to have completed the 11-kilometre (7 mi) swim from France to Alderney in the Channel Islands. Due to concerns about disease, it was shot and incinerated.[47]
Wild boar rest in shelters, which contain insulating material like spruce branches and dry hay. These resting places are occupied by whole families (though males lie separately) and are often located in the vicinity of streams, in swamp forests and in tall grass or shrub thickets. Boars never defecate in their shelters and will cover themselves with soil and pine needles when irritated by insects.[9]
Diet
The wild boar is a highly versatile omnivore, whose diversity in choice of food is comparable to that of humans.[34] Their foods can be divided into four categories:
- Rhizomes, roots, tubers and bulbs, all of which are dug up throughout the year in the animal's whole range.[3]
- Nuts, berries and seeds, which are consumed when ripened and are dug up from the snow when necessary.[3]
- Leaves, bark, twigs and shoots, along with garbage.[3]
- Earthworms, insects, mollusks, fish, rodents, insectivores, bird eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs and carrion. Most of these prey items are taken in warm periods.[3]
A 50 kg (110 lb) boar needs around 4,000–4,500 calories of food per day, though this required amount increases during winter and pregnancy,[34] with the majority of its diet consisting of food items dug from the ground, like underground plant material and burrowing animals.[3] Acorns and beechnuts are invariably its most important food items in temperate zones,[48] as they are rich in the carbohydrates necessary for the buildup of fat reserves needed to survive lean periods.[34] In Western Europe, underground plant material favoured by boars includes bracken, willow herb, bulbs, meadow herb roots and bulbs and the bulbs of cultivated crops. Such food is favoured in early spring and summer, but may also be eaten in autumn and winter during beechnut and acorn crop failures. Should regular wild foods become scarce, boars will eat tree bark and fungi, as well as visit cultivated potato and artichoke fields.[3] Boar soil disturbance and foraging have been shown to facilitate invasive plants.[49][50] Boars of the vittatus subspecies in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java differ from most other populations by their primarily frugivorous diet, which consists of 50 different fruit species, especially figs, thus making them important seed dispersers.[4] The wild boar can consume numerous genera of poisonous plants without ill effect, including Aconitum, Anemone, Calla, Caltha, Ferula and Pteridium.[9]
Boars may occasionally prey on small vertebrates like newborn deer fawns, leporids and galliform chicks.[34] Boars inhabiting the Volga Delta and near some lakes and rivers of Kazakhstan have been recorded to feed extensively on fish like carp and Caspian roach. Boars in the former area will also feed on cormorant and heron chicks, bivalved molluscs, trapped muskrats and mice.[3] There is at least one record of a boar killing and eating a bonnet macaque in southern India's Bandipur National Park, though this may have been a case of intraguild predation, brought on by interspecific competition for human handouts.[51] There is also at least one recorded case of a group of wild boar attacking, killing, and eating an adult, healthy female axis deer (Axis axis) as a pack.[52]
Predators
Piglets are vulnerable to attack from medium-sized felids like Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), jungle cats (Felis chaus), and snow leopards (Panthera uncia), as well as other carnivorans like brown bears (Ursus arctos) and yellow-throated martens (Martes flavigula).[3]
The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is the main predator of wild boar throughout most of its range. A single wolf can kill around 50 to 80 boars of differing ages in one year.[3] In Italy[53] and Belarus' Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park, boars are the wolf's primary prey, despite an abundance of alternative, less powerful ungulates.[53] Wolves are particularly threatening during the winter, when deep snow impedes the boars' movements. In the Baltic regions, heavy snowfall can allow wolves to eliminate boars from an area almost completely. Wolves primarily target piglets and subadults and only rarely attack adult sows. Adult males are usually avoided entirely.[3] Dholes (Cuon alpinus) may also prey on boars, to the point of keeping their numbers down in northwestern Bhutan, despite there being many more cattle in the area.[54]
Leopards (Panthera pardus) are predators of wild boar in the Caucasus (particularly Transcaucasia), the Russian Far East, India, China[55] and Iran. In most areas, boars constitute only a small part of the leopard's diet. However, in Iran's Sarigol National Park, boars are the second most frequently targeted prey species after mouflon (Ovis gmelini), though adult individuals are generally avoided, as they are above the leopard's preferred weight range of 10–40 kg (22–88 lb).[56] This dependence on wild boar is largely due in part to the local leopard subspecies' large size.[57]
Boars of all ages were once the primary prey of tigers (Panthera tigris) in Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia and the Far East up until the late 19th century. In modern times, tiger numbers are too low to have a limiting effect on boar populations. A single tiger can systematically destroy an entire sounder by preying on its members one by one, before moving on to another sounder. Tigers have been noted to chase boars for longer distances than with other prey. In two rare cases, boars were reported to gore a small tiger and a tigress to death in self-defense.[58] In the Amur region, wild boars are one of the two most important prey species for tigers alongside the Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus), with the two species collectively comprising roughly 80% of the felid's prey.[59] In Sikhote Alin, a tiger can kill 30–34 boars a year.[9] Studies of tigers in India indicate that boars are usually secondary in preference to various cervids and bovids,[60] though when boars are targeted, healthy adults are caught more frequently than young and sick specimens.[61]
On the islands of Komodo, Rinca and Flores, the boar's main predator is the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).[10]
Distribución y hábitat
Reconstructed range
The species originally occurred in North Africa and much of Eurasia; from the British Isles to Korea and the Sunda Islands. The northern limit of its range extended from southern Scandinavia to southern Siberia and Japan. Within this range, it was only absent in extremely dry deserts and alpine zones. It was once found in North Africa along the Nile valley up to Khartoum and north of the Sahara. The species occurs on a few Ionian and Aegean Islands, sometimes swimming between islands.[62] The reconstructed northern boundary of the animal's Asian range ran from Lake Ladoga (at 60°N) through the area of Novgorod and Moscow into the southern Urals, where it reached 52°N. From there, the boundary passed Ishim and farther east the Irtysh at 56°N. In the eastern Baraba steppe (near Novosibirsk) the boundary turned steep south, encircled the Altai Mountains and went again eastward including the Tannu-Ola Mountains and Lake Baikal. From here, the boundary went slightly north of the Amur River eastward to its lower reaches at the Sea of Okhotsk. On Sakhalin, there are only fossil reports of wild boar. The southern boundaries in Europe and Asia were almost invariably identical to the seashores of these continents. It is absent in the dry regions of Mongolia from 44 to 46°N southward, in China westward of Sichuan and in India north of the Himalayas. It is absent in the higher elevations of the Pamir and the Tien Shan, though they do occur in the Tarim basin and on the lower slopes of the Tien Shan.[3]
Present range
In recent centuries, the range of wild boar has changed dramatically, largely due to hunting by humans and more recently because of captive wild boar escaping into the wild. Prior to the 20th century, boar populations had declined in numerous areas, with British populations probably becoming extinct during the 13th century.[63] In the warm period after the ice age, wild boar lived in the southern parts of Sweden and Norway and north of Lake Ladoga in Karelia.[64] It was previously thought that the species did not live in Finland during prehistory because no prehistoric wild boar bones had been found within the borders of the country.[65][66] It was not until 2013, when a wild boar bone was found in Askola, that the species was found to have lived in Finland more than 8,000 years ago. It is believed, however, that man prevented its establishment by hunting.[67][68] In Denmark, the last boar was shot at the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1900 they were absent in Tunisia and Sudan and large areas of Germany, Austria and Italy. In Russia, they were extirpated in wide areas by the 1930s.[3] The last boar in Egypt reportedly died on 20 December 1912 in the Giza Zoo, with wild populations having disappeared by 1894–1902. Prince Kamal el Dine Hussein attempted to repopulate Wadi El Natrun with boars of Hungarian stock, but they were quickly exterminated by poachers.[69]
A revival of boar populations began in the middle of the 20th century. By 1950, wild boar had once again reached their original northern boundary in many parts of their Asiatic range. By 1960, they reached Leningrad and Moscow and by 1975, they were to be found in Archangelsk and Astrakhan. In the 1970s they again occurred in Denmark and Sweden, where captive animals escaped and now survive in the wild. In England, wild boar populations re-established themselves in the 1990s, after escaping from specialist farms that had imported European stock.[63]
Status in Great Britain
Wild boars were apparently already becoming rare by the 11th century since a 1087 forestry law enacted by William the Conqueror punishes through blinding the unlawful killing of a boar. Charles I attempted to reintroduce the species into the New Forest, though this population was exterminated during the Civil War. Between their medieval extinction and the 1980s, when wild boar farming began, only a handful of captive wild boar, imported from the continent, were present in Britain. Occasional escapes of wild boar from wildlife parks have occurred as early as the 1970s, but since the early 1990s significant populations have re-established themselves after escapes from farms, the number of which has increased as the demand for meat from the species has grown. A 1998 MAFF (now DEFRA) study on wild boar living wild in Britain confirmed the presence of two populations of wild boar living in Britain; one in Kent/East Sussex and another in Dorset.[63]
Another DEFRA report, in February 2008,[70] confirmed the existence of these two sites as 'established breeding areas' and identified a third in Gloucestershire/Herefordshire; in the Forest of Dean/Ross on Wye area. A 'new breeding population' was also identified in Devon. There is another significant population in Dumfries and Galloway. Populations estimates were as follows:
- The largest population, in Kent/East Sussex, was then estimated at approximately 200 animals in the core distribution area.
- The smallest, in west Dorset, was estimated to be fewer than 50 animals.
- Since winter 2005–2006 significant escapes/releases have also resulted in animals colonizing areas around the fringes of Dartmoor, in Devon. These are considered as an additional single 'new breeding population' and currently estimated to be up to 100 animals.
Population estimates for the Forest of Dean are disputed as, at the time that the DEFRA population estimate was 100, a photo of a boar sounder in the forest near Staunton with over 33 animals visible was published and at about the same time over 30 boar were seen in a field near the original escape location of Weston under Penyard many kilometres or miles away. In early 2010 the Forestry Commission embarked on a cull,[71] with the aim of reducing the boar population from an estimated 150 animals to 100. By August it was stated that efforts were being made to reduce the population from 200 to 90, but that only 25 had been killed.[72] The failure to meet cull targets was confirmed in February 2011.[73]
Wild boars have crossed the River Wye into Monmouthshire, Wales. Iolo Williams, the BBC Wales wildlife expert, attempted to film Welsh boar in late 2012.[74] Many other sightings, across the UK, have also been reported.[75] The effects of wild boar on the U.K.'s woodlands were discussed with Ralph Harmer of the Forestry Commission on the BBC Radio's Farming Today radio programme in 2011. The programme prompted activist writer George Monbiot to propose a thorough population study, followed by the introduction of permit-controlled culling.[76]
Introduction to North America
Wild boars are an invasive species in the Americas and cause problems including out-competing native species for food, destroying the nests of ground-nesting species, killing fawns and young domestic livestock, destroying agricultural crops, eating tree seeds and seedlings, destroying native vegetation and wetlands through wallowing, damaging water quality, coming into violent conflict with humans and pets and carrying pig and human diseases including brucellosis, trichinosis and pseudorabies. In some jurisdictions, it is illegal to import, breed, release, possess, sell, distribute, trade, transport, hunt, or trap Eurasian boars. Hunting and trapping is done systematically, to increase the chance of eradication and to remove the incentive to illegally release boars, which have mostly been spread deliberately by sport hunters.[77]
History
While domestic pigs, both captive and feral (popularly termed "razorbacks"), have been in North America since the earliest days of European colonization, pure wild boars were not introduced into the New World until the 19th century. The suids were released into the wild by wealthy landowners as big game animals. The initial introductions took place in fenced enclosures, though several escapes occurred, with the escapees sometimes intermixing with already established feral pig populations.
The first of these introductions occurred in New Hampshire in 1890. Thirteen wild boars from Germany were purchased by Austin Corbin from Carl Hagenbeck and released into a 9,500-hectare (23,000-acre) game preserve in Sullivan County. Several of these boars escaped, though they were quickly hunted down by locals. Two further introductions were made from the original stocking, with several escapes taking place due to breaches in the game preserve's fencing. These escapees have ranged widely, with some specimens having been observed crossing into Vermont.[78]
In 1902, 15–20 wild boar from Germany were released into a 3,200-hectare (7,900-acre) estate in Hamilton County, New York. Several specimens escaped six years later, dispersing into the William C. Whitney Wilderness Area, with their descendants surviving for at least 20 years.[78]
The most extensive boar introduction in the US took place in western North Carolina in 1912, when 13 boars of undetermined European origin were released into two fenced enclosures in a game preserve in Hooper Bald, Graham County. Most of the specimens remained in the preserve for the next decade, until a large-scale hunt caused the remaining animals to break through their confines and escape. Some of the boars migrated to Tennessee, where they intermixed with both free-ranging and feral pigs in the area. In 1924, a dozen Hooper Bald wild pigs were shipped to California and released in a property between Carmel Valley and the Los Padres National Forest. These hybrid boar were later used as breeding stock on various private and public lands throughout the state, as well as in other states like Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, West Virginia and Mississippi.[78]
Several wild boars from Leon Springs and the San Antonio, Saint Louis and San Diego Zoos were released in the Powder Horn Ranch in Calhoun County, Texas, in 1939. These specimens escaped and established themselves in surrounding ranchlands and coastal areas, with some crossing the Espiritu Santo Bay and colonizing Matagorda Island. Descendants of the Powder Horn Ranch boars were later released onto San José Island and the coast of Chalmette, Louisiana.[78]
Wild boar of unknown origin were stocked in a ranch in the Edwards Plateau in the 1940s, only to escape during a storm and hybridize with local feral pig populations, later spreading into neighboring counties.[78]
Starting in the mid-1980s, several boars purchased from the San Diego Zoo and Tierpark Berlin were released into the United States. A decade later, more specimens from farms in Canada and Białowieża Forest were let loose. In recent years, wild pig populations have been reported in 44 states within the US, most of which are likely wild boar–feral hog hybrids. Pure wild boar populations may still be present, but are extremely localized.[78]
Introduction and lack of control in South America
In South America, the European boar is believed to have been introduced for the first time in Argentina and Uruguay around the 20th century for breeding purposes.[79] In Brazil, the creation of wild boar and hybrids started on a large scale in the mid-1990s. With the invasion of wild boar that crossed the border and entered Rio Grande do Sul around 1989, and the scape and intentional release by several Brazilian breeders in the late 1990s - in response to a IBAMA decision against the import and breeding of wild boar in 1998 - numerous feral species formed a growing population, which progressively advances in Brazilian territory.[80][81] The species has no natural predators in Brazil, as it is an exotic species, in addition to breeding with the domestic pig, generating the so-called "javaporco" (neologism created to define this hybrid), factors that contribute to the exaggerated increase in the population.[80] With its population in continuous and uncontrolled growth, without predators, the wild boar causes environmental damage, contributing to the aggradation of river and stream springs, attacking native species feeding on eggs and puppies, causing damage to fauna, flora and to agriculture and livestock, since it also attacks farm animals and can carry various diseases, including zoonosis.
Pest control in Brazil
As a form of control for the wild boar population (which is considered a pest and harmful species), hunting and killing are allowed for Collectors, Shooters and Hunters (CACs)[82] duly registered by the environmental control agency, IBAMA, which, on the other hand, seeks to encourage the preservation of similar species of native peccaries, such as the "queixada" and the "caititu".[83][84][85]
Enfermedades y parásitos
Wild boars are known to host at least 20 different parasitic worm species, with maximum infections occurring in summer. Young animals are vulnerable to helminths like Metastrongylus, which are consumed by boars through earthworms and cause death by parasitising the lungs. Wild boar also carry parasites known to infect humans, including Gastrodiscoides, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia solium, Balantidium coli and Toxoplasma gondii.[86] Wild boar in southern regions are frequently infested with ticks (Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, and Hyalomma) and hog lice. The species also suffers from blood-sucking flies, which it escapes by bathing frequently or hiding in dense shrubs.[3]
Swine plague spreads very quickly in wild boar, with epizootics being recorded in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Belarus, the Caucasus, the Far East, Kazakhstan and other regions. Foot-and-mouth disease can also take on epidemic proportions in boar populations. The species occasionally, but rarely contracts Pasteurellosis, hemorrhagic sepsis, tularemia, and anthrax. Wild boar may on occasion contract swine erysipelas through rodents or hog lice and ticks.[3]
Relaciones con los humanos
In culture
The wild boar features prominently in the cultures of Indo-European people, many of which saw the animal as embodying warrior virtues.[90] Cultures throughout Europe and Asia Minor saw the killing of a boar as proof of one's valor and strength. Neolithic hunter gatherers depicted reliefs of ferocious wild boars on their temple pillars at Göbekli Tepe some 11,600 years ago.[91][92] Virtually all heroes in Greek mythology fight or kill a boar at one point. The demigod Herakles' third labour involves the capture of the Erymanthian Boar, Theseus slays the wild sow Phaea, and a disguised Odysseus is recognised by his handmaiden Eurycleia by the scars inflicted on him by a boar during a hunt in his youth.[93] To the mythical Hyperboreans, the boar represented spiritual authority.[87] Several Greek myths use the boar as a symbol of darkness, death and winter. One example is the story of the youthful Adonis, who is killed by a boar and is permitted by Zeus to depart from Hades only during the spring and summer period. This theme also occurs in Irish and Egyptian mythology, where the animal is explicitly linked to the month of October, therefore autumn. This association likely arose from aspects of the boar's actual nature. Its dark colour was linked to the night, while its solitary habits, proclivity to consume crops and nocturnal nature were associated with evil.[94] The foundation myth of Ephesus has the city being built over the site where Prince Androklos of Athens killed a boar.[95] Boars were frequently depicted on Greek funerary monuments alongside lions, representing gallant losers who have finally met their match, as opposed to victorious hunters as lions are. The theme of the doomed, yet valorous boar warrior also occurred in Hittite culture, where it was traditional to sacrifice a boar alongside a dog and a prisoner of war after a military defeat.[93]
The boar as a warrior also appears in Scandinavian, Germanic and Anglo-Saxon culture, with its image having been frequently engraved on helmets, shields and swords. According to Tacitus, the Baltic Aesti featured boars on their helmets and may have also worn boar masks (see for example the Guilden Morden boar). The boar and pig were held in particularly high esteem by the Celts, who considered them to be their most important sacred animal. Some Celtic deities linked to boars include Moccus and Veteris. It has been suggested that some early myths surrounding the Welsh hero Culhwch involved the character being the son of a boar god.[93] Nevertheless, the importance of the boar as a culinary item among Celtic tribes may have been exaggerated in popular culture by the Asterix series, as wild boar bones are rare among Celtic archaeological sites and the few that do occur show no signs of butchery, having probably been used in sacrificial rituals.[96]
The boar also appears in Vedic mythology and Hindu mythology. A story present in the Brahmanas has the god Indra slaying an avaricious boar, who has stolen the treasure of the asuras, then giving its carcass to the god Vishnu, who offered it as a sacrifice to the gods. In the story's retelling in the Charaka Samhita, the boar is described as a form of Prajapati and is credited with having raised the Earth from the primeval waters. In the Ramayana and the Puranas, the same boar is portrayed as Varaha, an avatar of Vishnu.[97]
In Japanese culture, the boar is widely seen as a fearsome and reckless animal, to the point that several words and expressions in Japanese referring to recklessness include references to boars. The boar is the last animal of the Oriental zodiac, with people born during the year of the Pig being said to embody the boar-like traits of determination and impetuosity. Among Japanese hunters, the boar's courage and defiance is a source of admiration and it is not uncommon for hunters and mountain people to name their sons after the animal inoshishi (猪). Boars are also seen as symbols of fertility and prosperity; in some regions, it is thought that boars are drawn to fields owned by families including pregnant women, and hunters with pregnant wives are thought to have greater chances of success when boar hunting. The animal's link to prosperity was illustrated by its inclusion on the ¥10 note during the Meiji period and it was once believed that a man could become wealthy by keeping a clump of boar hair in his wallet.[98]
In the folklore of the Mongol Altai Uriankhai tribe, the wild boar was associated with the watery underworld, as it was thought that the spirits of the dead entered the animal's head, to be ultimately transported to the water.[99] Prior to the conversion to Islam, the Kyrgyz people believed that they were descended from boars and thus did not eat pork. In Buryat mythology, the forefathers of the Buryats descended from heaven and were nourished by a boar.[100] In China, the boar is the emblem of the Miao people.[87]
The boar (sanglier) is frequently displayed in English, Scottish and Welsh heraldry. As with the lion, the boar is often shown as armed and langued. As with the bear, Scottish and Welsh heraldry displays the boar's head with the neck cropped, unlike the English version, which retains the neck.[101] The white boar served as the badge of King Richard III of England, who distributed it among his northern retainers during his tenure as Duke of Gloucester.[102]
As a game animal and food source
Humans have been hunting boar for millennia, the earliest artistic depictions of such activities dating back to the Upper Paleolithic.[93] The animal was seen as a source of food among the Ancient Greeks, as well as a sporting challenge and source of epic narratives. The Romans inherited this tradition, with one of its first practitioners being Scipio Aemilianus. Boar hunting became particularly popular among the young nobility during the 3rd century BC as preparation for manhood and battle. A typical Roman boar hunting tactic involved surrounding a given area with large nets, then flushing the boar with dogs and immobilizing it with smaller nets. The animal would then be dispatched with a venabulum, a short spear with a crossguard at the base of the blade. More than their Greek predecessors, the Romans extensively took inspiration from boar hunting in their art and sculpture. With the ascension of Constantine the Great, boar hunting took on Christian allegorical themes, with the animal being portrayed as a "black beast" analogous to the dragon of Saint George.
Boar hunting continued after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, though the Germanic tribes considered the red deer to be a more noble and worthy quarry. The post-Roman nobility hunted boar as their predecessors did, but primarily as training for battle rather than sport. It was not uncommon for medieval hunters to deliberately hunt boars during the breeding season when the animals were more aggressive. During the Renaissance, when deforestation and the introduction of firearms reduced boar numbers, boar hunting became the sole prerogative of the nobility, one of many charges brought up against the rich during the German Peasants' War and the French Revolution.[103]
During the mid-20th century, 7,000–8,000 boars were caught in the Caucasus, 6,000–7,000 in Kazakhstan and about 5,000 in Central Asia during the Soviet period, primarily through the use of dogs and beats.[3] In Nepal, farmers and poachers eliminate boars by baiting balls of wheat flour containing explosives with kerosene oil, with the animals' chewing motions triggering the devices.[104]
Wild boar can thrive in captivity, though piglets grow slowly and poorly without their mothers. Products derived from wild boar include meat, hide and bristles.[3] Apicius devotes a whole chapter to the cooking of boar meat, providing 10 recipes involving roasting, boiling and what sauces to use. The Romans usually served boar meat with garum.[105] Boar's head was the centrepiece of most medieval Christmas celebrations among the nobility.[106] Although growing in popularity as a captive-bred source of food, the wild boar takes longer to mature than most domestic pigs and it is usually smaller and produces less meat. Nevertheless, wild boar meat is leaner and healthier than pork,[107] being of higher nutritional value and having a much higher concentration of essential amino acids.[108] Most meat-dressing organizations agree that a boar carcass should yield 50 kg (110 lb) of meat on average. Large specimens can yield 15–20 kg (33–44 lb) of fat, with some giants yielding 30 kg (66 lb) or more. A boar hide can measure 300 dm2 (4,700 sq in) and can yield 350–1,000 grams (12–35 oz) of bristle and 400 grams (14 oz) of underwool.[3]
Roman relief of a dog confronting a boar, Cologne
Southern Indian depiction of boar hunt, c. 1540
Pig-sticking in British India
Boar shot in Volgograd Oblast, Russia
The Boar Hunt – Hans Wertinger, c. 1530, the Danube Valley
Crop and garbage raiding
Boars can be damaging to agriculture in situations where their natural habitat is sparse. Populations living on the outskirts of towns or farms can dig up potatoes and damage melons, watermelons and maize. However, they generally only encroach upon farms when natural food is scarce. In the Belovezh forest for example, 34–47% of the local boar population will enter fields in years of moderate availability of natural foods. While the role of boars in damaging crops is often exaggerated,[3] cases are known of boar depredations causing famines, as was the case in Hachinohe, Japan in 1749, where 3,000 people died of what became known as the "wild boar famine". Still, within Japanese culture, the boar's status as vermin is expressed through its title as "king of pests" and the popular saying (addressed to young men in rural areas) "When you get married, choose a place with no wild boar."[98][109]
In Central Europe, farmers typically repel boars through distraction or fright, while in Kazakhstan it is usual to employ guard dogs in plantations. Although large boar populations can play an important role in limiting forest growth, they are also useful in keeping pest populations such as June bugs under control.[3] The growth of urban areas and the corresponding decline in natural boar habitats has led to some sounders entering human habitations in search of food. As in natural conditions, sounders in peri-urban areas are matriarchal, though males tend to be much less represented and adults of both sexes can be up to 35% heavier than their forest-dwelling counterparts. As of 2010, at least 44 cities in 15 countries have experienced problems of some kind relating to the presence of habituated wild boar.[110]
Attacks on humans
Actual attacks on humans are rare, but can be serious, resulting in penetrating injuries to the lower part of the body. They generally occur during the boars' rutting season from November to January, in agricultural areas bordering forests or on paths leading through forests. The animal typically attacks by charging and pointing its tusks towards the intended victim, with most injuries occurring on the thigh region. Once the initial attack is over, the boar steps back, takes position and attacks again if the victim is still moving, only ending once the victim is completely incapacitated.[111][112]
Boar attacks on humans have been documented since the Stone Age, with one of the oldest depictions being a cave painting in Bhimbetaka, India. The Romans and Ancient Greeks wrote of these attacks (Odysseus was wounded by a boar and Adonis was killed by one). A 2012 study compiling recorded attacks from 1825 to 2012 found accounts of 665 human victims of both wild boars and feral pigs, with the majority (19%) of attacks in the animal's native range occurring in India. Most of the attacks occurred in rural areas during the winter months in non-hunting contexts and were committed by solitary males.[113]
Ver también
- Babirusa
- Boar-baiting
- Domestic pig
- Feral pig
- Peccary
- Indian boar
- Guilden Morden boar
Notas
- ^ It is from the male boar's solitary habits that the species gets its name in numerous Romance languages. Although the Latin word for "boar" was aper, the French sanglier and Italian cinghiale derive from singularis porcus, which is Latin for "solitary pig".[40]
- ^ Thirteen has been observed in a captive specimen.[42]
Referencias
- ^ a b c Keuling, O. & Leus, K. (2019). "Sus scrofa". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T41775A44141833.
- ^ a b c Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 532–628. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; Hoffman, R. S. (1988). Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union]. I. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. pp. 19–82.
- ^ a b c Oliver, W. L. R.; et al. (1993). "The Common Wild Pig (Sus scrofa)". In Oliver, W. L. R. (ed.). Pigs, Peccaries, and Hippos – 1993 Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN / SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. pp. 112–121. ISBN 2-8317-0141-4.
- ^ "Boar - mammal".
- ^ a b Chen, K.; et al. (2007). "Genetic Resources, Genome Mapping and Evolutionary Genomics of the Pig (Sus scrofa)". Int J Biol Sci. 3 (3): 153–165. doi:10.7150/ijbs.3.153. PMC 1802013. PMID 17384734.
- ^ a b Kurtén, Björn (1968). Pleistocene mammals of Europe. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 153–155
- ^ a b Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 75–76
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Baskin, L.; Danell, K. (2003). Ecology of Ungulates: A Handbook of Species in North, Central, and South America, Eastern Europe and Northern and Central Asia. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15–38. ISBN 3-540-43804-1.
- ^ a b c Affenberg, W. (1981). The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor. University Press of Florida. p. 248. ISBN 0-8130-0621-X.
- ^ "Online Etymological Dictionary". Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- ^ Magnier, Eileen (7 May 2020). "Wild boarlets born in Donegal believed to be first in 800 years". RTE. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
- ^ "Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources". Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- ^ Cabanau 2001, pp. 24
- ^ Ruvinsky, A. et al. (2011). "Systematics and evolution of the pig". In: Ruvinsky A, Rothschild MF (eds), The Genetics of the Pig. 2nd ed. CAB International, Oxon. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-1-84593-756-0
- ^ a b c d Groves, C. P. et al. 1993. The Eurasian Suids Sus and Babyrousa. In Oliver, W. L. R., ed., Pigs, Peccaries, and Hippos – 1993 Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 107–108. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, ISBN 2-8317-0141-4
- ^ a b Hemmer, H. (1990), Domestication: The Decline of Environmental Appreciation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–59, ISBN 0-521-34178-7
- ^ Kingdon, J. (1997). The Kingdon Guide to African Mammals. p. 329. Academic Press Limited. ISBN 0-12-408355-2
- ^ a b c d e f g h Groves, C. (2008). Current views on the taxonomy and zoogeography of the genus Sus. pp. 15–29 in Albarella, U., Dobney, K, Ervynck, A. & Rowley-Conwy, P. Eds. (2008). Pigs and Humans: 10,000 Years of Interaction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920704-6
- ^ Sterndale, R. A. (1884), Natural history of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon, Calcutta : Thacker, Spink, pp. 415–420
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 86–89
- ^ Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 14–15
- ^ Wild Pig Specialist group. "LC - Eurasian Wild Pig". Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ Clutton-Brock, J. (1999), A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, Cambridge University Press, pp. 91–99, ISBN 0-521-63495-4
- ^ The related collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) has been domesticated in the New World. "Commercial Farming of Collared Peccary: A Large-scale Commercial Farming of Collared Peccary (Tayassu tajacu) in North-eastern Brazil", 2007-4-30.
- ^ Nelson, Sarah M. (1998). Ancestors for the Pigs: Pigs in prehistory. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. ISBN 9781931707091.
- ^ Rosenberg M, Nesbitt R, Redding RW, Peasnall BL (1998). Hallan Çemi, pig husbandry, and post-Pleistocene adaptations along the Taurus-Zagros Arc (Turkey). Paleorient, 24(1):25–41.
- ^ Vigne, JD; Zazzo, A; Saliège, JF; Poplin, F; Guilaine, J; Simmons, A (2009). "Pre-Neolithic wild boar management and introduction to Cyprus more than 11,400 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (38): 16135–8. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10616135V. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905015106. PMC 2752532. PMID 19706455.
- ^ a b Giuffra, E; Kijas, JM; Amarger, V; Carlborg, O; Jeon, JT; Andersson, L (2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and subsequent introgression". Genetics. 154 (4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID 10747069.
- ^ Jean-Denis Vigne; Anne Tresset & Jean-Pierre Digard (3 July 2012). History of domestication (PDF) (Speech).
- ^ BBC News, "Pig DNA reveals farming history" 4 September 2007. The report concerns an article in the journal PNAS
- ^ Larson, G; Albarella, U; Dobney, K; Rowley-Conwy, P; Schibler, J; Tresset, A; Vigne, JD; Edwards, CJ; et al. (2007). "Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (39): 15276–81. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415276L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703411104. PMC 1976408. PMID 17855556.
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 87
- ^ a b c d e Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 70–72
- ^ Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 26
- ^ Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 28
- ^ a b c d Cabanau 2001, pp. 29
- ^ a b Cabanau 2001, pp. 28
- ^ Drabeck, D.H.; Dean, A.M.; Jansa, S.A. (1 June 2015). "Why the honey badger don't care: Convergent evolution of venom-targeted nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in mammals that survive venomous snake bites". Toxicon. 99: 68–72. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.03.007. PMID 25796346.
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 20–22
- ^ Weiler, Ulrike; et al. (2016). "Penile Injuries in Wild and Domestic Pigs". Animals. 6 (4): 25. doi:10.3390/ani6040025. PMC 4846825. PMID 27023619.
- ^ "Eight little piggies went a-marching". Whipsnade Zoo. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
- ^ a b Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 83–86
- ^ Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 87–90
- ^ a b Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 55–58
- ^ Long, J. L. (2003), Introduced Mammals of the World: Their History, Distribution and Influence, Cabi Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85199-748-3
- ^ "Alderney wild boar that swam from France shot over disease fear". BBC News. 14 November 2013.
- ^ FAO Ch.8
- ^ Tierney, Trisha A.; Cushman, J. Hall (12 May 2006). "Temporal Changes in Native and Exotic Vegetation and Soil Characteristics following Disturbances by Feral Pigs in a California Grassland". Biological Invasions. 8 (5): 1073–1089. doi:10.1007/s10530-005-6829-7. S2CID 25706582.
- ^ Oldfield, Callie A.; Evans, Jonathan P. (1 March 2016). "Twelve years of repeated wild hog activity promotes population maintenance of an invasive clonal plant in a coastal dune ecosystem". Ecology and Evolution. 6 (8): 2569–2578. doi:10.1002/ece3.2045. PMC 4834338. PMID 27110354.
- ^ Gupta, S. et al. A wild boar hunting: predation on a bonnet macaque by a wild boar in the Bandipur National Park, southern India. Current Science. Vol. 106, No. 9. (10 May 2014)
- ^ Behera, Satyaranian; Gupta, Rajendra Prasad. "Predation on chital Axis axis by wild pig Sus scrofa in Bandhavgarh National Park". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 104 (3): 345–346.
- ^ a b Marsan & Mattioli 2013, pp. 96–97
- ^ Thinley, P; Kamler, JF; Wang, SW; Lham, K; Stenkewitz, U; et al. (2011). "Seasonal diet of dholes (Cuon alpinus) in northwestern Bhutan". Mammalian Biology. 76 (4): 518–520. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2011.02.003.
- ^ Heptner, V. G. & Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Leopard". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 248–252.
- ^ Taghdisi, M.; et al. (2013). "Diet and habitat use of the endangered Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in northeastern Iran". Turkish Journal of Zoologist. 37: 554–561. doi:10.3906/zoo-1301-20.
- ^ Sharbafi, Elmira; Farhadinia, Mohammad S.; Rezaie, Hamid R.; Braczkowski, Alex Richard (2016). "Prey of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in a mixed forest-steppe landscape in northeastern Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)". Zoology in the Middle East. 62 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1080/09397140.2016.1144286. S2CID 88354782.
- ^ Heptner, V. G. & Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Tiger". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 174–185.
- ^ Miquelle, Dale G.; et al. (1996). "Food habits of Amur tigers in the Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik and the Russian Far East, and implications for conservation" (PDF). Journal of Wildlife Research. 1 (2): 138. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2012.
- ^ Ramesh, T.; Snehalatha, V.; Sankar, K. & Qureshi, Qamar (2009). "Food habits and prey selection of tiger and leopard in Mudumalai tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India". J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 2 (3): 170–181.
- ^ Schaller, G (1967). The deer and the tiger: a study of wildlife in India. p. 321. ISBN 9780226736570.
- ^ Masseti, M. (2012), Atlas of terrestrial mammals of the Ionian and Aegean islands, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 139–141, ISBN 3-11-025458-1
- ^ a b c "Wild boar in Britain". Britishwildboar.org.uk. 21 October 1998. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
- ^ Nummi, Petri (1988). Suomeen istutetut riistaeläimet. Helsingin yliopisto, Maatalous- ja Metsäeläintieteen Laitos. pp. 37–38. ISBN 951-45-4760-8.
- ^ Jääkauden jälkeläiset – Suomen nisäkkäiden varhainen historia (in Finnish)
- ^ Koivisto, M. (2004). Jääkaudet. WSOY. pp. 207–208. ISBN 951-0-29101-3.
- ^ Tiedon jyvät – Villisika eli Suomessa jo kivikaudella. Helsingin Sanomat, 2014-12-05, p. B15.
- ^ "Villisika eli Suomessa jo kivikaudella" (in Finnish). Suomen Luonto 4/2013. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ Osborn, D.J.; Helmy, I. (1980). "Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758". The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai). Field Museum of Natural History. pp. 475–477.
- ^ Government supports local communities to manage wild boar. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. 19 February 2008
- ^ "Wild boar cull is given go ahead". BBC News. 2010.
- ^ "Forest of Dean rangers battle to meet boar cull target". BBC News. 20 August 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2010.
- ^ Cull failing to control wild boar. The Forester. 25 February 2011.
- ^ "BBC Wales – Nature – Wildlife – Wild boar". BBC. 1970. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
- ^ "Wild Boar in Britain". Britishwildboar.org.uk. 31 December 2010. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
- ^ Monbiot, George (16 September 2011). "How the UK's zoophobic legacy turned on wild boar". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
I was prompted to write this article by an item I heard on the BBC's Farming Today programme at the beginning of the week. It was an interview with Ralph Harmer, who works for the Forestry Commission, about whether or not the returning boars are damaging our woodlands. I was struck by what the item did not say. Not once did the programme mention that this is a native species. The boar was discussed as if it were an exotic invasive animal, such as the mink or the grey squirrel. […] Then, once we've found out how many boars, […] should be culled to allow a gentle expansion but not an explosion, permits to shoot them should be sold, and the money used to compensate farmers whose crops the boar have damaged. Other hunting should be banned. This is how they do it in France.
- ^ "Eurasian Boar - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation". www.dec.ny.gov.
- ^ a b c d e f Mayer, J. J. et al. (2009), Wild Pigs: Biology, Damage, Control Techniques and Management Archived 24 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Savannah River National Laboratory Aiken, South Carolina, SRNL-RP-2009-00869
- ^ Vininha F. Carvalho (19 January 2007). "As espécies invasoras representam um perigo á biodiversidade". animalivre.uol.com.br. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ a b Felipe Pedrosaa, Rafael Salernob, Fabio Vinicius Borges Padilhac and Mauro Galetti (13 March 2015). "Current distribution of invasive feral pigs in Brazil: economic impacts and ecological uncertainty". naturezaeconservacao.com.br. Retrieved 25 May 2021.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Carlos H. Salvador (3 July 2012). "Ecology and management of Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) in South America". researchgate.net. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Murilo Souza and Cláudia Lemos (22 March 2021). "Projeto regulamenta a caça esportiva de animais no Brasil". Chamber of Deputies. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Débora Spitzcovsky (4 February 2013). "Brasil autoriza caça de javali-europeu em seu território". planetasustentavel.abril.com.br. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Fernanda Testa (13 September 2015). "Ameaça às lavouras, javalis são alvo de caça autorizada no interior de SP". g1.globo.com. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Bruna de Alencar, Vinicius Galera e Venilson Ferreira (10 February 2016). "Aberta a temporada de caça ao javali no Sul e Sudeste". revistagloborural.globo.com. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Jokelainen, P.; Velström, K.; Lassen, B. (2015). "Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging wild boars hunted for human consumption in Estonia". Acta Vet Scand. 57: 42. doi:10.1186/s13028-015-0133-z. PMC 4524169. PMID 26239110.
- ^ a b c Cabanau 2001, pp. 63
- ^ "FINLAND: Wet Threats". The New York Times. 14 December 1931.
- ^ Suomen kunnallisvaakunat (in Finnish). Suomen Kunnallisliitto. 1982. p. 145. ISBN 951-773-085-3.
- ^ Beresnevičius, Gintaras. "Aisčių mater deum klausimu". In: Liaudies kultūra 2006, Nr. 2, p. 6. ISSN 0236-0551 https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/4244
- ^ Charles C. Mann, Göbekli Tepe: The Birth of Religion, National Geographic (June 2011)
- ^ Sandra Scham The World's First Temple, Archaeology, Volume 61 Number 6, November/December 2008
- ^ a b c d Mallory, J. P. & Adams, D. Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis, pp. 426–428, ISBN 1-884964-98-2
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 14–15
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 16
- ^ Green, M. (2002), Animals in Celtic Life and Myth, Routledge, p. 46, ISBN 1-134-66531-8
- ^ Macdonell, A. A. (1898), Vedic Mythology, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., p. 41
- ^ a b Knight, J. (2003), Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-wildlife Relations, Oxford University Press, pp. 49–73, ISBN 0-19-925518-0
- ^ Pegg, C. (2001), Mongolian Music, Dance, & Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities, University of Washington Press, p. 140, ISBN 0-295-98112-1
- ^ Holmberg, U. (1927), The Mythology of All Races volume 4: Finno-Ugric, Siberian, New York, Cooper Square Publishing Inc. pp. 502–503
- ^ Fox-Davies, A. C. (1909), A complete guide to heraldry, London, Edinburgh, T.C. & E.C. Jack, pp. 198–199
- ^ Wagner, J. A. (2001) Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Roses, ABC-CLIO, p. 15, ISBN 1-85109-358-3
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 9–58
- ^ Shreshta, Tej Kumar (1997). Mammals of Nepal: (with reference to those of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan). Steven Simpson Books. p. 207. ISBN 0-9524390-6-9
- ^ Scheggi 1999, pp. 30–35
- ^ Adamson, M. W. (2004), Food in Medieval Times, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 35, ISBN 0-313-32147-7
- ^ Harris, C. (2009), A Guide to Traditional Pig Keeping, Good Life Press, pp. 26–27, ISBN 1-904871-60-7
- ^ Strazdina, V. et al. "Nutritional Characteristics of Wild Boar Meat Hunted in Latvia", Foodbalt (2014)
- ^ Walker, Brett L. (2010). "Commercial Growth and Environmental Change in Early Modern Japan: Hachinohe's Wild Boar Famine of 1749". The Journal of Asian Studies. 60 (2): 329–351 [331]. doi:10.2307/2659696. JSTOR 2659696. S2CID 39491692.
- ^ Cahill, S.; Llimona, F.; Cabañeros, L.; Calomardo, F. (2012). "Characteristics of wild boar (Sus scrofa) habituation to urban areas in the Collserola Natural Park (Barcelona) and comparison with other locations" (PDF). Animal Biodiversity and Conservation. 35 (2): 221–233. doi:10.32800/abc.2012.35.0221.
- ^ Manipady, S.; et al. (2006). "Death by attack from a wild boar" (PDF). Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine. 13 (2): 89–91. doi:10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.08.007. PMID 16263321.
- ^ Gunduz, A.; et al. (2007). "Wild Boar Attacks" (PDF). Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 18 (2): 117–119. doi:10.1580/06-weme-cr-033r1.1. PMID 17590063. S2CID 1528398.
- ^ Mayer, John J. (2013) "Wild Pig Attacks on Humans". Wildlife Damage Management Conferences – Proceedings. Paper 151.
Bibliografía
- Cabanau, Laurent (2001). The Hunter's Library: Wild Boar in Europe. Könemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-5528-4.
- Marsan, Andrea; Mattioli, Stefano (2013). Il Cinghiale (in Italian). Il Piviere (collana Fauna selvatica. Biologia e gestione). ISBN 978-88-96348-178.
- Scheggi, Massimo (1999). La bestia nera: Caccia al cinghiale fra mito, storia e attualità (in Italian). Editoriale Olimpia (collana Caccia). ISBN 978-88-253-7904-4.
Otras lecturas
- Apollonio, M. et al. (1988), "The systematics of the wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) in Italy", Bolletino di Zoologiaa, 3:213–221
- Carden, R.F. (2012) "Review of the Natural History of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) on the island of Ireland", Report prepared by Ruth Carden for the Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Northern Ireland, UK, National Parks & Wildlife Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Dublin, Ireland and the National Museum of Ireland – Education & Outreach Department.
- (in French) Durantel, P. (2007), Le sanglier et ses chasses, Editions Artemis, ISBN 2844166032
- Greene, J. (2011), The Golden-Bristled Boar: Last Ferocious Beast of the Forest, University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-3103-7
- (in French) Marillier, B. (2003), Le sanglier héraldique, Editions Cheminements, ISBN 2844781845
- Mayer, J. J. & Shedrow, C. B. (2007), Annotated Bibliography of the Wild Pig (Sus scrofa): Environmental Information Document, Washington Savannah River Company
- (in Italian) Padiglione, V. (1989), Il cinghiale cacciatore: Antropologia simbolica della caccia in Sardegna, Armando Editore (collana Antropologia culturale)
- Ronald M. Nowak (1999), Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8, LCCN 98023686
enlaces externos
- Saskatchewan places moratorium on boar farming, says escaped boars should be killed at Wikinews
- BBC profile
- . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (9th ed.). 1878.
- Jokelainen, P.; Näreaho, A.; Hälli, O.; Heinonen, M.; Sukura, A. (2012). "Farmed wild boars exposed to Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp". Veterinary Parasitology. 187 (1–2): 323–327. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.12.026. PMID 22244535.
- Species Profile- Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for wild boar.
- View the susScr3 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
- A sounder of wild boars
- Wild pigs with piglets - white piglets with black spots