Los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1936 (en alemán : Olympische Sommerspiele 1936 ), oficialmente conocidos como los Juegos de la XI Olimpiada (en alemán : Spiele der XI. Olympiade ), fueron un evento internacional multideportivo celebrado del 1 al 16 de agosto de 1936 en Berlín , Alemania . Berlín ganó la candidatura para albergar los Juegos sobre Barcelona en la 29ª Sesión del COI el 26 de abril de 1931. Los Juegos de 1936 marcaron la segunda y más reciente vez que el Comité Olímpico Internacionalse reunieron para votar en una ciudad que aspiraba a albergar esos Juegos. Las modificaciones posteriores a las reglas prohibieron que las ciudades que albergaban la votación de la oferta fueran premiadas con los juegos.
Ciudad anfitriona | Berlín , alemania |
---|---|
Lema | ¡Llamo a la juventud del mundo! ( Alemán : Ich rufe die Jugend der Welt! ) |
Naciones | 49 |
Atletas | 3.963 (3.632 hombres, 331 mujeres) |
Eventos | 129 en 19 deportes (25 disciplinas) |
Apertura | 1 de agosto |
Clausura | 16 de agosto |
Abierto por | |
Caldera | |
Estadio | Olympiastadion |
Verano Invierno |
Para superar a los Juegos de Los Ángeles de 1932 , el canciller del Reich, Adolf Hitler, hizo construir un nuevo estadio de atletismo con capacidad para 100.000 asientos , así como seis gimnasios y otras arenas más pequeñas. Los Juegos fueron los primeros en ser televisados , con transmisiones de radio que llegaron a 41 países. [2] El Comité Olímpico Alemán encargó a la cineasta Leni Riefenstahl que filmara los Juegos por 7 millones de dólares. [2] Su película, titulada Olympia , fue pionera en muchas de las técnicas ahora comunes en la filmación de deportes.
Hitler vio los Juegos de 1936 como una oportunidad para promover su gobierno y los ideales de supremacía racial y antisemitismo , y el periódico oficial del Partido Nazi , el Völkischer Beobachter , escribió en los términos más enérgicos que los judíos no deberían poder participar en los Juegos. [3] [4] A los atletas judíos alemanes se les prohibió o impidió participar en los Juegos por una variedad de métodos, [5] aunque algunas nadadoras del club deportivo judío Hakoah Vienna sí participaron. Se decía que los atletas judíos de otros países habían sido marginados para evitar ofender al régimen nazi. [6]
Los ingresos totales por entradas fueron de 7,5 millones de Reichsmark , generando un beneficio de más de un millón de euros. El presupuesto oficial no incluyó los desembolsos de la ciudad de Berlín (que emitió un informe detallado detallando sus costos de 16,5 millones de ℛℳ) ni los desembolsos del gobierno nacional alemán (que no hizo públicos sus costos, pero se estima que gastó US $ 30 millón). [7]
Jesse Owens de los Estados Unidos ganó cuatro medallas de oro en los eventos de sprint y salto de longitud , y se convirtió en el atleta más exitoso en competir en Berlín, mientras que Alemania fue el país más exitoso en general con 89 medallas en total, con Estados Unidos en segundo lugar con 56 medallas. Estos fueron los Juegos Olímpicos finales bajo la presidencia de Henri de Baillet-Latour y los Juegos finales durante 12 años debido a la interrupción de la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Los siguientes Juegos Olímpicos se celebraron en 1948 (los Juegos de Invierno en Suiza y luego los Juegos de Verano en Londres).
Selección de la ciudad anfitriona
En la 28ª Sesión del COI, celebrada durante 1930, en Berlín, 14 ciudades anunciaron su intención de postularse para albergar los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1936. La licitación para estos Juegos Olímpicos fue la primera en ser disputada por los miembros del COI que votaron por sus propias ciudades anfitrionas favoritas. [8]
La votación tuvo lugar el 26 de abril de 1931, en la 29ª Sesión del COI celebrada en Barcelona, España ese año. La votación se celebró días después de la declaración de la Segunda República Española y durante los últimos años de la República de Weimar . Esto fue dos años antes de que Adolf Hitler y el Partido Nazi llegaran al poder en Alemania, en 1933.
En el momento de la Sesión del COI de 1931, solo Barcelona y Berlín quedaron en disputa para el voto de los delegados. Roma se retiró en vísperas de la votación. No está claro cómo se retiraron otros candidatos, al igual que la seriedad de las intenciones detrás de todas las ciudades candidatas enumeradas. Las otras ciudades que anunciaron la intención de celebrar los juegos, pero que se retiraron de la carrera, fueron Alejandría , Budapest , Buenos Aires , Colonia , Dublín , Frankfurt , Helsinki , Lausana , Montevideo , Nuremberg , Río de Janeiro y Roma . Helsinki, Roma, Barcelona y Río de Janeiro pasarían a albergar los Juegos Olímpicos de 1952, 1960, 1992 y 2016, respectivamente. [9]
El procedimiento de selección marcó la segunda y última vez que el Comité Olímpico Internacional se reuniría para votar en una ciudad que aspiraba a albergar esos Juegos. La única otra vez que esto ocurrió fue en la sesión inaugural del COI en París, Francia, el 24 de abril de 1894. Luego, Atenas y París fueron elegidas para albergar los Juegos de 1896 y 1900 , respectivamente.
La ciudad de Barcelona celebró un festival polideportivo al mismo tiempo que la Sesión del COI de 1931. Esto incluyó un partido de fútbol entre España y el Estado Libre de Irlanda, que fue visto por 70.000 espectadores. La incertidumbre política en torno a la declaración de la Segunda República Española , que había ocurrido días antes de la Sesión del COI, probablemente haya sido un factor mayor en la decisión tomada por los delegados sobre la ciudad anfitriona para 1936. Berlín prevaleció.
Después de que los nazis tomaron el control de Alemania y comenzaron a instituir políticas antisemitas, el COI sostuvo discusiones privadas entre sus delegados sobre el cambio de la decisión de celebrar los Juegos en Berlín. Sin embargo, el régimen de Hitler aseguró que a los atletas judíos se les permitiría competir en un equipo olímpico alemán. [10] Un año antes de los juegos, la Asociación Olímpica Estadounidense sugirió cambiar la sede a Roma; vieron a Roma como un buen reemplazo porque Roma fue originalmente seleccionada para albergar los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1908 . [11]
Ciudad | País | La ronda 1 |
---|---|---|
Berlina | Alemania | 43 |
Barcelona | España | dieciséis |
Abstenciones | 8 | |
Ofertas retiradas | ||
Alejandría | Egipto | 0 |
Budapest | Hungría | 0 |
Buenos Aires | Argentina | 0 |
Colonia | Alemania | 0 |
Dublín | Irlanda | 0 |
Frankfurt | Alemania | 0 |
Helsinki | Finlandia | 0 |
Lausana | Suiza | 0 |
Montevideo | Uruguay | 0 |
Nuremberg | Alemania | 0 |
Rio de Janeiro | Brasil | 0 |
Roma | Italia | 0 |
Organización
Hans von Tschammer und Osten , como Reichssportführer (es decir, director del Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen (DRL), la Oficina de Deportes del Reich), jugó un papel importante en la estructura y organización de los Juegos Olímpicos. Promovió la idea de que el uso de los deportes endurecería el espíritu alemán e inculcaría la unidad entre la juventud alemana. Al mismo tiempo, también creía que los deportes eran una "forma de eliminar a los débiles, judíos y otros indeseables". [12]
Von Tschammer confió los detalles de la organización de los juegos a Theodor Lewald y Carl Diem , ex presidente y secretario del Deutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen , el precursor de la Oficina de Deportes del Reich. Entre las ideas de Diem para los Juegos de Berlín estaba la introducción del relevo de la antorcha olímpica entre Grecia y la nación anfitriona.
Relé de antorcha
El relevo de la antorcha de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1936 fue el primero de su tipo , [13] tras la reintroducción de la Llama Olímpica en los Juegos de 1928 . Fue pionero en la convención moderna de mover la llama a través de un sistema de relevos desde Grecia hasta la sede olímpica. Leni Riefenstahl filmó el relevo de la película Olympia de 1938 .
La batalla deportiva y caballeresca despierta las mejores características humanas. No separa, sino que une a los combatientes en comprensión y respeto. También ayuda a conectar a los países en un espíritu de paz. Es por eso que la Llama Olímpica nunca debería morir.
- Adolf Hitler , comentando sobre los Juegos Olímpicos de Berlín de 1936. [14]
Radiodifusión
Los juegos fueron los primeros en tener cobertura televisiva en vivo. La oficina de correos alemana, utilizando equipos de Telefunken , transmitió más de 70 horas de cobertura a salas especiales de visualización en Berlín y Potsdam y algunos televisores privados, transmitiendo desde la estación de televisión Paul Nipkow . Utilizaron tres tipos diferentes de cámaras de televisión, por lo que se producirían apagones al cambiar de un tipo a otro. [15]
Villa olimpica
La villa olímpica de 1936 estaba ubicada en Elstal en Wustermark (en 52 ° 32′10.78 ″ N 13 ° 0′33.20 ″ E / 52.5363278 ° N 13.0092222 ° E / 52.5363278; 13.0092222), en el extremo occidental de Berlín. El sitio, que se encuentra a 30 kilómetros (19 millas) del centro de la ciudad, constaba de dormitorios de uno y dos pisos, un gran comedor, el Comedor de las Naciones , una instalación para nadar, un gimnasio, una pista y otras instalaciones de entrenamiento. . Su distribución fue diseñada y supervisada la construcción por el comandante designado de la aldea Hauptmann Wolfgang Fürstner a partir de 1934. [16] Menos de dos meses antes del inicio de los Juegos Olímpicos, Fürstner fue degradado abruptamente a vicecomandante y reemplazado por el Oberstleutnant Werner von Gilsa . comandante del Regimiento de la Guardia de Berlín . El motivo oficial del reemplazo fue que Fürstner no había actuado "con la energía necesaria" para evitar daños en el sitio, ya que 370.000 visitantes lo atravesaron entre el 1 de mayo y el 15 de junio. Sin embargo, esto fue solo una historia de tapadera para explicar la repentina degradación del oficial medio judío. [17] Las Leyes de Nuremberg de 1935 , aprobadas durante el período en que Fürstner supervisaba la Villa Olímpica, lo habían clasificado como judío y, como tal, el oficial de carrera debía ser expulsado de la Wehrmacht . [18] Dos días después de la conclusión de los Juegos Olímpicos de Berlín, el vicecomandante Fürstner había sido retirado del servicio activo de la Wehrmacht , [19] y se suicidó porque se dio cuenta de que no tenía futuro bajo los nazis. [17]
Después de la finalización de los Juegos Olímpicos, la aldea fue reutilizada para la Wehrmacht en el Hospital Olympic Döberitz (en alemán : Olympia-Lazarett Döberitz ) y en la Escuela de Infantería del Ejército (en alemán : Heeres-Infanterieschule ), y se utilizó como tal en el Segundo Mundo. Guerra . En 1945 fue absorbida por la Unión Soviética y se convirtió en un campo militar de las fuerzas de ocupación de la unión. Se hicieron esfuerzos a finales del siglo XX para restaurar partes de la antigua aldea, pero se avanzó poco. [ cita requerida ] Más recientemente, la gran mayoría de la tierra de la villa olímpica ha sido administrada por la Fundación DKB, con más éxito; se están haciendo esfuerzos para convertir el sitio en un museo viviente. El edificio de dormitorios utilizado por Jesse Owens , Weissen House, ha sido completamente restaurado, con el gimnasio y la sala de natación parcialmente restaurados. Estacionalmente, los recorridos se ofrecen a diario para grupos pequeños y estudiantes. [20]
El sitio sigue siendo relativamente desconocido incluso en Alemania, pero algunos torneos se llevan a cabo en el sitio en un esfuerzo por aumentar el conocimiento de los lugares. [21]
Visualización de símbolos nazis y esvástica
Los espectadores dando el saludo nazi durante una de las ceremonias de entrega de medallas mientras la bandera nazi ondea por encima
El fuego olímpico en Berlín
La villa olimpica
Casa del equipo de pista de EE. UU. En la Villa Olímpica, 2015
Habitación de Jesse Owens en la villa olímpica, 2015
LZ 129 Hindenburg sobrevolando el pueblo, con el logotipo de los Juegos Olímpicos pintado en la parte inferior del casco
Sedes
Se utilizaron veintidós lugares para los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1936. Muchos estaban ubicados en el complejo Reich Sportsfeld .
La navegación se llevó a cabo en la Bahía de Kiel , que serviría como sede de navegación para los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1972 celebrados en Múnich . [22] El Estadio Olímpico más tarde sería parte de dos Copas Mundiales de la FIFA y luego albergaría un Campeonato Mundial de Atletismo de la IAAF junto con una renovación a principios de la década de 2000 para darle una nueva vida al estadio. Avus Motor Road (AVUS) se inició en 1907, pero no se completó hasta 1921 debido a la Primera Guerra Mundial . [23] La pista fue reconstruida para los Juegos de 1936. [23] AVUS siguió utilizándose después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, aunque principalmente en las carreras de Fórmula 2 . [23] El Gran Premio de Alemania se celebró por última vez en la pista en 1959. [23] El desmantelamiento de la pista tuvo lugar por primera vez en 1968 para dar paso a un cruce de tráfico para los turismos que corrieron allí hasta 1998. [23]
El campo BSV 92 se construyó por primera vez en 1910 para su uso en fútbol, balonmano, atletismo y tenis. [24] El Reich Sports Field, que consistía en el Estadio Olímpico, el Teatro al Aire Libre Dietrich Ecekrt, el Estadio Olímpico de Natación, Mayfield, los Estadios de Hockey, las Canchas de Tenis y la Haus des Deutschen Sports, fue planeado para los abortados. Juegos Olímpicos de verano de 1916 , pero no se completó hasta 1934. [25] Mayfield fue el último lugar completado antes de los Juegos de 1936 en abril de 1936. [25] Deutschland Hall se inauguró en 1935. [26] Mommenstadion abrió sus puertas en 1930. [27] El baloncesto se llevó a cabo al aire libre a petición de la Federación Internacional de Baloncesto (FIBA). [28] [29] Se utilizaron las canchas de tenis, que se convirtieron en barro durante las fuertes lluvias en la final. [28] La final de piragüismo K-1 1000 m también se vio afectada por fuertes lluvias en Grünau que incluyeron truenos y relámpagos. [30] Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Deutschlandhalle sufrió graves daños por bombardeos aéreos. [26] Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la sala fue reconstruida y la expansión ha continuado a partir de 2010.[actualizar]. [26] El Deutschlandhalle en Berlín, donde se llevaron a cabo los eventos de boxeo, levantamiento de pesas y lucha, se usó como sede, pero fue cada vez más cerrado por reparaciones, la última vez en 2009 cuando estuvo cerca por reparaciones. Fue demolido en diciembre de 2011. El Mommsenstadion se renovó en 1987 y todavía estaba en uso en 2010. [27]
El Estadio Olímpico se utilizó como búnker subterráneo en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ya que la guerra iba en contra del favor de la Alemania nazi . [31] Los británicos reabrieron el estadio en 1946 y partes del estadio fueron reconstruidas a finales de la década de 1950. [32] Como sede de la Copa Mundial de la FIFA 1974 , el techo del estadio estaba parcialmente cubierto en las gradas norte y sur. [33] La ocupación británica del estadio terminó en 1994. [34] La restauración se aprobó en 1998 y se encontró un contratista para hacer el trabajo en 2000. [35] Esta restauración se llevó a cabo de 2000 a 2004. [36] El estadio modernizado reabierto en 2004, [37] con una capacidad de 74.228 personas. Los asientos se han cambiado mucho, especialmente las secciones que estaban reservadas para líderes políticos alemanes e internacionales. El estadio ahora alberga al Hertha BSC (1963-presente), y se espera que siga siendo el hogar del equipo en los próximos años. Para la Copa Mundial de la FIFA 2006 , la sede fue donde tuvo lugar la final entre Italia y Francia. [38] Tres años más tarde, el lugar fue sede de los Campeonatos Mundiales de Atletismo . [39]
Lugar de eventos | Deportes | Capacidad | Árbitro. |
---|---|---|---|
Avus Motor Road | Atletismo (maratón, 50 km a pie), Ciclismo (carretera) | No enlistado | [40] |
Campo BSV | Ciclismo (pista), Balonmano | 1.000 | [41] |
Teatro al aire libre Dietrich Eckart | Gimnasia | 20.000 | [42] |
Döberitz | Ecuestre (competición), pentatlón moderno (equitación) | No enlistado | [43] |
Deutschlandhalle | Boxeo , Halterofilia , Lucha | 8,630 | [44] |
Curso de regata Berlín-Grünau | Piragüismo , Remo | 19.000 | [45] |
Haus des Deutschen Sports | Esgrima , pentatlón moderno (esgrima) | 1200 | [46] [47] |
Campo BSC de Hertha | Fútbol | 35,239 | [48] |
Estadio de hockey | Hockey sobre hierba | 18.000 | [42] |
Estadio de hockey # 2 | Hockey sobre hierba | 1600 | [42] |
Bahía de Kiel | Navegación | No enlistado | [49] |
Mayfield | Equitación (doma), Polo | 75.000 | [42] |
Mommsenstadion | Fútbol | 15,005 | [48] |
estadio Olimpico | Atletismo, Equitación (salto), Fútbol (final), Balonmano (final) | 100.000 | [42] |
Estadio olímpico de natación | Buceo , pentatlón moderno (natación), natación , waterpolo | 20,000 | [50] |
Police Stadium | Handball | Not listed | [51] |
Poststadion | Football | 45,000 | [48] |
Ruhleben | Modern pentathlon (shooting) | Not listed | [52] |
Tennis Courts | Basketball, Fencing (épée) | 832 | [53] |
Tennis Stadium | Basketball | Not listed | [53] |
Wannsee Golf Course | Modern pentathlon (running) | Not listed | [54] |
Wannsee Shooting Range | Shooting | Not listed | [54] |
Juegos
Opening ceremony
The opening ceremony was held at the Berlin Olympic Stadium on 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airship Hindenburg flying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies.[55] After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave the Nazi salute as they passed Hitler. Others gave the Olympic salute (a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States, India,[56] and China did. All nations lowered their flags[dubious ] as they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.[55]) Writer Thomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an "almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality."[57]
After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): "I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era."[55] Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. Writer David Wallechinsky has commented on the event, saying, "This was his event, he wanted to be glorified."[57]
Although the Olympic flame was first introduced in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancient Olympia to the host city. Thus as swimmer Iris Cummings later related, "once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games.[57][58]
But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S. distance runner Louis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera:[57]
They released 25,000 pigeons, the sky was clouded with pigeons, the pigeons circled overhead, and then they shot a cannon, and they scared the poop out of the pigeons, and we had straw hats, flat straw hats, and you could heard the pitter-patter on our straw hats, but we felt sorry for the women, for they got it in their hair, but I mean there were a mass of droppings, and I say it was so funny...
Events
129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
- Aquatics
- Diving (4)
- Swimming (11)
- Water polo (1)
- Athletics (29)
- Basketball (1)
- Boxing (8)
- Canoeing (9)
- Cycling
- Road (2)
- Track (4)
- Equestrian
- Dressage (2)
- Eventing (2)
- Show jumping (2)
- Fencing (7)
- Field hockey (1)
- Football (1)
- Gymnastics (9)
- Handball (1)
- Modern pentathlon (1)
- Polo (1)
- Rowing (7)
- Sailing (4)
- Shooting (3)
- Weightlifting (5)
- Wrestling
- Freestyle (7)
- Greco-Roman (7)
Basketball, canoeing, and handball made their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games in Munich in 1972. Demonstration sports were Art, Baseball, Gliding, Wushu and Kabaddi.
Medal count
The ten nations that won most medals at the 1936 Games.
* Host nation (Germany)
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Germany* | 33 | 26 | 30 | 89 |
2 | United States | 24 | 20 | 12 | 56 |
3 | Hungary | 10 | 1 | 5 | 16 |
4 | Italy | 8 | 9 | 5 | 22 |
5 | Finland | 7 | 6 | 6 | 19 |
France | 7 | 6 | 6 | 19 | |
7 | Sweden | 6 | 5 | 9 | 20 |
8 | Japan | 6 | 4 | 8 | 18 |
9 | Netherlands | 6 | 4 | 7 | 17 |
10 | Great Britain | 4 | 7 | 3 | 14 |
11 | Czechoslovakia | 3 | 5 | 0 | 8 |
Totals (11 nations) | 114 | 93 | 91 | 298 |
Notable achievements
Germany had a successful year in the equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, the German Toni Merkens fouled Arie van Vliet of the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnasts Konrad Frey and Alfred Schwarzmann both won three gold medals.
American Jesse Owens won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events. His German competitor Luz Long offered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump and was posthumously awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship. Mack Robinson, brother of Jackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war hero Louis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. This effort caught the attention of German leader Adolf Hitler who personally commended Zamperini on his speed. In one of the most dramatic 800-meter races in history, American John Woodruff won gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself from being boxed in.[59] Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. British Rower Jack Beresford won his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from the University of Washington won the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensation Marjorie Gestring won the women's 3 meter diving event.[60]
Jack Lovelock of New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8.
In the marathon, the ethnic Koreans Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan.
India won the gold medal in the field hockey event once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. However, Indians were officially considered Indo-Aryans by the Germans so there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie Mastenbroek of the Netherlands won three gold medals and a silver in swimming. Estonia's Kristjan Palusalu won gold medals in both Men's heavyweight Wrestling styles, marking the last time Estonia competed as an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992.
After winning the middleweight class, the Egyptian weightlifter Khadr El Touni continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village.[61] The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on the IWF list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the 1996 Games in Atlanta where Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed him to top the list.
Italy's football team continued their dominance under head coach Vittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutive World Cup victories (1934 and 1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters of Benito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discount Peru's 4–2 win over Austria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of the football tournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia.[62]
A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team was Betty Robinson.[63] She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.[63] In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again.[64] Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country.
Participating nations
A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in 1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games: Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein.
Nations participating for the first time shown in blue.
Number of attending athletes from respective participating countries.
Participating National Olympic Committees | |||
---|---|---|---|
|
Controversias
Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish people and Black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games.[3][4] However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed Black people and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—a German woman, Helene Mayer, who had a Jewish father. At the same time, the party removed signs stating "Jews not wanted" and similar slogans from the city's main tourist attractions. In an attempt to "clean up" the host city, the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to arrest all Romani and keep them in a "special camp", the Berlin-Marzahn concentration camp.[65]
Political aspects
United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage became a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that "politics has no place in sport", despite having initial doubts.[66]
French Olympians gave a Roman salute at the opening ceremony: known as the salut de Joinville per the battalion Bataillon de Joinville, the Olympic salute was part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games.[67] However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism (the Olympic salute was discarded after 1946).[68]
Although Haiti attended only the opening ceremony, an interesting vexillological fact was noticed: its flag and the flag of Liechtenstein were coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other.[69]
Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller were originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe prior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision "not to embarrass the German hosts"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes Owens and Metcalfe does not support this theory. Others just say that Owens and Metcalfe were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement.[70]
In 1937, Hollywood released the film Charlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of the Berlin police force helping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols.[71]
After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games had provided a nine-month period of relative calmness.[72]
Antisemitism
The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish or Roma or had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such as shotputter and discus thrower Lilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion,[73] and Gretel Bergmann who was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump.[74][75]
Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South African Sid Kiel,[76] and Americans Milton Green and Norman Cahners. In the United States, the American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee supported a boycott.[77]
Boycott debate
Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931, but after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and the United States.[77] Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as the Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung.
The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point.[77]
France
Fencer Albert Wolff qualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish.[78] He said: "I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France."[79]
Spain
The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular Front boycotted the Games and organized the People's Olympiad as a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes from 49 countries registered. However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just one day before the event was due to start.[77]
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union had not participated in international sporting events since the 1920 Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with the Russian Civil War still raging, and they did not participate in the 1924 Olympics and forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of the Red Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, the Spartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored 1937 Workers' Summer Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium.[80] The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in 1952, when Soviet leaders realized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda.[81]
Turkey
Halet Çambel and Suat Fetgeri Așani, the first Turkish and Muslim women[82] athletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced to Adolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in a Milliyet newspaper interview in 2000.[83]
United States
Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games.[77]
Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics included Ernest Lee Jahncke, Judge Jeremiah Mahoney, and future IOC President Avery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes.
Avery Brundage, then of the United States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a "Jewish-Communist conspiracy" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games.[66] Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be later accused of being a Soviet dupe for his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules.[84][85] On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, "The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race."[77]
During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either.[86]
Unlike Brundage, Jeremiah Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of the Amateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich.
Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The Philadelphia Tribune and the Chicago Defender both agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. The American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee staged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation.[66] The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany.[87]
Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed.
US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration did not become involved in the debate due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats including William E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, and George Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games.[77]
Galería
Ver también
- 1936 Winter Olympics
- Olympic Games celebrated in Germany
- 1936 Winter Olympics – Garmisch-Partenkirchen
- 1936 Summer Olympics – Berlin
- 1972 Summer Olympics – Munich
- Summer Olympic Games
- Olympic Games
- International Olympic Committee
- List of IOC country codes
- Olympic Games Decoration
- Race (2016 film)
- National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise
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In a move to "clean up" Berlin before the Olympics, the German Ministry of Interior authorized the chief of the Berlin Police to arrest all Gypsies prior to the Games. On 16 July 1936, some 800 Gypsies were arrested and interned under police guard in a special Gypsy camp in the Berlin suburb of Marzahn.
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And she remembers with restrained anger the isolation she felt as a Jewish athlete denied basic rights in Hitler's Germany, and how, despite equaling a national record in the high jump a month before the 1936 Berlin Summer Games, she was excluded from the German Olympic team because she was a Jew.
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enlaces externos
- "Berlin 1936". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee.
- Complete official IOC report. Part I Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Complete official IOC report. Part II
- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Online Exhibition: Nazi Olympics: Berlin 1936
- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Library Bibliography: 1936 Olympics
- Virtual Library: the NAZI Olympics
- Die XI. Olympischen Sommerspiele in Berlin 1936 at Lebendiges Museum Online. In German
- 1936 Olympics and the Struggle for Influence on C-SPAN
- The 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany
Otras lecturas
- James P. Barry, The Berlin Olympics. World Focus Books.
- Duff Hart-Davis, Hitler's Games: The 1936 Olympics.
- Christopher Hilton, Hitler's Olympics: The 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.
- William O. Johnson, Jr., All That Glitters is Not Gold.
- Julius (ed.), Olympische Spiele Berlin / Olympic Games 1936: Erinnerungsalbum. Wagner.
- Arnd Krüger, The Nazi Olympics of 1936, in Kevin Young and Kevin B. Wamsley (eds.), Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games. Oxford: Elsevier 2005; pp. 43–58.
- Arnd Krüger and William Murray (eds.), The Nazi Olympics: Sport, Politics and Appeasement in the 1930s. Champaign, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press 2003.
- Steven Lehrer, Hitler Sites: A City-by-city Guidebook (Austria, Germany, France, United States). McFarland, 2002.
- Michael J. Socolow, Six Minutes in Berlin: Broadcast Spectacle and Rowing Gold at the Nazi Olympics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2016.
- Guy Walters, Berlin Games – How Hitler Stole the Olympic Dream.
Preceded by Los Angeles | Summer Olympic Games Berlin XI Olympiad (1936) | Succeeded by Tokyo/Helsinki cancelled due to World War II |