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"Halloween Storm" vuelve a dirigir aquí. Para el nor'easter de 2011, vea el nor'easter de Halloween 2011 .

1991 "Tormenta perfecta"
Huracán de categoría 1 ( SSHWS / NWS )
12L 1991-11-01 1900Z.png
Imagen de satélite del huracán sin nombre en su máxima intensidad el 1 de noviembre
Formado31 de octubre de 1991 (1991-10-31)
Disipado2 de noviembre de 1991 (1991-11-03)
Vientos mas fuertes1 minuto sostenido : 75 mph (120 km / h)
Presión más baja980 mbar ( hPa ); 28,94 inHg
(972 mbar (28,7 inHg ) mientras es extratropical )
Muertes13 directo
Daño> $ 200 millones (1991 USD )
Zonas afectadasNoreste de Estados Unidos , estados del Atlántico medio , este de Canadá
Parte de la temporada de huracanes del Atlántico de 1991

El 1991 tormenta perfecta , también conocida como el Sin Nombre tormenta (especialmente en los años inmediatamente después de que se llevó a cabo) y la de Halloween temporal / tempestad , era un nor'easter que absorbe el huracán Gracia , y en última instancia evolucionado hasta convertirse en un pequeño no identificado de huracanes en sí al final de su ciclo de vida. El área inicial de baja presión se desarrolló frente a la costa del Atlántico de Canadá el 29 de octubre. Forzada hacia el sur por una cresta hacia el norte, alcanzó su máxima intensidad como un ciclón grande y poderoso . La tormenta azotó la costa este de Estados Unidos con olas altas e inundaciones costerasantes de girar hacia el suroeste y debilitarse. Moviéndose sobre aguas más cálidas, el sistema pasó a ser un ciclón subtropical antes de convertirse en tormenta tropical. Ejecutó un bucle fuera de los estados del Atlántico Medio y giró hacia el noreste. El 1 de noviembre, el sistema se convirtió en un huracán en toda regla, con vientos máximos sostenidos de 75 millas por hora (120 km / h), aunque el Centro Nacional de Huracanes lo dejó sin nombre para evitar confusiones en medio del interés de los medios en la tormenta extratropical precursora. Más tarde recibió el nombre de "la Tormenta Perfecta" (interpretando la expresión común ) después de una conversación entre el pronosticador del Servicio Meteorológico Nacional de Boston, Robert Case, y el autor.Sebastian Junger . El sistema fue el duodécimo y último ciclón tropical, la octava tormenta tropical y el cuarto huracán en la temporada de huracanes del Atlántico de 1991 . El sistema tropical se debilitó, golpeando a Nueva Escocia como una tormenta tropical antes de disiparse.

Los daños causados ​​por la tormenta ascendieron a más de $ 200 millones (1991 USD) [1] y el número de muertos fue de trece. La mayor parte del daño ocurrió mientras la tormenta era extratropical, luego de que olas de hasta 30 pies (10 m) azotaran la costa desde Nueva Escocia hasta Florida y hacia el sureste hasta Puerto Rico. En Massachusetts, donde los daños fueron más graves, más de 100 casas fueron destruidas o gravemente dañadas. Hacia el norte, más de 100 casas se vieron afectadas en Maine, incluida la casa de vacaciones del entonces presidente George HW Bush . Más de 38.000 personas se quedaron sin electricidad y, a lo largo de la costa, las altas olas inundaron carreteras y edificios. En partes de Nueva Inglaterra, el daño fue peor que el causado por el huracán Bob dos meses antes. Aparte deinundaciones a lo largo de los ríos, los efectos de la tormenta se concentraron principalmente a lo largo de la costa. Una boya frente a la costa de Nueva Escocia informó una altura de ola de 100,7 pies (30,7 m), la más alta jamás registrada en las aguas costeras de la provincia. En medio de la tormenta, el barco pesquero Andrea Gail se hundió, matando a su tripulación de seis personas e inspirando el libro , y más tarde la película , La tormenta perfecta . Frente a la costa de Long Island en Nueva York , un helicóptero de la Guardia Nacional Aérea se quedó sin combustible y se estrelló; cuatro miembros de su tripulación fueron rescatados y uno murió. Dos personas murieron después de que su bote se hundiera en Staten Island. Las altas olas arrastraron a dos personas a la muerte, una en Rhode Island y otra en Puerto Rico, y otra persona fue arrojada de un puente a su muerte. El ciclón tropical que se formó tarde en la duración de la tormenta causó poco impacto, limitado a cortes de energía y carreteras resbaladizas; una persona murió en Terranova a causa de un accidente de tráfico relacionado con la tormenta.

Historia meteorológica [ editar ]

Mapa que traza la trayectoria y la intensidad de la tormenta, según la escala de Saffir-Simpson

La Tormenta Perfecta se originó a partir de un frente frío que salió de la costa este de los Estados Unidos. El 28 de octubre, el frente generó una baja extratropical al este de Nueva Escocia. Alrededor de ese tiempo, una cresta se extendía desde los Montes Apalaches hacia el noreste hasta Groenlandia , con un fuerte centro de alta presión sobre el este de Canadá. La cresta de bloqueo obligó a la baja extratropical a seguir hacia el sureste y luego hacia el oeste. El huracán Grace fue arrastrado por su frente frío hacia la circulación de la cinta transportadora cálida del ciclón profundo el 29 de octubre, y la tormenta absorbió completamente a Grace al día siguiente. [2]El ciclón se fortaleció significativamente como resultado del contraste de temperatura entre el aire frío del noroeste y el calor y la humedad de los remanentes de Grace. El sistema de baja presión continuó profundizándose a medida que avanzaba hacia Estados Unidos. [2] Tuvo un movimiento retrógrado inusual para una semana del nordeste , comenzando un conjunto de circunstancias meteorológicas que ocurren solo una vez cada 50 a 100 años. [3] La mayoría de las tormentas del nordeste afectan a Nueva Inglaterra desde el suroeste. [4]

La tormenta tropical tocó tierra al oeste de Halifax, Nueva Escocia, Canadá, el 2 de noviembre

Mientras se encontraba a unas 390 millas (630 km) al sur de Halifax, Nueva Escocia , la tormenta alcanzó su intensidad máxima con vientos de hasta 70 mph (110 km / h). [2] El noreste alcanzó la intensidad máxima aproximadamente a las 12:00 UTC del 30 de octubre con su presión más baja de 972 milibares . La interacción entre la tormenta extratropical y el sistema de alta presión al norte creó un gradiente de presión significativo, que creó grandes olas y fuertes vientos. [2] Entre la costa sur de Nueva Inglaterra y el centro de la tormenta, la diferencia de presión fue de 70 mbar (2,1 inHg). [5] Una boya ubicada a 264 millas (425 km) al sur de Halifax.informó una altura de ola de 100,7 pies (30,7 m) el 30 de octubre. Esta se convirtió en la altura de ola más alta registrada en la plataforma de Escocia , que es la plataforma oceánica frente a la costa de Nueva Escocia. [6] Al este de Cape Cod, una boya de la NOAA ubicada en 41.1 ° N 66.6 ° W informó vientos máximos sostenidos de 56 mph (90 km / h) con ráfagas de 75 mph (121 km / h) y una altura de ola significativa ( altura promedio del tercio más alto de todas las olas) de 39 pies (12 m) alrededor de las 15:00 UTC del 30 de octubre. Otra boya, ubicada a 40.5 ° N 69.5 ° W , informó vientos máximos sostenidos de 61 mph (98 km / h) con ráfagas de 72 mph (116 km / h) y una altura de ola significativa de 31 pies (9,4 m) cerca de las 00:00 UTC del 31 de octubre. [2]41°06′N 66°36′W /  / 41.1; -66.640°30′N 69°30′W /  / 40.5; -69.5

Al alcanzar su máximo de intensidad, el nordeste se volvió hacia el sur y se debilitó gradualmente; el 1 de noviembre, su presión había aumentado a 998 milibares (29,5 inHg). La baja se movió sobre las cálidas aguas de la Corriente del Golfo , donde comenzaron a organizarse bandas de convección alrededor del centro. [7] Alrededor de este tiempo, el sistema alcanzó características subtropicales . El 1 de noviembre, mientras la tormenta se movía en un bucle en sentido antihorario, se identificó un ciclón tropical en el centro de la baja más grande. [8] (Aunque estas condiciones son raras, el huracán Karl durante 1980 se formó dentro de un sistema meteorológico no tropical más grande). [9]

Alrededor de las 14:00 UTC del 1 de noviembre, se estaba formando una característica ocular y el ciclón tropical alcanzó su intensidad máxima con vientos máximos sostenidos de 75 mph (121 km / h); [10] [11] Estas estimaciones, combinadas con los informes de un vuelo de la Unidad de Reserva de la Fuerza Aérea hacia la tormenta y la confirmación de que había un centro de núcleo cálido , indicaron que el sistema se había convertido en un huracán de categoría 1 en la escala de huracanes Saffir-Simpson.. El huracán aceleró hacia el noreste y rápidamente se debilitó y volvió a convertirse en tormenta tropical. Tocó tierra cerca de Halifax, Nueva Escocia, a las 14:00 UTC del 2 de noviembre, con vientos sostenidos de 45 mph (72 km / h). Mientras la tormenta se acercaba a la costa, los radares meteorológicos mostraban bandas de lluvia curvas en el lado occidental del sistema. [8] Después de cruzar la Isla del Príncipe Eduardo , [6] la tormenta se disipó por completo a última hora del 2 de noviembre. [8]

Preparativos y nomenclatura [ editar ]

The Perfect Storm al sur de Nueva Escocia el 30 de octubre.

Durante varios días, los modelos meteorológicos pronostican el desarrollo de una tormenta significativa frente a Nueva Inglaterra. [5] Sin embargo, los modelos fueron inadecuados para pronosticar las condiciones costeras, que en un caso no proporcionaron una advertencia adecuada. Además, una evaluación posterior a la tormenta encontró un número insuficiente de sitios de observación a lo largo de la costa. [12] El 27 de octubre, el Centro de Predicción Oceánica señaló que se formaría una "tormenta peligrosa" dentro de las 36 horas, con su redacción enfatizando la naturaleza inusual de la tormenta. [13] El Servicio Meteorológico Nacional también emitió advertencias sobre la potencial tormenta, proporcionando información a las oficinas del servicio de emergencia, así como a los medios de comunicación. [12]Sin embargo, el público se mostró escéptico y no reconoció la amenaza. [3] [12] Las advertencias oportunas finalmente redujeron el número de muertos; [12] mientras que la Tormenta Perfecta causó 13 muertes, la tormenta de nieve de 1978 mató a 99 personas y el huracán de Nueva Inglaterra de 1938 mató a 564 personas. [5]

Desde Massachusetts hasta Maine, miles de personas evacuaron sus hogares y buscaron refugio. [14] Se declaró el estado de emergencia en nueve condados de Massachusetts, incluido el condado de Suffolk , así como en dos de Maine. [4] [15] En Carolina del Norte, las oficinas del Servicio Meteorológico Nacional en Hatteras y Raleigh emitieron por primera vez un aviso de fuerte oleaje el 27 de octubre, más de ocho horas antes de los primeros informes de olas altas. Ese mismo día, una vigilancia de inundaciones costeras and later a warning was issued, along with a gale warning. The Hatteras NWS office ultimately released 19 coastal flood statements, as well as media reports explaining the threat from the wind and waves, and a state of emergency was declared for Dare County, North Carolina.[14] The warnings and lead times in the region were described as "very good".[16]

In Canada, the threat from the storm prompted the cancellation of ferry service from Bar Harbor, Maine, to Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, as well as from Nova Scotia to Prince Edward Island and between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.[6]

In its tropical cyclone report on the hurricane, the National Hurricane Center only referred to the system as "Unnamed Hurricane".[7] The Natural Disaster Survey Report called the storm "The Halloween Nor'easter of 1991".[5] The "perfect storm" moniker was coined by author and journalist Sebastian Junger after a conversation with NWS Boston Deputy Meteorologist Robert Case in which Case described the convergence of weather conditions as being "perfect" for the formation of such a storm.[3] Other National Weather Service offices were tasked with issuing warnings for this storm in lieu of the typical NHC advisories. The OPC posted warnings on the unnamed hurricane in its High Seas Forecasts.[13] The National Weather Service State Forecast Office in Boston issued Offshore Marine Forecasts for the storm. Local NWS offices along the East coast covered the storm in their Coastal Waters Forecasts.[17]

Beginning in 1950, the National Hurricane Center named officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes. The unnamed hurricane was reported to have met all the criteria for a tropical cyclone, but it was purposefully left unnamed. This was done to avoid confusion among the media and the public, who were focusing on the damage from the initial nor'easter, as the hurricane itself was not expected to pose a major threat to land. It was the eighth nameable storm of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season.[8][18] Had the system been named instead, it would have received the name Henri, which was the next name on the 1991 list after Grace.

Impact[edit]

Oceanfront flooding in Ocean City, New Jersey

The Halloween Storm of 1991 left significant damage along the east coast of the United States, primarily in Massachusetts and southern New Jersey. Across seven states, damage totaled over $200 million (1991 USD).[1] Over a three-day period, the storm lashed the northeastern United States with high waves,[5] causing damage to beachfront properties from North Carolina to Maine.[12] The coastal flooding damaged or destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses and closed roads and airports.[2] In addition, high winds left about 38,000 people without power. The total without power was much less than for Hurricane Bob two months prior, and was fairly low due to little rainfall and the general lack of leaves on trees.[15] Overall there were thirteen confirmed deaths,[5][6] including six on board Andrea Gail, a swordfishing boat. The vessel departed Gloucester, Massachusetts, for the waters off Nova Scotia. After encountering high seas in the middle of the storm, the vessel made its last radio contact late on October 28, about 180 miles (290 km) northeast of Sable Island. Andrea Gail sank while returning to Gloucester, her debris washing ashore over the subsequent weeks. The crew of six was presumed killed after a Coast Guard search was unable to find them. The storm and the boat's sinking became the center-piece for Sebastian Junger's best-selling non-fiction book The Perfect Storm (1997), which was adapted to a major Hollywood film in 2000 as The Perfect Storm starring George Clooney.[2][19]

Tamaroa, a Coast Guard cutter that rescued the crew of a downed Air National Guard helicopter

Despite the storm's severity, it was neither the costliest nor the strongest to affect the northeastern United States. It was weakening as it made its closest approach to land, and the highest tides occurred during the neap tide, which is the time when tide ranges are minimal.[5] The worst of the storm effects stayed offshore. A buoy 650 miles (1,050 km) northeast of Nantucket, which was 60 miles (97 km) west of Andrea Gail's last known position, recorded a 73 ft (22 m) rise in wave height in 10 hours while the extratropical storm was still rapidly intensifying. Two buoys near the Massachusetts coast observed record wave heights, and one observed a record wind report.[5] The United States Coast Guard rescued 25 people at sea at the height of the storm,[20] including 13 people from Long Island Sound.[4] A New York Air National Guard helicopter of the 106th Air Rescue Wing ditched during the storm, 90 miles (140 km) south of Montauk, New York, after it was unable to refuel in flight and ran out of fuel. After the helicopter had attempted a rescue in the midst of the storm, an 84-person crew on the Coast Guard Cutter Tamaroa arrived and rescued four members of the crew of five after six hours in hypothermic waters. The survivors were pilots, Major Christopher David Ruvola and Captain Graham Buschor, flight engineer Staff Sergeant James R. Mioli, and pararescue jumper Technical Sergeant John Spillane. The fifth member, pararescue jumper Technical Sergeant Arden Richard Smith, was never found.[21] They were all featured on the show I Shouldn't Be Alive.[4][15][22]

Following the storm's damage, President George H. W. Bush declared five counties in Maine, seven counties in Massachusetts, and Rockingham County, New Hampshire to be disaster areas.[1] The declaration allowed for the affected residents to apply for low-interest repair loans.[23] New Jersey governor Jim Florio requested a declaration for portions of the coastline, but the request was denied because of the funding needs of other disasters, such as Hurricane Hugo, Hurricane Bob, and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.[24] The American Red Cross opened service centers in four locations in Massachusetts to assist the storm victims by providing food, clothing, medicine, and shelter. The agency deployed five vehicles carrying cleanup units and food, and allocated $1.4 million to provide assistance to 3,000 families.[23]

New England and Atlantic Canada[edit]

Along the Massachusetts coastline, the storm produced 25 ft (7.6 m) wave heights on top of a 4 ft (1.2 m) high tide.[1] In Boston, the highest tide was 14.3 ft (4.4 m),[5] which was only 1 ft (30 cm) lower than the record from the blizzard of 1978.[1] High waves on top of the storm tide reached about 30 ft (9.1 m). The storm produced heavy rainfall in southeastern Massachusetts, peaking at 5.5 inches (140 mm).[5] Coastal floods closed several roads, forcing hundreds of people to evacuate. In addition to the high tides, the storm produced strong winds; Chatham recorded a gust of 78 mph (126 km/h). Damage was worst from Cape Ann in northeastern Massachusetts to Nantucket, with over 100 homes destroyed or severely damaged at Marshfield, North Beach, and Brant Point. There were two injuries in the state, although there were no fatalities. Across Massachusetts, damage totaled in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[1]

Street flooding in Ocean City, New Jersey, from the storm

Elsewhere in New England, waves up to 30 ft (9.1 m) reached as far north as Maine,[1] along with tides that were 3 ft (0.91 m) above normal.[20] Significant flooding was reported in that state, along with high winds that left areas without power. A total of 49 houses were severely damaged, 2 were destroyed,[1] and overall more than 100 were affected.[25] In Kennebunkport, the storm blew out windows and flooded the vacation home of then-President George H. W. Bush.[2] The home sustained significant damage to its first floor.[26] In Portland, tides were 3 ft (0.91 m) above normal, among the ten highest tides since record-keeping began in 1914. Along the coast, damage was worse than that caused by Hurricane Bob two months prior.[25] Across Maine, the storm left $7.9 million (1991 USD) in damage,[1] mostly in York County.[25] More than half of the damage total was from property damage, with the remainder to transportation, seawalls, and public facilities.[25] Although there were no deaths, there were two injuries in the state. In neighboring New Hampshire, coastal flooding affected several towns, destroying two homes. The storm destroyed three boats and damaged a lighthouse.[1] High waves destroyed or swept away over 50,000 lobster traps, representing $2 million in losses (1991 USD).[27] Damage was estimated at $5.6 million (1991 USD).[1] Further west, high winds and coastal flooding lashed the Rhode Island and Connecticut coasts, killing a man in Narragansett, Rhode Island. Winds reached 63 miles per hour (101 km/h) in Newport, Rhode Island, causing power outages.[1]

Off the coast of Atlantic Canada, the storm produced very high waves, flooding a ship near Sable Island and stranding another ship. Along the coast, the waves wrecked three small boats near Tiverton, Nova Scotia, as well as nine boats in Torbay, Newfoundland and Labrador. In Nova Scotia, where the storm made landfall, precipitation reached 1.18 in (30 mm), and 20,000 people in Pictou County were left without power. The storm also caused widespread power outages in Newfoundland from its high winds, which reached 68 mph (110 km/h) near St. Lawrence. There were at least 35 traffic accidents, one fatal, in Grand Falls-Windsor due to slick roads. Prior to the storm's formation, there was a record 4.4 in (116 mm) of snowfall across Newfoundland.[6] The storm caused no significant damage in Canada, other than these traffic accidents.[28]

Mid-Atlantic states[edit]

The cyclone near its closest approach to the United States

In New York and northern New Jersey, the storm system left the most coastal damage since the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane. Numerous boats were damaged or destroyed, killing two people off Staten Island. High winds swept a man off a bridge, killing him.[1] High waves flooded the beach at Coney Island. In Sea Bright, New Jersey, waves washed over a seawall, forcing 200 people to evacuate.[4] Further inland, the Hudson, Passaic, and Hackensack rivers experienced tidal flooding.[2] Outside Massachusetts, damage was heaviest in southern New Jersey, where the cost was estimated at $75 million (1991 USD). Across the area, tide heights reached their highest since the 1944 hurricane, leaving severe coastal and back bay flooding and closing many roads. The storm caused significant beach erosion,[1] with 500,000 cubic yards (382,000 cubic meters) lost in Avalon, as well as $10 million damage to the beach in Cape May. The presence of a dune system mitigated the erosion in some areas.[24] There was damage to the Atlantic City Boardwalk.[4] Fire Island National Seashore was affected, washing away an entire row of waterfront houses in towns like Fair Harbor. Following the storm, there was a moratorium on clamming in the state's bays, due to contaminated waters.[24] Along the Delmarva Peninsula and Virginia Beach, there was widespread water damage to homes, including ten affected houses in Sandbridge Beach, Virginia. Tides in Ocean City, Maryland, reached a record height of 7.8 ft (2.4 m), while elsewhere the tides were similar to the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962.[1]

Farther south[edit]

In North Carolina along the Outer Banks, high waves were initially caused by Hurricane Grace and later its interaction with a high pressure system. This produced gale-force winds and 12 ft (3.7 m) waves in the town of Duck. Later, the extratropical predecessor to the unnamed hurricane produced additional high waves, causing oceanfront flooding from Cape Hatteras through the northern portions of Currituck County. Flooding was first reported on October 28, when the ocean covered a portion of North Carolina Highway 12 north of Rodanthe;[16] the route is the primary thoroughfare in the Outer Banks.[20] Nags Head, Kitty Hawk, and Kill Devil Hills had large portions covered with water for several blocks away from the beach. The resultant flooding damaged 525 houses and 28 businesses and destroyed two motels and a few homes.[16] Damage was estimated at $6.7 million (1991 USD).[1] Farther south, the storm left 14 people injured in Florida. There was minor beach erosion and flooding, which damaged two houses and destroyed the pier at Lake Worth.[1] In some locations, beaches gained additional sand from the wave action.[29] Two people went missing off Daytona Beach after their boat lost power.[4] High waves destroyed a portion of State Road A1A.[30] Damage in the state was estimated at $3 million (1991 USD).[1] High waves also affected Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the Dominican Republic.[2] In Puerto Rico, waves of 15 ft (4.6 m) affected the island's north coast, which prompted 32 people to seek shelter. The waves swept a person off a large rock to his death.[1]

See also[edit]

  • North Atlantic tropical cyclone
  • List of New England hurricanes
  • List of Canada hurricanes
  • 1991 Halloween blizzard
  • Hurricane Juan (2003)
  • Hurricane Sandy (2012)

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s McCown, Sam (August 20, 2008). ""Perfect Storm" Damage Summary" (PDF). National Climatic Data Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 5, 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j National Climatic Data Center (August 20, 2008). "The Perfect Storm". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on January 9, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  3. ^ a b c "NOAA Meteorologist Bob Case, the Man Who Named the Perfect Storm". National Oceanographic & Atmospheric Administration News. June 16, 2000. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Staff writer (October 31, 1991). "East battered by storm born off Canada; 4 lost". The Pittsburgh Press. Associated Press. Archived from the original on April 29, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Drag, Walter (July 14, 2000). "A comparative retrospective on the Perfect Storm". Boston National weather Service Office. Archived from the original on February 14, 2013. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
  6. ^ a b c d e Canadian Hurricane Centre (September 14, 2010). "1991-Unnamed "Perfect Storm"". Environment Canada. Archived from the original on October 5, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
  7. ^ a b Pasch, Richard. "Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report Page 1". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 23, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  8. ^ a b c d National Climatic Data Center. "Unnamed Hurricane". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  9. ^ Pasch, Richard; Avila, Lixion (March 26, 1992). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1980" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 2686. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2010. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
  10. ^ Pasch, Richard. "Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report Page 2". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  11. ^ "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. May 25, 2020.
  12. ^ a b c d e "Executive Summary" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
  13. ^ a b Hoke, Jim (February 16, 2005). "The Ocean Prediction Center and "The Perfect Storm"". Oceanic Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on February 23, 2013. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
  14. ^ a b Rogers, John (October 31, 1991). "Atlantic Storm Wallops East Coast". The Item. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 20, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  15. ^ a b c Staff writer (October 31, 1991). "Wind and water take toll along Connecticut Shore". Record-Journal. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  16. ^ a b c Pelissier, Joseph (1991). "North Carolina Coastal Flood" (GIF). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on December 30, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
  17. ^ Pasch, Richard (1991). "Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report Page 4". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
  18. ^ "Canadian Tropical Cyclone Season Summary for 1991". Canadian Hurricane Centre. July 10, 2009. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  19. ^ Park, Paula (November 11, 1991). "Search Ended for Lost Fishermen". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  20. ^ a b c Staff writer (September 11, 2011). "Storms turn elements loose: waves, flood, snow, wind". Star-News. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  21. ^ "Surviving The Perfect Storm - Air National Guard" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
  22. ^ Thiesen, William H. (November 4, 2010). "History – CGC Tamaroa and "The Perfect Storm"". Coastguard Compass. Archived from the original on March 18, 2012. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  23. ^ a b Staff writer (November 2, 1991). "Red Cross Opens Assistance Shelters". The Sunday Telegraph. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 1, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  24. ^ a b c Buchholz, Margaret; Larry Savadove (1993). Great Storms of the Jersey Shore. Down the Shore Publishing. pp. 148–150. ISBN 0-945582-51-X.
  25. ^ a b c d Hidlay, William C. (November 1, 1991). "Maine hit hard by storm". Bangor Daily News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on September 9, 2015. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  26. ^ Staff writer (October 31, 1991). "Bush to assess damage to Kennebunkport home battered by sea". The Pittsburgh Press. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 12, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  27. ^ Staff writer (November 2, 1991). "N.H. lobster industry says it was hit hard". The Telegraph. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 20, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  28. ^ Pasch, Richard. "Unnamed Hurricane Preliminary Report Page 3". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
  29. ^ Herzog, Carl (November 2, 1991). "Erosion is a sampling of hurricane's potential". Boca Raton News. Archived from the original on April 25, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
  30. ^ Staff writer (November 1, 1991). "Wintry blast sends snow into Texas". The News-Journal. Archived from the original on May 19, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.