La prostitución infantil es la prostitución que involucra a un niño y es una forma de explotación sexual comercial de niños . El término normalmente se refiere a la prostitución de un menor o de una persona menor de la edad legal de consentimiento . En la mayoría de las jurisdicciones, la prostitución infantil es ilegal como parte de la prohibición general de la prostitución.
Áreas practicadas | Mundial |
---|---|
Número afectado | Hasta 10 millones [1] |
Estatus legal | Ilegal según el derecho internacional y las leyes nacionales |
La prostitución infantil generalmente se manifiesta en forma de tráfico sexual , en el que un niño es secuestrado o engañado para que se involucre en el comercio sexual, o sexo de supervivencia , en el que el niño se involucra en actividades sexuales para procurarse lo esencial como alimento y refugio. La prostitución infantil se asocia comúnmente con la pornografía infantil y, a menudo, se superponen. Algunas personas viajan a países extranjeros para participar en el turismo sexual con niños . Las investigaciones sugieren que puede haber hasta 10 millones de niños involucrados en la prostitución en todo el mundo. [1] La práctica está más extendida en América del Sur y Asia , pero la prostitución de niños existe en todo el mundo, [2] tanto en países desarrollados como en países subdesarrollados. [3] La mayoría de los niños involucrados en la prostitución son niñas, a pesar del aumento en el número de niños pequeños en el comercio.
Todos los países miembros de las Naciones Unidas se han comprometido a prohibir la prostitución infantil, ya sea en virtud de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño o del Protocolo Facultativo sobre la Venta de Niños, la Prostitución Infantil y la Pornografía Infantil . Se han creado varias campañas y organizaciones para intentar frenar la práctica.
Definiciones
Se han propuesto varias definiciones para la prostitución infantil. Las Naciones Unidas lo definen como "el acto de contratar u ofrecer los servicios de un niño para realizar actos sexuales por dinero u otra consideración con esa persona o cualquier otra persona". [4] La Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño 's Protocolo Facultativo relativo a la venta de niños, la prostitución infantil y la pornografía infantil define la práctica como "el acto de posesión, adquisición o la oferta de los servicios de un niño o inducir a un niño a realizar actos sexuales por cualquier forma de compensación o recompensa ". Ambos enfatizan que el niño es víctima de explotación, incluso si se da su consentimiento aparente. [5] El Convenio sobre las peores formas de trabajo infantil, 1999 (Convenio núm. 182) de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) lo describe como el "uso, reclutamiento u oferta de un niño para la prostitución". [6]
Según la Oficina Internacional del Trabajo en Ginebra, la prostitución infantil y la pornografía infantil son dos formas principales de explotación sexual infantil, que a menudo se superponen. [2] El primero se utiliza a veces para describir el concepto más amplio de explotación sexual comercial de niños (ESCNNA). Excluye otras manifestaciones identificables de la ESCNNA, como la explotación sexual comercial a través del matrimonio infantil , el trabajo infantil doméstico y la trata de niños con fines sexuales. [7]
La terminología aplicada a la práctica es objeto de controversia. El Departamento de Justicia de los Estados Unidos declara: "El término en sí implica la idea de elección, cuando en realidad ese no es el caso". [8] Los grupos que se oponen a la práctica creen que los términos prostitución infantil y prostitución infantil tienen connotaciones problemáticas porque, en general, no se espera que los niños puedan tomar decisiones informadas sobre la prostitución. Como alternativa, utilizan los términos niños prostituidos y explotación sexual comercial de niños . [9] Otros grupos utilizan el término trabajador sexual infantil para implicar que los niños no siempre son "víctimas pasivas". [9]
Causas y tipos
Los niños a menudo se ven obligados por estructuras sociales y agentes individuales a situaciones en las que los adultos se aprovechan de su vulnerabilidad y los explotan y abusan sexualmente vendiéndolos o vendiendo sus cuerpos. La estructura y la agencia comúnmente se combinan para obligar a un niño a tener relaciones sexuales comerciales: por ejemplo, la prostitución de un niño con frecuencia es consecuencia de un abuso sexual previo, a menudo en el hogar del niño. [10] Muchos creen que la mayoría de los niños prostituidos son del sudeste asiático y la mayoría de sus clientes son turistas sexuales occidentales , pero la socióloga Louise Brown sostiene que, si bien los occidentales contribuyen al crecimiento de la industria, la mayoría de los clientes infantiles son asiáticos. lugareños. [11]
La prostitución de niños generalmente ocurre en entornos como burdeles , bares y clubes, hogares o calles y áreas particulares (generalmente en lugares socialmente degradados). Según un estudio, solo alrededor del 10% de los niños prostituidos tienen un proxeneta y más del 45% ingresó al negocio a través de amigos. Maureen Jaffe y Sonia Rosen de la Oficina Internacional de Estudios sobre el Trabajo Infantil escriben que los casos varían ampliamente: [3]
Algunas víctimas son fugitivos de sus hogares o instituciones estatales, otras son vendidas por sus padres o forzadas o engañadas para prostituirse, y otras son niños de la calle. Algunos son aficionados y otros profesionales. Aunque uno tiende a pensar ante todo en las niñas en el comercio, hay un aumento en el número de niños involucrados en la prostitución. Los casos más inquietantes son los niños que son obligados a comerciar y luego encarcelados. Estos niños corren el posible riesgo adicional de sufrir tortura y muerte posterior.
El Fiscal General Adjunto James Cole, del Departamento de Justicia de los Estados Unidos, declaró: [12]
La mayoría de los niños víctimas de la prostitución son niños vulnerables que son explotados. Muchos depredadores tienen como objetivo a fugitivos, víctimas de agresión sexual y niños que han sido descuidados severamente por sus padres biológicos. No solo se han enfrentado a una violencia traumática que afecta su ser físico, sino que se han entrelazado con la vida violenta de la prostitución.
Trata de personas
La Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito (UNODC) define la trata de personas como "el reclutamiento, el transporte, el traslado, el albergue o la recepción de una persona por medios tales como la amenaza o el uso de la fuerza u otras formas de coacción, secuestro, fraude o engaño con fines de explotación ". [13] La UNODC calcula que el número de víctimas en todo el mundo ronda los 2,5 millones. [13] UNICEF informa que desde 1982 alrededor de 30 millones de niños han sido víctimas de la trata. [14] La trata de personas con fines de esclavitud sexual representa el 79% de los casos, y la mayoría de las víctimas son mujeres, de las cuales se estima que el 20% son niños. Las mujeres también suelen ser perpetradoras. [15]
En 2007, la ONU fundó la Iniciativa Global de las Naciones Unidas para la Lucha contra la Trata de Personas (UN.GIFT). En cooperación con UNICEF, la Organización para la Seguridad y la Cooperación en Europa (OSCE) y el Fondo de Desarrollo de las Naciones Unidas para la Mujer (UNIFEM), las Naciones Unidas aceptaron una subvención de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos para establecer UN.GIFT. UN.GIFT tiene como objetivo luchar contra la trata de personas a través del apoyo mutuo de sus partes interesadas, que incluye gobiernos, empresas y otros grandes actores mundiales. Su primera iniciativa es hacer correr la voz de que la trata de personas es inmoral y se ha convertido en un problema creciente de que se necesitará una cooperación global para detener su continuación. UN.GIFT se esfuerza por reducir la demanda de esta explotación y crear un entorno seguro para las víctimas potenciales. [dieciséis]
En algunos casos, las víctimas de la trata sexual son secuestradas por extraños, ya sea por la fuerza o engañadas para que se involucren mediante mentiras y falsas promesas. [17] En otros casos, las familias de los niños les permiten u obligan a ingresar a la industria como resultado de la pobreza extrema. [18] En los casos en que son sacados del país, los traficantes se aprovechan del hecho de que los niños a menudo no pueden entender el idioma de su nueva ubicación y desconocen sus derechos legales. [17]
Las investigaciones indican que los traficantes tienen preferencia por las mujeres de 12 años o menos porque los niños pequeños se moldean más fácilmente en el papel que se les asigna y porque se supone que son vírgenes, lo cual es valioso para los consumidores. A continuación, se hace que las niñas parezcan mayores y se falsifican documentos como protección contra la aplicación de la ley. [17] Las víctimas tienden a compartir antecedentes similares, a menudo provenientes de comunidades con altos índices de criminalidad y falta de acceso a la educación. Sin embargo, la victimología no se limita a esto, y hombres y mujeres de diversos orígenes se han involucrado en el tráfico sexual. [17]
La psicoterapeuta Mary De Chesnay identifica cinco etapas en el proceso del tráfico sexual: vulnerabilidad, reclutamiento, transporte, explotación y liberación. [19] La etapa final, escribe De Chesnay, rara vez se completa. Las tasas de asesinatos y muertes accidentales son altas, al igual que los suicidios, y muy pocas víctimas de la trata son rescatadas o escapan. [20]
Los niños víctimas de la trata de cibersexo son transportados y luego obligados a realizar actos sexuales o violados frente a una cámara web en transmisiones en vivo comercializadas . [21] [22] Por lo general, se ven obligados a observar a los consumidores que pagan en pantallas compartidas y seguir sus órdenes. [23] [24] Los consumidores utilizan criptomonedas y otras tecnologías digitales para ocultar sus identidades. [25]
Sexo de supervivencia
La otra forma principal de prostitución infantil es el "sexo de supervivencia". El Departamento de Justicia de EE. UU. Declara:
El "sexo de supervivencia" ocurre cuando un niño se involucra en actos sexuales para obtener dinero, comida, refugio, ropa u otros artículos necesarios para sobrevivir. En estas situaciones, la transacción generalmente solo involucra al niño y al cliente; los niños que tienen relaciones sexuales de supervivencia generalmente no son controlados ni dirigidos por proxenetas, madams u otros traficantes. Cualquier individuo que pague por tener relaciones sexuales con un niño, ya sea que el niño esté controlado por un proxeneta o tenga relaciones sexuales para sobrevivir, puede ser procesado. [26]
Un estudio encargado por UNICEF y Save the Children y dirigido por la socióloga Annjanette Rosga llevó a cabo una investigación sobre la prostitución infantil en la Bosnia y Herzegovina de la posguerra . Rosga informó que la pobreza era un factor determinante importante. Ella afirmó: "El comercio sexual mundial es tanto un producto de la gente común que lucha por sobrevivir en una situación económica desesperada como un problema del crimen organizado. Atacar el crimen y no la pobreza es tratar el síntoma pero no la enfermedad ... No es raro que las niñas sepan en lo que están entrando y, hasta cierto punto, lo hagan voluntariamente. Tal vez piensen que serán diferentes y podrán escapar, o tal vez prefieran correr el riesgo que sentirse impotentes quedándose en casa en pobreza." [18] Jaffe y Rosen no están de acuerdo y sostienen que la pobreza por sí sola no suele obligar a los niños a prostituirse, ya que no existe a gran escala en varias sociedades empobrecidas. Más bien, una serie de influencias externas, como situaciones familiares deficientes y violencia doméstica, influyen en el problema. [27]
La prostitución de niños en forma de sexo de supervivencia ocurre tanto en los países desarrollados como en los subdesarrollados. En Asia, las niñas menores de edad a veces trabajan en burdeles para mantener a sus familias. En Sri Lanka, los padres harán que sus hijos se prostituyan más a menudo que a sus hijas, ya que la sociedad concede más importancia a la pureza sexual entre las mujeres que entre los hombres. [28] Jaffe y Rosen escriben que la prostitución de niños en América del Norte a menudo resulta de "consideraciones económicas, violencia doméstica y abuso, desintegración familiar y adicción a las drogas". [29] En Canadá, un joven fue condenado por cargos relacionados con la prostitución en línea de una niña de 15 años en 2012; la había animado a prostituirse como una forma de ganar dinero, se había quedado con todas sus ganancias y la había amenazado con violencia si no continuaba. [30]
Consecuencias
Tratamiento de niños prostituidos
Los niños prostituidos a menudo se ven obligados a trabajar en entornos peligrosos sin una higiene adecuada. [31] Se enfrentan a amenazas de violencia ya veces son violadas y golpeadas. Los investigadores Robin E. Clark, Judith Freeman Clark y Christine A. Adamec escriben que "sufren mucho abuso, infelicidad y mala salud" en general. [32] Por ejemplo, Derrick Jensen informa que las víctimas de trata sexual de mujeres de Nepal son "'interrumpidas' a través de un proceso de violaciones y golpizas, y luego alquiladas hasta treinta y cinco veces por noche por uno o dos dólares por hombre". . [33] Otro ejemplo involucró principalmente a niños nepaleses que fueron atraídos a la India y vendidos a burdeles en Mumbai, Hyderabad, Nueva Delhi, Lucknow y Gorakhpur. Una víctima salió de Nepal a la edad de 14 años y fue vendida como esclava, encerrada, golpeada, muerta de hambre y circuncidada por la fuerza. Informó que estuvo recluido en un burdel con otros 40 o 50 niños, muchos de los cuales fueron castrados, antes de escapar y regresar a Nepal. [34]
El criminólogo Ronald Flowers escribe que la prostitución infantil y la pornografía infantil están estrechamente vinculadas; hasta uno de cada tres niños prostituidos ha estado involucrado en pornografía, a menudo a través de películas o literatura. Los adolescentes fugitivos, afirma, se utilizan con frecuencia para "películas pornográficas" y fotografías. [35] Además de la pornografía, Flowers escribe que, "Los niños atrapados en este mundo dual de explotación sexual a menudo son víctimas de agresiones sexuales, perversiones sexuales, enfermedades de transmisión sexual y recuerdos ineludibles de abuso sexual y cuerpos que han sido comprometidos, brutalizado, y dejado para siempre empañado ". [36]
Physical and psychological effects
According to Humanium, an NGO that opposes the prostitution of children, the practice causes injuries such as "vaginal tearing, physical after-effects of torture, pain, infection, or unwanted pregnancy".[37] As clients seldom take precautions against the spread of HIV,[37] prostituted children face a high risk of contracting the disease, and the majority of them in certain locations contract it. Other sexually transmitted diseases pose a threat as well, such as syphilis and herpes. High levels of tuberculosis have also been found among prostituted children.[32] These illnesses are often fatal.[1]
Former prostituted children often deal with psychological trauma, including depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[32] Other psychological effects include anger, insomnia, sexual and personality confusion, inability to trust adults, and loss of confidence. Drug-related health problems included dental problems, hepatitis B and C, and serious liver and kidney problems. Other medical complications included reproductive problems and injuries from sexual assaults; physical and neurological problems from violent physical attacks; and other general health issues including respiratory problems and joint pains.[37][38]
Prohibición
Prostitution of children is illegal under international law, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 34, states, "the State shall protect children from sexual exploitation and abuse, including prostitution and involvement in pornography."[40] The convention was first held in 1989 and has been ratified by 193 countries. In 1990, the United Nations appointed a Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography.[41] Over at least the last decade, the international community has increasingly acknowledged the importance of addressing problems posed by the trafficking of children, child prostitution, and child pornography; activities that undermine the rights of children and are frequently linked to organized crime.[42] While the legality of adult prostitution varies between different parts of the world, the prostitution of minors is illegal in most countries, and all countries have some form of restrictions against it.[3]
There is a dispute surrounding what constitutes a prostituted child. International law defines a child as any individual below the age of 18,[43] but a number of countries legally recognize lower ages of consent and adulthood, usually ranging from 13 to 17 years of age.[3] Thus, law enforcement officers are sometimes hesitant to investigate cases because of the differences in age of consent.[3] The laws of some countries do, however, distinguish between prostituted teenagers and prostituted children. For example, the Japanese government defines the category as referring to minors between 13 and 18.[44] However, it is currently defined as being under the age of 18.[45]
Consequences for offenders vary from country to country. In the People's Republic of China, all forms of prostitution are illegal, but having sexual contact with anyone under the age of 14, regardless of consent, will result in a more serious punishment than raping an adult.[46] In the United States, the legal penalty for participating in the prostitution of children includes five to twenty years in prison.[47] The FBI established "Innocence Lost", a new department working to free children from prostitution, in response to the strong public reaction across the country to the news of Operation Stormy Nights, in which 23 minors were released from forced prostitution.[48]
Predominio
Statistical summary
Prostitution of children exists in every country, though the problem is most severe in South America and Asia.[27] The number of prostituted children is rising in other parts of the world, including North America, Africa, and Europe.[27] Exact statistics are difficult to obtain,[49] but it is estimated that there are around 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide.[1]
- Note: this is a list of examples; it does not cover every country where child prostitution exists.
Country/location | Number of children involved in prostitution | Notes | Ref(s) |
---|---|---|---|
Worldwide | Up to 10,000,000 | [1] | |
Australia | 4,000 | [50] | |
Bangladesh | 10,000 – 29,000 | [51] | |
Brazil | 250,000 – 500,000 | Brazil is considered to have the worst levels of child sex trafficking after Thailand. | [52] |
Cambodia | 30,000 | [53][54] | |
Chile | 3,700 | The number of children involved in prostitution is believed to be on the decline. | [55] |
Colombia | 35,000 | Between 5,000 and 10,000 are on the streets of Bogotá. | [56] |
Dominican Republic | 30,000 | [57] | |
Ecuador | 5,200 | [58] | |
Estonia | 1,200 | [59] | |
Greece | 2,900 | Over 200 are believed to be below the age of 12. | [60] |
Hungary | 500 | [61] | |
India | 1,200,000 | In India, children account for 40% of people engaged in prostitution. | [62] |
Indonesia | 40,000 – 70,000 | UNICEF states that 30% of the females in prostitution are below 18. | [63][64] |
Malaysia | 43,000 – 142,000 | [65] | |
Mexico | 16,000 – 20,000 | Out of Mexico City's 13,000 street children, 95% have already had at least one sexual encounter with an adult (many of them through prostitution). | [66] |
Nepal | 200,000 | [33] | |
New Zealand | 210 | [67] | |
Peru | 500,000 | [68] | |
Philippines | 60,000 – 100,000 | [69] | |
Sri Lanka | 40,000 | UNICEF states that 30% of the females in prostitution are below 18. | [70] |
Taiwan | 100,000 | [68] | |
Thailand | 200,000 – 800,000 | [65] | |
Ukraine | at least 15,000 girls in age 14 – 19 | [71] | |
United States | 100,000 | [72][73] | |
Zambia | 70,000 | [74] |
Africa
Sex trafficking occurs heavily in Southern Africa. Females are typically exploited for sexual purposes while males are used for labor of all kinds. Women and young girls being exploited and used in sex trafficking are often transferred and sold in South Africa. On rare occasions females can be trafficked into Europe.
Tanzania
Some 84% of girls in prostitution interviewed in Tanzania reported having been battered, raped or tortured by police officers and sungu (local community guards). At least 60% had no permanent place to live. Some of these girls started out as child domestic workers.
Americas
Argentina
By 1999, it was reported that in Argentina prostitution of children was increasing at an alarming rate and that the average age was decreasing. The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW) fact book says Argentina is one of the favored destinations of pedophile sex tourists from Europe and the United States.[75] Argentina's Criminal Code criminalizes the prostitution of minors of eighteen years of age or younger,[76] but it only sanctions those who "promote or facilitate" prostitution, not the client who exploits the minor.[77]
Brazil
In Brazil, UNICEF estimates that there are 250,000 children working in the child prostitution industry, according to BBC (2010).[78]
El Salvador
In El Salvador, one-third of the sexually exploited children between 14 and 17 years of age are boys. The median age for entering into prostitution among all children interviewed was 13 years. They worked on average five days per week, although nearly 10% reported that they worked seven days a week.
Mexico
In 2005, Lydia Cacho, a Mexican journalist, exposed several Mexican politicians and businessmen in the book The Demons of Eden for having a large role in a child sex slavery and prostitution ring.[79]
United States
In 2001, the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work released a study on CSEC conducted in 17 cities across the United States. While they did not interview any of the adolescent subjects of the inquiry, they estimated through secondary response that as many as 300,000 American youth may be at risk of commercial sexual exploitation at any time.[80] However, the actual number of children involved in prostitution is likely to be much smaller: over 10 years only 827 cases a year had been reported to police departments.[81] The Center for Court Innovation in New York City had used Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS), Social Network Analysis, capture/recapture, and Markov based probability estimates in 2008 to generate a prevalence estimate for New York City that suggested far fewer commercially sexually exploited children than the 300,000 and far more than the 827 suggested by these two most widely read sources.[82]
Especially vulnerable are homeless and runaways. The National Runaway Switchboard said in 2009 that one-third of runaway youths in America will be lured into prostitution within 48 hours on the streets.[83] This view of adolescent prostitution in the United States as primarily driven by pimp-exploiters and other "sex traffickers" was challenged by SNRG-NYC in their 2008 New York City study which interviewed over 300 under-age prostitutes and found that only 10% reported having pimps. A 2012 study done in Atlantic City, New Jersey, by the same group incorporated an extended qualitative ethnographic component that looked specifically at the relationship between pimps and adolescents engaged with street based sex markets.[84][85] This study found the percentage of adolescents who had pimps to be only 14% and that those relationships were typically far more complex, mutual, and companionate than has been reported by social service providers, not-for-profits, and much of the news media.[86]
The New York State Office of Children and Family Services estimated in 2007 that New York City is home to more than 2,000 sexually exploited children under 18. At least 85 percent of these youths statewide have had some contact with the child welfare system, mostly through abuse or neglect proceedings. In New York City, 75 percent have been in foster care.[87] Mishi Faruqee, who is in charge of juvenile justice issues for the Correctional Association of New York, questioned the reliability of the estimate. “We believe that number is really an undercount."[88] This is confirmed by SNRG-NYC's New York City population estimate of 2008 which was 3,946. The SNRG-NYC New York City study found that out of 249 underage prostitutes (48% female and 45% male) who constituted the final statistical sample, the average age of entry into the market was 15.29.
In 2013, the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) documented over 10,000 reports of child sex trafficking. They say that this only represents a "tiny percentage" of the actual child sex trafficking.[89] They say that websites such as Backpage.com encourage dissemination of child sex trafficking content on its website. On average, Backpage.com sends NCMEC 300 ads a month that it believes involves children, which the NCMEC calls inadequate.[90]
Asia Pacific
Past surveys indicate that 30 to 35 percent of all prostitutes in the Mekong sub-region of Southeast Asia are between 12 and 17 years of age.[91]
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, child prostitutes are known to take the drug Oradexon, an over-the-counter steroid, usually used by farmers to fatten cattle, to make child prostitutes look larger and older. Charities say that 90% of prostitutes in the country's legalized brothels use the drug. According to social activists, the steroid can cause diabetes, high blood pressure and is highly addictive.[92][93][94]
India
In 1998, it was estimated that 60% of prostitutes were underage.[95] Reuters estimates that thousands of Indian children are trafficked into prostitution each year.[96] In 2009, the Central Bureau of Investigation estimated that more than 1 million Indian children were engaged in prostitution.[97]
Nepal
An estimated 12,000 - 15,000 Nepalese children are trafficked for sexual commercial exploitation each year, mainly to brothels in India and other countries.[98]
Philippines
UNICEF estimates that there are 60,000 child prostitutes in the Philippines and many of the 200 brothels in the notorious Angeles City offer children for sex.[99]
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, children often become the prey of sexual exploiters through friends and relatives. The prevalence of boys in prostitution here is strongly related to foreign tourism.[100]
Thailand
Thailand’s Health System Research Institute reports that children in prostitution make up 40% of prostitutes in Thailand.[101]
Vietnam
In Vietnam, family poverty, low family education and family dysfunction were found to be primary causes for CSEC. Sixteen per cent of the children interviewed were illiterate, 38% had only primary-level schooling. Sixty-six per cent said that tuition and school fees were beyond the means of their families.[100]
Europe
Child prostitution is a problem in the Czech Republic, where it is legal for children older than 14. Many child prostitutes belong to the Roma minority.[102][103]
Demografía
The people who buy sex from minors are most often men who try to "rationalize their sexual involvement with children."[104]
Though most child prostitutes are girls, advocates point out that boys are also exploited, and that this is often overlooked and more strongly stigmatized. An ECPAT-USA study found that though gay, bisexual, and questioning boys were represented at higher percentage than the general population, the majority of boys in prostitution were heterosexual in sexual orientation despite typically performing homosexual acts.[105]
Puntos de vista
Public perception
Anthropologist Heather Montgomery writes that society has a largely negative perception of prostitution of children, in part because the children are often viewed as having been abandoned or sold by their parents and families.[106] The International Labour Organization includes the prostitution of children in its list of the "worst forms of child labour".[107] At the 1996 World Congress Against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children it was called "a crime against humanity", "torture", and "slavery".[108] Virginia Kendall, a district judge and expert on child exploitation and human trafficking, and T. Markus Funk, an attorney and law professor, write that the subject is an emotional one and that there are various perspectives about its prevention:
The topic of proscribing and punishing child exploitation triggers intense emotions. While there is general consensus that child sexual exploitation, whether through the Internet, forced prostitution, the international or domestic trafficking of children for sex, or molestation, is on the rise, observers in the United States and elsewhere find little common ground on the questions of how serious such conduct is, or what, if anything, must be done to address it.[109]
Investigative journalist Julian Sher states that widespread stereotypes about the prostitution of children continued into the 1990s, when the first organized opposition arose and police officers began working to dispel common misconceptions.[110] Criminologist Roger Matthews writes that concerns over pedophilia and child sexual abuse, as well as shifting perceptions of youth, led the public to see a sharp difference between prostitution of children and adult prostitution. While the latter is generally frowned upon, the former is seen as intolerable.[111] Additionally, he states, children are increasingly viewed as "innocent" and "pure" and their prostitution as paramount to slavery.[111] Through the shift in attitude, the public began to see minors involved in the sex trade as victims rather than as perpetrators of a crime, needing rehabilitation rather than punishment.[112]
Opposition
Though campaigns against prostitution of children originated in the 1800s,[113] the first mass protests against the practice occurred in the 1990s in the United States, led largely by ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism). The group, which historian Junius P. Rodriguez describes as "the most significant of the campaigning groups against child prostitution", originally focused on the issue of children being exploited in Southeast Asia by Western tourists.[114] Women's rights groups and anti-tourism groups joined to protest the practice of sex tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. The opposition to sex tourism was spurred on by an image of a Thai youth in prostitution, published in Time and by the publication of a dictionary in the United Kingdom describing Bangkok as "a place where there are a lot of prostitutes".[115] Cultural anthropologists Susan Dewey and Patty Kelly write that though they were unable to inhibit sex tourism and rates of prostitution of children continued to rise, the groups "galvanized public opinion nationally and internationally" and succeeded in getting the media to cover the topic extensively for the first time.[115] ECPAT later expanded its focus to protest child prostitution globally.[114]
The late 1990s and early 2000s also saw the creation of a number of shelters and rehabilitation programs for prostituted children, and the police began to actively investigate the issue.[110] The National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) was later established by the Polaris Project[116] as a national, toll-free hotline, available to answer calls from anywhere in the United States, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, every day of the year. The hotline was designed to allow callers to report tips and receive information on human trafficking.[117]
The opposition to prostitution of children and sexual slavery spread to Europe and elsewhere, and organizations pushed for prostituted children to be recognized as victims rather than offenders.[111] The issue remained prominent in the following years, and various campaigns and organizations continued into the 2000s and 2010s.[111]
Historia
Prostitution of children dates to antiquity. Prepubescent boys were commonly prostituted in brothels in ancient Greece and Rome.[118] According to Ronald Flowers, the "most beautiful and highest born Egyptian maidens were forced into prostitution... and they continued as prostitutes until their first menstruation." Chinese and Indian children were commonly sold by their parents into prostitution.[119] Parents in India sometimes dedicated their female children to the Hindu temples, where they became "devadasis". Traditionally a high status in society, the devadasis were originally tasked with maintaining and cleaning the temples of the Hindu deity to which they were assigned (usually the goddess Renuka) and learning skills such as music and dancing. However, as the system evolved, their role became that of a temple prostitute, and the girls, who were "dedicated" before puberty, were required to prostitute themselves to upper-class men.[120][121] The practice has since been outlawed but still exists.[121]
In Europe, child prostitution flourished until the late 1800s;[119] minors accounted for 50% of individuals involved in prostitution in Paris.[122] A scandal in 19th-century England caused the government there to raise the age of consent.[123] In July 1885, William Thomas Stead, editor of The Pall Mall Gazette, published "The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon", four articles describing an extensive underground sex trafficking ring that reportedly sold children to adults. Stead's reports focused on a 13-year-old girl, Eliza Armstrong, who was sold for £5 (the equivalent of around £500 in 2012), then taken to a midwife to have her virginity verified. The age of consent was raised from 13 to 16 within a week of publication.[124] During this period, the term white slavery came to be used throughout Europe and the United States to describe prostituted children.[119][125]
Ver también
- Child grooming
- International instruments relevant to prostitution of children
- OneChild
- Prostitution in Sweden ("Swedish model" that criminalizes buying sex but not selling it)
- Honor killing § Victims of rape
Referencias
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Bibliografía
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- Kendall, Virginia M.; Funk, Markus T. (2012). Child Exploitation and Trafficking: Examining the Global Challenges and U.S Responses. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442209800.
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- Madsen, Richard; Strong, Tracy B. (2009). The Many and the One: Religious and Secular Perspectives on Ethical Pluralism in the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400825592.
- Matthews, Roger (2008). Prostitution, Politics & Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0203930878.
- Narayan, O.P. (2005). Harnessing Child Development: Children and the culture of human. Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 978-8182053007.
- O'Connor, Vivienne M.; Rausch, Colette; Klemenčič, Goran; Albrecht, Hans-Jörg (2007). Model Codes for Post-conflict Criminal Justice: Model criminal code. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 978-1601270122.
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- Regehr, Cheryl; Roberts, Albert R.; Wolbert Burgess, Ann (2012). Victimology: Theories and Applications. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-1449665333.
- Rodriguez, Junius P. (2011). Slavery in the Modern World: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppression. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851097883.
- Sher, Julian (2011). Somebody's Daughter: The Hidden Story of America's Prostituted Children and the Battle to Save Them. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1569768334.
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enlaces externos
- "NOW on PBS: Fighting Child Prostitution" (YouTube)
- What’s Wrong with Calling a Child a Prostitute?