Educación en Japón

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Overview of the education system in Japan

Educación en Japón

Ministerio de Educación, Cultura, Deportes, Ciencia y Tecnología
Ministro de Educación, Cultura, Deportes, Ciencia y Tecnología	Kōichi Hagiuda
Presupuesto nacional de educación
Presupuesto	4,1% del PIB [1]
Detalles generales
Idiomas primarios	japonés
Literatura
Total	99,9% [2]
Masculino	99,9% [2]
Mujer	99,9% [2]
Primario	10,9 millones [3]
Secundario	3,8 millones [3]
Post secundario	3,7 millones [3]
Logro
Diploma de secundaria	95,2% [7] [8]
Diploma postsecundario	60,4% [4] [5] [6]

La educación en Japón es obligatoria en los niveles de primaria y secundaria inferior. ^[10] La mayoría de los estudiantes asisten a escuelas públicas hasta el nivel secundario inferior, pero la educación privada es popular en los niveles secundario superior y universitario. La educación antes de la escuela primaria se proporciona en jardines de infancia y guarderías.centros. Los programas para los niños de 3 a 5 años se parecen a los de los jardines de infancia. El enfoque educativo en los jardines de infancia varía mucho desde entornos no estructurados que enfatizan el juego hasta entornos altamente estructurados que se centran en que el niño apruebe el examen de ingreso en una escuela primaria privada. El año académico comienza en abril y termina en marzo, teniendo vacaciones de verano en agosto y vacaciones de invierno a finales de diciembre hasta principios de enero.

Los estudiantes japoneses ocupan un lugar destacado entre los estudiantes de la OCDE en términos de calidad y desempeño en lectura, matemáticas y ciencias. Es uno de los países de la OCDE con mejor desempeño en competencia lectora, matemáticas y ciencias en las pruebas del Programa de Evaluación Internacional de Estudiantes, con un estudiante promedio de 528,7 puntos, en comparación con el promedio de la OCDE de 493, lo que lo coloca en el tercer lugar del mundo en la clasificación de 2015. ^{[11] [12]} La población de Japón está bien educada y su sociedad valora mucho la educación como plataforma para la movilidad socioeconómica y para obtener empleo en la economía de alta tecnología del país. El gran grupo de personas altamente educadas y capacitadas del país es en gran parte responsable de marcar el comienzo de la posguerra de Japón.crecimiento económico . Los adultos con educación terciaria en Japón, en particular los graduados en ciencias e ingeniería, se benefician económica y socialmente de su educación y habilidades en la economía de alta tecnología del país. ^[13]

El gasto en educación como proporción del PIB es del 4,1 por ciento, que está por debajo del promedio de la OCDE de 5 por ciento. ^[14] Aunque el gasto por estudiante es comparativamente alto en Japón, el gasto total en relación con el PIB sigue siendo pequeño. ^[13] En 2017, el país ocupó el tercer lugar por el porcentaje de personas de 25 a 64 años que han obtenido educación terciaria con un 51 por ciento. ^[15] Además, el 60,4 por ciento de los japoneses de entre 25 y 34 años han obtenido algún tipo de educación terciaria y el 30,2 por ciento de los japoneses de entre 25 y 64 años posee títulos de licenciatura, la segunda mayor cantidad en la OCDE después de Corea del Sur. ^{[16] [17]}Dado que la economía japonesa tiene una base fundamentalmente científica y tecnológica, el mercado laboral exige personas que hayan obtenido algún tipo de educación superior, en particular relacionada con la ciencia y la ingeniería, para obtener una ventaja competitiva en la búsqueda de oportunidades de empleo. Según el MEXT , el porcentaje de japoneses que ingresaron en cualquier institución de educación superior en la cohorte de dieciocho años fue del 80.6 por ciento, con el 52.6 por ciento de los estudiantes que ingresaron en una universidad, el 4.7 por ciento en una escuela secundaria, el 0.9 por ciento en una universidad. la facultad de tecnología y el 22,4 por ciento restante asiste a una escuela por correspondencia, la Universidad del Aire o una escuela de formación especializada. ^[18] El sistema educativo de Japón jugó un papel central en la recuperación y el rápido crecimiento económico de Japón.en las décadas posteriores al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial . ^[19]

Aunque Japón ocupa un lugar destacado en las pruebas PISA, su sistema educativo ha sido criticado en los EE. UU. Por su enfoque en las pruebas estandarizadas y la conformidad; ^{[20] [21]} problemas de intimidación; ^{[22] [20] [se necesita una mejor fuente ] [23] [se necesita una mejor fuente ] [24]} y su fuerte presión académica sobre los estudiantes. ^{[25] [Se necesita una mejor fuente ]} Según los datos de PISA 2018 y TIMSS 2015, los incidentes de acoso en la educación pre-terciaria fueron menores que en la mayoría de los países de la OCDE, ^{[26] [27]} y el tiempo total dedicado a estudiar dentro y fuera de la escuela estaba por debajo del promedio de la OCDE.^[28]

Historia

Artículo principal: Historia de la educación en Japón

Terakoya , una escuela privada en el período Edo

La educación formal en Japón comenzó con la adopción de la cultura china , en el siglo VI d.C. En las cortes de Asuka , Nara y Heian se impartieron enseñanzas budistas y confucianas , así como ciencias , caligrafía , adivinación y literatura . Los funcionarios académicos fueron elegidos a través de un sistema de exámenes imperial . Pero a diferencia de China, el sistema nunca se impuso por completo y los títulos y puestos en la corte siguieron siendo bienes familiares hereditarios. El surgimiento de los bushi , la clase militar, durante el período Kamakura puso fin a la influencia de los funcionarios académicos, pero los monasterios budistas siguieron siendo centros influyentes de aprendizaje.

En el período Edo , Yushima Seidō en Edo era la principal institución educativa del estado; y a la cabeza estaba el Daigaku-no-kami , título que identificaba al líder de la escuela de formación Tokugawa para burócratas del shogunato. ^[29]

Bajo el shogunato Tokugawa , el daimyō compitió por el poder en el país en gran parte pacificado. Dado que su influencia no podía aumentarse mediante la guerra, competían en el campo económico. Su élite samurái guerrera convertida en burócrata tenía que ser educada no solo en estrategia militar y artes marciales, sino también en agricultura y contabilidad. Asimismo, la clase adinerada de los comerciantes necesitaba educación para sus negocios diarios y su riqueza les permitía ser mecenas de las artes y la ciencia. Pero las escuelas del templo ( terakoya) también campesinos educados, y se estima que al final del período Edo el 50% de la población masculina y el 20% de la femenina poseían algún grado de alfabetización. Aunque el contacto con países extranjeros estaba restringido, los libros de China y Europa se importaron con entusiasmo y Rangaku ("estudios holandeses") se convirtió en un área popular de interés académico.

Hubo instalaciones que se crearon para educar específicamente a los samuráis y sus hijos para perpetuar la moralidad y la atención plena de su clase. Estas escuelas, escuelas de hanko, eran donde los académicos reunían a los samuráis para escuchar conferencias sobre confucianismo, artes militares y otras materias. Luego, los samuráis intentaban enseñar a los aldeanos lo que habían aprendido, "una guía adecuada para el espíritu y los modales de la gente común", mediante la publicación de folletos y la creación de manuales ^[30].Algunos Shōgun y Daimyō también estaban interesados ​​en difundir la educación en toda su tierra protegida con el público objetivo como adultos plebeyos y niños. Se impartió educación primaria, así como lecciones de escritura y moral. El boletín de la ciudad de la escuela de la aldea de Shirakawa explica el punto de la educación para los plebeyos: "Si no solo las personas importantes de la aldea, sino también la gente menor, reciben una enseñanza continua de las escuelas de la aldea designadas, obtendrán comprensión". ^[30]

Los 'plebeyos' también formarían muchas reuniones comunales para intentarlo y los propios ingleses con la ayuda de un erudito. Por nombrar uno, Baigan Ishida , quien fue un gran orador y escritor que alcanzó el afloramiento de la clase mercantil. Había wakashu -gumi, o grupos de jóvenes, que consistían en hombres jóvenes de entre catorce y diecisiete años, que en estos grupos aprendían sobre ceremonias, vida cooperativa, lenguaje, modales, matrimonio, tejido de paja e información del mundo, sin mencionar hablar y cantar. . Japón estaba prosperando con la necesidad de iluminación. Se puede decir que la necesidad de más educación es una de las razones por las que el Shogunato Tokugawa fracasó en 1868. ^{[ cita requerida ]}

Restauración Meiji

Después de la Restauración Meiji de 1868, los métodos y estructuras del aprendizaje occidental se adoptaron como un medio para hacer de Japón una nación moderna y fuerte. Los estudiantes e incluso los funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango fueron enviados al extranjero para estudiar, como la misión Iwakura . Los eruditos extranjeros, los llamados o-yatoi gaikokujin , fueron invitados a enseñar en universidades y academias militares recién fundadas. Se introdujo la educación obligatoria, principalmente según el modelo prusiano . Para ayudar en la modernización del país, el gobierno de Meiji construyó una biblioteca pública en 1872. La Asociación de Bibliotecas de Japón(o la JLA) fue fundada en 1892 para promover la biblioteca. Sin embargo, la educación pública se convirtió en el foco principal del gobierno de Meiji antes de que pudiera fortalecer los 0 años después de la reanudación de las relaciones internacionales plenas, Japón dejó de emplear consultores extranjeros.^[31] Después de 1890, Japón tuvo numerosos reformadores, expertos en niños, editores de revistas y madres bien educadas que compraron la nueva sensibilidad. Enseñaron a la clase media alta un modelo de infancia que incluía a los niños teniendo su propio espacio donde leían libros infantiles, jugaban con juguetes educativos y, sobre todo, dedicaban mucho tiempo a las tareas escolares. Estas ideas se difundieron rápidamente a través de todas las clases sociales. ^{[32] [33]}

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

After the defeat in World War II, the Allied occupation government set education reform as one of its primary goals, to eradicate militarist teachings and convert Japan into a pacifist democracy. Nine years of education was made mandatory, with six years in elementary education and three in junior high as an emulation of the American educational system. A number of reforms were carried out in the post-war period that aimed at easing the burden of entrance examinations, promoting internationalization and information technologies, diversifying education and supporting lifelong learning.^[34][35]

In an effort to ease Japanese postwar sentiments, any nationalistic, militaristic, authoritarian, or anti-American content was blackened from learning materials. This practice was known as suminuru, and was used as the primary method of educational reform until newly fashioned texts, Kuni no ayumi (Footsteps of the Nation), Nihon rekishi (Japanese History), and Minshushugi (Democracy) were written by the Ministry of Education and Civil Information and Education Section.^[36] The Ministry of Education is now known as the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and is responsible for educational administration.^[37]

In successive international assessment tests, Japan's fourth- and eighth-grade students have consistently ranked in the top five globally in both mathematics and science (see TIMSS).^{[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47]}

Despite concerns that academic skills for Japanese students may have declined since the mid-1990s,^[48] Japan's students showed a significant improvement in math and science scores in the 2011 TIMSS survey, compared to the 2007 scores.^[49]

School grades

The school year in Japan begins in April and classes are held from Monday to either Friday or Saturday, depending on the school. The school year consists of two or three terms, which are separated by short holidays in spring and winter, and a six-week-long summer break.^[50]

The year structure is summarized below:

Age	Grade	Educational establishments
6	1	Elementary school (小学校 shōgakkō) Compulsory Education					Special school (特別支援学校 Tokubetsu-shien gakkō)
7	2
8	3
9	4
10	5
11	6
12	1 (7th)	Junior high school/Lower secondary school (中学校 chūgakkō) Compulsory Education
13	2 (8th)
14	3 (9th)
15	1 (10th)	Senior high school/Upper secondary school (高等学校 kōtōgakkō, abbr. 高校 kōkō)			The upper-secondary course of special training school	College of technology (高等専門学校 kōtō senmon gakkō, abbr. 高専 kōsen)
16	2 (11th)
17	3 (12th)
18	Associate's / Foundations	University: Undergraduate (大学 daigaku; 学士課程 gakushi-katei)	National Academy (大学校 daigakkō)	Medical School (医学部 Igaku-bu) Veterinary school (獣医学部 Jūigaku-bu) Dentistry School (歯学部 Shigaku-bu) Pharmaceutical School (薬学部 Yakugaku-bu) National Defense Medical College (防衛医科大学校, Bōei Ika Daigakkō)	Community College[51] (短期大学 Tanki-daigaku, abbr. 短大 tandai) Vocational School[52] (専門学校 Senmon-gakkō)
19
20	Bachelor's (学士 Gakushi)
21
22	Master's (修士 Shūshi)	Graduate School: Master (大学院博士課程前期 Daigaku-in Hakushi Katei Zenki)	National Academy: Master (大学校修士課程 Daigakkō Shūshi katei)
23
24	Ph.D. (博士 Hakushi)	Graduate School: Ph.D. (大学院博士課程後期 Daigaku-in Hakushi Katei Kōki)	National Defense Academy: Ph.D. (防衛大学校博士課程 Bōei Daigakkō Hakushi katei)	Medical School: Ph.D. (医学博士 Igaku Hakushi) Veterinary School: Ph.D. (獣医学博士 Jūigaku Hakushi) Dentistry School: Ph.D. (歯学博士 Shigaku Hakushi) Pharmaceutical School: Ph.D. (薬学博士 Yakugaku Hakushi)
25
26
27–	Ph.D. (博士 Hakushi)

Lower secondary school

Main article: Secondary education in Japan

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International educational scores (latest, 2007) (8th graders average score, TIMSS International Math and Science Study, 2007)
Countries: (sample)	Global rank	Maths		Science
		Rank	Score	Rank	Score
Singapore	1	3	593	1	567
Taiwan	2	1	598	2	561
South Korea	3	2	597	4	553
Japan	4	5	570	3	554
Hong Kong	5	4	572	9	530
Hungary	6	6	517	6	539
England	7	7	513	5	542
Czech Republic	8	11	504	7	539
Russia	9	8	512	10	530
Slovenia	10	12	501	8	538
United States	11	9	508	11	520
Lithuania	12	10	506	12	519
Australia	13	14	496	13	515
Sweden	14	15	491	14	511
Armenia	15	13	499	17	488
Italy	18	19	480	16	495
Maths Highlights from TIMSS 2007 Science Highlights from TIMSS 2007

A typical classroom in a Japanese junior high school

Lower secondary school covers grades seven through nine, with children typically aged twelve through fifteen. There are 3.5 million primary school students in Japan as of 2012, down from over 5.3 million in 1990.^[53] However, the number of junior high schools has remained relatively static, falling from 11,275 in 1990 to 10,699 in 2012. The number of junior high school teachers has also changed little, with 257,605 junior high school teachers in 1990, and 253,753 in 2012). Approximately 8% of junior high students attend a private junior high school (accounting for 7% of all junior high schools). Private schools are considerably more expensive: as of 2012, the average annual cost of private primary school attendance was ¥1,295,156 per student, roughly thrice the ¥450,340 cost for a public school.^[54] Japan's compulsory education ends at grade nine, but less than 2% drop out; 60% of students advanced to senior education as of 1960, increasing rapidly to over 90% by 1980, rising further each year until reaching 98.3% as of 2012.^[55]

Teachers often major in their respective subjects, and more than 80% graduate from a four-year college. Classes are large, with an average of thirty-eight students per class, and each class is assigned a homeroom teacher, doubling as a counselor. Unlike kindergarten students, primary school students have different teachers for different subjects. However, the teacher changes rooms for each period, rather than the students.^{[citation needed]}

Instruction in primary schools is often in the form of lectures. Teachers also use other media, such as television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45% of all public primary schools had computers, including schools that used them only for administrative purposes. All course contents are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some subjects, such as Japanese language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary curriculum. Others, such as foreign-language study, begin at this level, though from April 2011, English became a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum.^[56] The junior school curriculum covers Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, health, and physical education. All students are also exposed to industrial arts and homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Most students also participate in one of a range of school clubs that occupy them until around 6 p.m. most weekdays (including weekends and often before school as well), as part of an effort to address juvenile delinquency.^{[citation needed]}

A growing number of primary school students also attend juku, private extracurricular study schools, in the evenings and on weekends. A focus by students upon these other studies and the increasingly structured demands upon students' time have been criticized by teachers and in the media for contributing to a decline in classroom standards and student performance in recent years.^{[citation needed]}

The ministry recognizes a need to improve the teaching of all foreign languages, especially English. To improve instruction in spoken English, the government invites many young native speakers of English to Japan to serve as assistants to school boards and prefectures under its Japan Exchange and Teaching Program (JET). Beginning with 848 participants in 1987, the program grew to a high of 6,273 participants in 2002.^[57] The program was in a decline in recent years due to several factors, including shrinking local school budgets funding the program, as well as an increasing number of school boards hiring their foreign native speakers directly or through lower-paying, private agencies. Today, the program is again growing due to English becoming a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum in 2011.^[58]

Upper secondary school

A typical Japanese high school classroom

Main article: Secondary education in Japan

Though upper-secondary school is not compulsory in Japan, 94% of all junior high school graduates enrolled as of 2005.^[59] Private upper-secondary schools account for about 55% of all upper-secondary schools, and neither public nor private schools are free.^{[citation needed]} The Ministry of Education estimated that annual family expenses for the education of a child in a public upper-secondary school were about ¥300,000 in the 1980s and that private upper-secondary schools were about twice as expensive.

The most common type of upper-secondary school has a full-time, general program that offered academic courses for students preparing for higher education as well as technical and vocational courses for students expecting to find employment after graduation. More than 70% of upper-secondary school students were enrolled in the general academic program in the late 1980s. A small number of schools offer part-time programs, evening courses, or correspondence education.

The first-year programs for students in both academic and commercial courses are similar. They include basic academic courses, such as Japanese language, English, mathematics, and science. In upper-secondary school, differences in ability are first publicly acknowledged, and course content and course selection are far more individualized in the second year. However, there is a core of academic material throughout all programs.

Vocational-technical programs includes several hundred specialized courses, such as information processing, navigation, fish farming, business, English, and ceramics. Business and industrial courses are the most popular, accounting for 72% of all students in full-time vocational programs in 1989.

Most upper-secondary teachers are university graduates. Upper-secondary schools are organized into departments, and teachers specialize in their major fields although they teach a variety of courses within their disciplines. Teaching depends largely on the lecture system, with the main goal of covering the very demanding curriculum in the time allotted. Approach and subject coverage tends to be uniform, at least in the public schools.

Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper-secondary level, emphasizes vocational education to enable students to be as independent as possible within society. Vocational training varies considerably depending on the student's disability, but the options are limited for some. It is clear that the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students. Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions of higher learning accept more students with disabilities.

Higher and tertiary educations

Main articles: Higher education in Japan and Tertiary education § In Japan

Higher and tertiary educations in Japan are provided in universities (daigaku), junior colleges (tanki daigaku), colleges of technology (koto senmon gakko) and special training colleges (senmon gakko). Of these four types of institutions, only universities and junior colleges are strictly considered as higher education.

As of 2017, more than 2.89 million students were enrolled in 780 universities.^[60] At the top of the higher education structure, these institutions provide a four-year training leading to a bachelor's degree, and some offer six-year programs leading to a professional degree. There are two types of public four-year colleges: the 86 national universities (including the Open University of Japan) and the 95 local public universities, founded by prefectures and municipalities. The 597 remaining four-year colleges in 2010 were private. With a wealth of opportunities for students wishing to pursue tertiary education, the nation's prestigious schools are the most appealing for students seeking to gain top employment prospects.^[61]

The overwhelming majority of college students attend full-time day programs. In 1990 the most popular courses, enrolling almost 40 percent of all undergraduate students, were in the social sciences, including business, law, and accounting. Other popular subjects were engineering (19 percent), the humanities (15 percent), and education (7 percent).

The average costs (tuition, fees, and living expenses) for a year of higher education in 1986 were ¥1.4 million. To help defray expenses, students frequently work part-time or borrow money through the government-supported Japan Scholarship Association. Assistance is also offered by local governments, nonprofit corporations, and other institutions.

The quality of universities and higher education in Japan is internationally recognized. There are 41 Japanese universities listed the 2020 THES - QS World University Rankings, with the University of Tokyo ranked 22nd and Kyoto University 33rd.^[62] In 2019, the QS Asia University Rankings Top 20 included four Japanese universities, with the highest ranking, the University of Tokyo, in 11th position.^[63]

The QS Asia University Rankings Top 40 included the University of Tokyo at the 13th position, Kyoto University at 14th, Osaka University at 16th, Tokyo Institute of Technology at 18th, Tohoku University at 23rd, Nagoya University at 26th, Kyushu University at 29th, and Waseda University at 36th.^[64]

Disability

Government Intervention

Under the Basic Act on Education (2007) Japan has signed to provide equal opportunity in education including individuals with disabilities. Along with the Basic Act on Education, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) was passed in 2007, and was ratified in 2014 as part of welfare.^[65] These two acts promised that the national and local government would provide special needs education program with adequate accommodation according to their level of disability.^[66] The purpose of the Special Needs Education is to help individuals develop their potential under their capabilities in order to gain independence and to gain vocational training in special fields. Some schools accommodate students with disability under traditional school settings, but in certain cases, students are placed in independent schools specialized in special needs education program.^[67] This program supports students with visual impairment, hearing impairment, physical disability, emotional behavioral disorder, learning disabilities, speech-language impairment (communication disorder), health impairment and development delay. ^[68]

Reforms

See also: Special education

Children with disabilities, along with their parents, did not have a voice until in the 1990s when special needs education started to receive public attention. Before then, children with disability were recognized as “slow learners” or “difficult to blend in”.^[69] The education department of the Japanese government slowly started to focus on giving equal rights to children with disability, and the first major reform began as an introduction of a “Resource Room System", which served as a supplemental special need program for students with disabilities attending traditional school settings. Further in 2006, a greater educational reform took place to promote the notion of “inclusive education”. The inclusion education program came into act due to an influence of three political factors; the international movement for school inclusion, the reform of welfare on people with disabilities, and a general reform of the education system in Japan.^{[70] [71]} The purpose of this act was to avoid isolation of students with disability with the rest of the mainstream society, and integrate special need education with traditional education system by providing a more universal and diverse classroom settings.^[72] In recent years, the Japanese government continues to pass equal rights to children with disability under special need education and inclusive education as public welfare.

Extracurricular activities

The Japanese educational system is supplemented by a heavy emphasis on extracurricular activities, also known as shadow education, which are any educational activities that don't take place during formal schooling.^[73] This is largely motivated by the extreme weight that is placed upon formal examinations as a prerequisite to attend university, something that is seen as integral to their future career and social status. In order to gain a competitive edge, Japanese families are willing to expend money and have their child put in time and effort into a supplementary education.^[74] Forms of shadow education include mogi shiken, which are practice exams given by private companies that determine the child's chances of getting into a university. Juku are private after school classes that aim to develop abilities for students to excel in formal school curriculum or to prepare for university examinations. Ronin are students that undergo full-time preparation for university exams following high school due to their inability to get into their school of choice.^[75]

Over 86% of students with college plans participate in at least one form of shadow education, with 60% participating in two or more.^[75]

Criticisms

Japanese students are faced with immense pressure to succeed academically from their parents, teachers, peers and society. This is largely a result of a society that has long placed a great amount of importance on education, and a system that places all of its weight upon a single examination that has significant life-long consequences. This pressure has led to behaviors such as school violence, cheating, suicide, and significant psychological harm.^[76] In some cases, students have experienced nervous breakdowns that have required hospitalization as young as twelve. In 1991, it was reported that 1,333 people in the age group of 15–24 had committed suicide, much of which was due to academic pressure.^[77] In an international perspective, teenage suicide rates are close to the OECD average and below those of the United States, Canada, and Australia.^[78] A survey by the Education Ministry showed that students at public schools were involved in a record number of violent incidents in 2007: 52,756 cases, an increase of some 8,000 on the previous year. In almost 7,000 of these incidents, teachers were the target of assault.^[79]

The Japanese educational system has also been criticized for failure to foster independent thinkers with cultural and artistic sensibility. Japanese students that attend schools overseas often face difficulty adapting and competing in that environment due to lack of international viewpoints.^[80]

There is also criticism about the amount of free time students are given and/or are allowed within their middle school and high school careers. As Japanese students grow, their time to assert what they have learned in class to real life is cut dramatically, starting with the elevation from elementary to lower secondary school.^[81] A large part of this has to do with cram schooling, or Juku, which can start as early as elementary and takes full effect toward the end of junior high school, with roughly 60% of all students participating.^[82] This number has increased drastically over the past couple decades,^[82] as well as the view of Juku within the Japanese academic system. While initially seen as a problem, cram schools have become synonymous with Japan's schooling and are even seen as a support to the structure of said schooling.^[83] With Juku costing between 600,000 to 1.5 million yen, depending on how old the student is and how much the guardian can pay, cram school is a very profitable part of the economy, with over 48,000 Juku schools active today.^[84] With these extra school sessions ranging between 1 to 6 days a week on top of normal classes,^[85] there is a fear that students will be unable to incorporate what they have learned into their lives, and thus could foreseeably lose the retained knowledge once the Entrance Exams are over.

Bullying

There is criticism about insufficient efforts to reduce bullying in schools. In fiscal 2019, there were a record 612,496 bullying cases in schools across Japan. This includes public, private elementary, junior high, high schools and special schools for children with disabilities. Serious incidents with severe physical or psychological damage was 723 (20% increase from 2018). Bullying happens mostly on elementary schools (484,545 cases in 2019) followed by junior high schools (106,524 cases in 2019) and high schools (18,352 cases in 2019). In fiscal 2019, 317 students committed suicide of which 10 suffered from bullying. 61.9 percent of cases were verbal bullying and online bullying accounted for 18.9 percent in high schools. In 2019 there were 78,787 cases of violent acts by students in elementary, junior high and high schools.^[22]

International education

As of 2016, Japan has 30–40 international schools.^[86] There are many Kindergarten type schools that use the word "international" in their names but this is not an indicator that they are Japanese schools in the traditional sense. These types of kindergartens are usually immersion programs for Japanese students and the schools hire mostly foreigners to act as the main class teacher or as an assistant to the Japanese teacher.^{[citation needed]} United Nations University is located in Japan and Temple University has a branch campus in Japan. International University of Japan is an internationally top-ranked, fully English-taught University in Japan. Akita International University is also an English-taught University. Sophia University's Faculty of Liberal Arts is fully taught in English. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies is a highly selective, specialist institution for International Studies and offers some languages that are rarely taught elsewhere in the world.

See also

• Curriculum guideline
• Eikaiwa school
• Japanese history textbook controversies
• Japanese graduation ceremony
• Japanese school uniform
• Language minority students in Japanese classrooms
• Yutori education

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Further reading

• De Bary, William Theodore, Carol Gluck, Arthur E. Tiedemann. (2005). Sources of Japanese Tradition, Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12984-8; OCLC 255020415
• Hebert, David G. (2011). Wind Bands and Cultural Identity in Japanese Schools. Springer press, 2011.
• Hood, Christopher P. Japanese Education Reform: Nakasone's Legacy, 2001, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23283-X.
• Kelly, Boyd. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, Vol. 1. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6
• Passow, A. Harry et al. The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems. (1976) online
• Uno, Kathleen S. (1999). Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early Twentieth Century Japan. Hawai'i: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1619-3, ISBN 978-0-8248-2137-1.

Journal articles, conference papers, and other papers like The Times Colonist

• Doig, Brian; Groves, Susie (1 January 2011). "Japanese lesson study : teacher professional development through communities of inquiry". Mathematics Teacher Education and Development. 13 (1): 77–93. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30043312. ERIC EJ960950.
• Shimizu, Yoshinori (May 2002). Capturing the structure of japanese mathematics lessons: some findings of the international comparative studies. ICMI-Second East Asia Regional Conference on Mathematics Education and Ninth Southeast Asian Conference on Mathematics Education.
• Takahashi, Akihiko (高橋　昭彦; DePaul University). "[2]." CRICED Mathematics Symposium, 2006.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Education in Japan.

• Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
• Information on education in Japan, OECD – contains indicators and information about Japan and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries
• Diagram of Japanese education system, OECD – using 1997 ISCED classification of programmes and typical ages. (Also available in romanized Japanese.)