La Grande Armée ( pronunciación francesa: [ɡʀɑd aʀme] ; Francés para el gran ejército ) fue el ejército imperial francés comandado por Napoleón Bonaparte durante las guerras napoleónicas . De 1804 a 1809, obtuvo una serie de victorias militares que permitieron al Imperio francés ejercer un control sin precedentes sobre la mayor parte de Europa . Ampliamente reconocida como una de las mayores fuerzas de combate jamás reunidas, sufrió terribles pérdidas durante la desastrosa invasión francesa de Rusia en 1812, después de la cual nunca recuperó su superioridad táctica.
Grande Armée | |
---|---|
Activo | 1804-15 |
País | Francia |
Lealtad | Napoleón Bonaparte |
Tipo | Fuerzas Terrestres |
Tamaño | 685.000 hombres antes de la invasión de Rusia . 2,175,335 reclutados 1805-1813 |
Lema (s) | Valeur et Discipline [1] |
Colores | Le Tricolore |
marcha | La Victoire est à nous (del ballet-ópera La caravane du Caire ) |
Compromisos | Guerra de la Tercera Coalición Guerra de la Cuarta Coalición Guerra Peninsular Guerra de la Quinta Coalición Campaña rusa Guerra de la Sexta Coalición Guerra de la Séptima Coalición |
Comandantes | |
comandante supremo | Napoleón I |
Comandantes notables | Pierre Augereau Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Louis-Alexandre Berthier Jean-Baptiste Bessières Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean-Baptiste Jourdan Jean Lannes Jacques MacDonald Auguste Marmont André Masséna Édouard Mortier Joachim Murat Michel Ney Nicolas Oudinot José Antonio Poniatowski Jean-de-Dieu Soult Louis- Gabriel Suchet |
La Grande Armée se formó en 1804 a partir de L'Armée des côtes de l'Océan (Ejército de las Costas Oceánicas), una fuerza de 413.000 soldados que Napoleón había reunido para la invasión propuesta de Gran Bretaña . Más tarde, Napoleón desplegó el ejército en Europa del Este para eliminar la amenaza de Austria y Rusia , que formaban parte de la Tercera Coalición reunida contra Francia. A partir de entonces, el nombre de Grande Armée se utilizó para el principal ejército francés desplegado en las campañas de 1805 y 1807 , donde ganó su prestigio, y en 1809 , 1812 y 1813-1814 . En la práctica, sin embargo, el término Grande Armée se usa en inglés para referirse a todas las fuerzas multinacionales reunidas por Napoleón en sus campañas. [2]
La primera Grande Armée consistió en seis cuerpos bajo el mando de los mariscales y generales superiores de Napoleón . Cuando los ejércitos austríaco y ruso comenzaron los preparativos para invadir Francia a fines de 1805, se ordenó rápidamente a la Grande Armée cruzar el Rin hacia el sur de Alemania, lo que condujo a las victorias de Napoleón en Ulm y Austerlitz . El ejército francés creció a medida que Napoleón tomó el poder en toda Europa, reclutando tropas de las naciones ocupadas y aliadas; alcanzó su punto máximo de un millón de hombres al comienzo de la campaña rusa en 1812, [3] con la Grande Armée alcanzando su altura de 413.000 soldados, que tomarían parte en la invasión. [4]
Además de su tamaño y composición multinacional, la Grande Armée era conocida por sus innovadoras formaciones, tácticas, logística y comunicaciones. A diferencia de la mayoría de las fuerzas armadas de la época, operaba sobre una base estrictamente meritocrática; mientras que la mayoría de los contingentes estaban comandados por generales franceses, a excepción de los cuerpos polaco y austríaco, la mayoría de los soldados podían subir de rango sin importar su clase, riqueza u origen nacional.
El enorme ejército multinacional marchó lentamente hacia el este y los rusos retrocedieron al acercarse. Después de la captura de Smolensk y la victoria en Borodino , la Grande Armée llegó a Moscú el 14 de septiembre de 1812. Sin embargo, el ejército ya estaba drásticamente reducido por escaramuzas con los rusos, enfermedades (principalmente tifus ), deserción y largas líneas de comunicación. El ejército pasó un mes en Moscú, pero finalmente se vio obligado a marchar hacia el oeste. Comenzó a sufrir de frío, hambre y enfermedades, y fue constantemente hostigado por los cosacos y los partisanos rusos, lo que resultó en su total destrucción como fuerza de combate. Sólo 120.000 hombres sobrevivieron para salir de Rusia (excluyendo a los primeros desertores); de estos, 50.000 eran austríacos, prusianos y otros alemanes, 20.000 eran polacos y solo 35.000 eran franceses. [5] Hasta 380.000 murieron en la campaña. [6]
Napoleón dirigió un nuevo ejército en la Batalla de las Naciones en Leipzig en 1813, la defensa de Francia en 1814 y la campaña de Waterloo en 1815, pero la Grande Armée nunca recuperaría su apogeo de junio de 1812. De 1805 a 1813, 2.175.335 hombres fueron reclutado para la Grande Armée . [7]
Historia
Para una historia del ejército francés en el período 1792–1804 durante las guerras de la Primera y Segunda Coalición, vea Ejército Revolucionario Francés .
1804–1806
La Grande Armée se formó originalmente como L'Armée des côtes de l'Océan (Ejército de las Costas Oceánicas) destinado a la invasión de Gran Bretaña, en el puerto de Boulogne en 1803. Tras la coronación de Napoleón como Emperador de Francia en 1804, el La Tercera Coalición se formó contra él y la Grande Armée volvió su mirada hacia el este en 1805. La Grande Armée abandonó los campos de Boulogne a finales de agosto y, a través de una marcha rápida, rodeó al aislado ejército austríaco del general Karl von Mack en la fortaleza de Ulm . La campaña de Ulm , como llegó a ser conocida, resultó en 60.000 prisioneros austríacos a costa de sólo 2.000 soldados franceses. En noviembre, Viena fue tomada, pero Austria se negó a capitular, manteniendo un ejército en el campo. Además, su aliado Rusia aún tenía que comprometerse a actuar. La guerra continuaría por un tiempo más. Asuntos se resolvieron con decisión el 2 de diciembre de 1805, en la batalla de Austerlitz , donde el numéricamente inferior Grande Armée dirige un ejército ruso y austríaco combinado dirigido por el emperador Alejandro I . La sorprendente victoria condujo al Tratado de Pressburg el 26 de diciembre de 1805, con la disolución del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico al año siguiente. [8]
El alarmante aumento del poder francés en Europa Central perturbó a Prusia , que se había mantenido neutral en los conflictos del año anterior. Después de muchas disputas diplomáticas, Prusia aseguró las promesas de ayuda militar rusa y la Cuarta Coalición contra Francia entró en vigor en 1806. La Grande Armée avanzó hacia el territorio prusiano con el famoso sistema de bataillon-carré (plaza de batallón), mediante el cual los cuerpos marchaban a distancias de apoyo cercanas. y se convirtieron en vanguardia, retaguardia o fuerzas de flanco según lo exigía la situación, y derrotaron decisivamente a los ejércitos prusianos en Jena y Auerstedt , ambos combatieron el 14 de octubre de 1806. Después de una persecución legendaria, los franceses capturaron a unos 140.000 prusianos y mataron e hirieron a unos 25.000 . El III Cuerpo del mariscal Louis-Nicolas Davout , los vencedores en Auerstadt, recibieron los honores de marchar por primera vez a Berlín. Una vez más, los franceses habían derrotado a un enemigo antes de que pudieran llegar sus aliados, y una vez más, esto no trajo la paz. [9]
1807–1809
Napoleón dirigió ahora su atención a Polonia, donde los restantes ejércitos prusianos se estaban uniendo con sus aliados rusos. Una campaña de invierno difícil no produjo más que un punto muerto, agravado por la Batalla de Eylau del 7 al 8 de febrero de 1807, donde las bajas rusas y francesas se dispararon para poco beneficio. La campaña se reanudó en la primavera y esta vez el ejército ruso del general Levin August von Bennigsen fue derrotado en la batalla de Friedland el 14 de junio de 1807. Esta victoria produjo los Tratados de Tilsit entre Francia y Rusia y Prusia en julio, dejando a Napoleón sin enemigos en el continente. [10]
La negativa de Portugal a cumplir con el Sistema Continental llevó a una expedición francesa punitiva a finales de 1807. Esta campaña sentó las bases de la Guerra Peninsular , que duraría seis años y drenó al Imperio francés de recursos vitales y mano de obra. Los franceses intentaron ocupar España en 1808, pero una serie de desastres llevaron a Napoleón a intervenir personalmente más adelante en el año. La Grande Armée de 125.000 hombres avanzó, capturando la fortaleza de Burgos , despejando el camino a Madrid en la batalla de Somosierra y obligando a los ejércitos españoles a retirarse. Luego se enfrentaron al ejército británico del general Sir John Moore , lo que provocó que los británicos se retiraran de la Península Ibérica después de una acción heroica en la Batalla de La Coruña el 16 de enero de 1809. La campaña fue exitosa, pero aún pasaría algún tiempo antes de que los franceses lo lograran. capaz de ocupar el sur de España. [11]
Mientras tanto, una Austria revivida se preparaba para atacar. Los halcones de la guerra en la corte del emperador Francisco I lo convencieron de aprovechar al máximo la preocupación de Francia por España. En abril de 1809, los austriacos abrieron la campaña sin una declaración formal de guerra y tomaron por sorpresa a los franceses. Sin embargo, fueron demasiado lentos para explotar sus logros y la llegada de Napoleón desde París finalmente estabilizó la situación. Los austríacos fueron derrotados en la batalla de Eckmühl , huyeron sobre el Danubio y perdieron la fortaleza de Ratisbon . Pero seguían siendo una fuerza de combate unida, lo que significaba que se requerían más campañas para resolver el problema. Los franceses capturaron Viena e intentaron cruzar el Danubio a través de la isla de Lobau al sureste de la capital austriaca, pero perdieron la subsiguiente batalla de Aspern-Essling , la primera derrota de la Grande Armée . Un segundo intento de cruzar el río resultó más exitoso en julio y preparó el escenario para la Batalla de Wagram de dos días , donde los franceses salieron victoriosos, infligiendo unas 40.000 bajas a los austriacos, pero sufriendo 37.000 ellos mismos. La derrota desmoralizó tanto a los austriacos que acordaron un armisticio poco después. Esto finalmente condujo al Tratado de Schönbrunn en octubre de 1809. La Grande Armée había puesto fin a la Quinta Coalición y el Imperio Austriaco perdió tres millones de súbditos como resultado de los cambios fronterizos del tratado. [12]
1810–1812
Con la excepción de España, se produjo una pausa de tres años. Sin embargo, las tensiones diplomáticas con Rusia se volvieron tan agudas que finalmente llevaron a la guerra en 1812. Napoleón reunió el ejército de campaña más grande que había comandado para hacer frente a esta amenaza. El 24 de junio de 1812, poco antes de la invasión, las tropas reunidas con una fuerza total de 685.000 hombres estaban compuestas por: [13]
• 410
000 franceses • 95 000 polacos
• 35 000 austriacos
• 30 000 italianos [14]
• 24 000 bávaros
• 20 000 sajones
• 20 000 prusianos
• 17 000 westfalianos
• 15 000 suizos
• 10 000 daneses y noruegos [15] [16]
• 4 000 portugueses
• 3500 croatas
• 2000 irlandeses
La nueva Grande Armé e era algo diferente a la anterior; más de un tercio de sus filas estaban ahora ocupadas por reclutas no franceses procedentes de estados satélites o países aliados de Francia. La fuerza gigantesca cruzó el río Niemen el 24 de junio de 1812, y Napoleón esperaba que una marcha rápida pudiera colocar a sus hombres entre los dos principales ejércitos rusos, comandados por los generales Barclay de Tolly y Pyotr Bagration . Sin embargo, la campaña se caracterizó por muchas frustraciones, ya que los rusos lograron no menos de tres veces eludir las tenazas de Napoleón. Una batalla final para la defensa de Moscú condujo a la batalla masiva de Borodino el 7 de septiembre de 1812. Allí la Grande Armée obtuvo una victoria sangrienta pero indecisa y posiblemente pírrica . Una semana después de la batalla, la Grande Armée finalmente entró en Moscú solo para encontrar la ciudad en gran parte vacía y en llamas. Sus soldados ahora se vieron obligados a lidiar con los incendios mientras cazaban pirómanos y protegían los distritos históricos de la ciudad. Napoleón y su ejército pasaron más de un mes en Moscú, esperando en vano que el emperador ruso respondiera a las ofertas de paz francesas. Después de que estos esfuerzos fracasaron, los franceses partieron el 19 de octubre, ahora solo una sombra de lo que fueron. La épica retirada durante el famoso invierno ruso domina las concepciones populares de la guerra, a pesar de que más de la mitad de la Grande Armée se había perdido durante el verano. Los franceses fueron hostigados repetidamente por los ejércitos rusos convergentes, el mariscal Michel Ney incluso llevó a cabo una famosa separación de retaguardia entre sus tropas y los rusos, y cuando se llegó a Berezina, Napoleón solo tenía alrededor de 49.000 soldados y 40.000 rezagados de escaso valor militar. La batalla resultante y el trabajo monumental de los ingenieros del general Jean Baptiste Eblé salvaron los restos de la Grande Armée . Napoleón dejó a sus hombres para llegar a París y abordar nuevos asuntos militares y políticos. De los 685.000 hombres que constituían la fuerza de invasión inicial, solo 93.000 sobrevivieron. [17]
1813-15
La catástrofe en Rusia ahora envalentonó los sentimientos anti-franceses en toda Europa. Se formó la Sexta Coalición y Alemania se convirtió en la pieza central de la próxima campaña. Con el genio habitual, Napoleón levantó nuevos ejércitos y abrió la campaña con una serie de victorias en Lützen y Bautzen . Pero debido a la mala calidad de las tropas y la caballería francesas después de la campaña rusa, junto con los errores de cálculo de ciertos mariscales subordinados, estos triunfos no fueron lo suficientemente decisivos para ganar la guerra y solo aseguraron un armisticio. Napoleón esperaba utilizar este respiro para aumentar la cantidad y mejorar la calidad de la Grande Armée , pero cuando Austria se unió a los Aliados, su situación estratégica se volvió sombría. La campaña se reabrió en agosto con una importante victoria francesa en la Batalla de Dresde de dos días . Sin embargo, la adopción del Plan Trachenberg por los aliados, que pedía evitar el conflicto directo con Napoleón y centrarse en sus subordinados, rindió frutos cuando los franceses sufrieron derrotas en Großbeeren , Katzbach , Kulm y Dennewitz . El creciente número de aliados finalmente rodeó a los franceses en Leipzig, donde la famosa Batalla de las Naciones de tres días fue testigo de una gran pérdida para Napoleón cuando un puente fue destruido prematuramente, abandonando a 30.000 soldados franceses al otro lado del río Elster . La campaña, sin embargo, terminó con una nota victoriosa cuando los franceses destruyeron un cuerpo bávaro aislado que estaba tratando de bloquear su retirada en Hanau . [18]
"El Gran Imperio ya no existe. Es la propia Francia a la que debemos defender ahora", fueron las palabras de Napoleón al Senado a fines de 1813. El emperador logró levantar nuevos ejércitos, pero estratégicamente se encontraba en una posición prácticamente desesperada. Los ejércitos aliados estaban invadiendo desde los Pirineos , a través de las llanuras del norte de Italia y también a través de las fronteras orientales de Francia. La campaña comenzó de manera inquietante cuando Napoleón sufrió una derrota en la batalla de La Rothière , pero rápidamente recuperó su antiguo espíritu. En la campaña de los Seis Días de febrero de 1814, la Grande Armée de 30.000 hombres infligió 20.000 bajas al cuerpo disperso del mariscal de campo Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher a un costo de sólo 2.000 para ellos. Luego se dirigieron al sur y derrotaron al cuerpo del mariscal de campo Karl von Schwarzenberg en la batalla de Montereau . Estas victorias, sin embargo, no pudieron remediar una situación tan mala, y las derrotas francesas en la Batalla de Laon y la Batalla de Arcis-sur-Aube empañaron los ánimos. A finales de marzo, París cayó en manos de los aliados . Napoleón quería seguir luchando, pero sus mariscales se negaron, lo que le obligó a abdicar el 6 de abril de 1814 [19].
Después de regresar del exilio en Elba en febrero de 1815, Napoleón se dedicó a hacer un esfuerzo renovado para asegurar su imperio. Por primera vez desde 1812, el Ejército del Norte que estaría al mando para la próxima campaña era profesional y competente. Napoleón esperaba atrapar y derrotar a los ejércitos aliados bajo el mando del duque de Wellington y Blücher en Bélgica antes de que pudieran llegar los rusos y austriacos. La campaña, que comenzó el 15 de junio de 1815, fue inicialmente exitosa y condujo a la victoria sobre los prusianos en la batalla de Ligny el 16 de junio; sin embargo, el mal trabajo del personal y los malos comandantes provocaron muchos problemas para la Grande Armée durante toda la campaña. El avance retrasado del mariscal Emmanuel de Grouchy contra los prusianos permitió a Blücher reunir a sus hombres tras Ligny y marchar en ayuda de Wellington en la batalla de Waterloo , que resultó en la derrota final y decisiva de Napoleón. [20]
Sistema de personal
Antes de finales del siglo XVIII, generalmente no existía un apoyo organizativo para las funciones del personal, como inteligencia militar , logística , planificación o personal. Los comandantes de unidad manejaban tales funciones para sus unidades, con ayuda informal de subordinados que generalmente no estaban capacitados o asignados a una tarea específica.
El primer uso moderno de un Estado Mayor fue en las Guerras Revolucionarias Francesas , cuando el General Louis-Alexandre Berthier (más tarde Mariscal) fue asignado como Jefe de Estado Mayor del Ejército de Italia en 1795. Berthier pudo establecer un apoyo de personal bien organizado equipo. Napoleón se hizo cargo del ejército al año siguiente y rápidamente llegó a apreciar el sistema de Berthier, adoptándolo para su propio cuartel general, aunque el uso de Napoleón se limitó a su propio grupo de mando.
El Estado Mayor de la Grande Armée era conocido como el Cuartel General Imperial y estaba dividido en dos secciones principales: la Casa Militar de Napoleón y el Cuartel General del Ejército. Un tercer departamento dependiente del Cuartel General Imperial era la oficina del Intendente General (Intendente General), que proporcionaba el personal administrativo del ejército. [21]
Hogar militar de Napoleón
La Maison Militaire de l'Empereur ( Casa Militar del Emperador ) era el personal militar personal de Napoleón e incluía el departamento de ayudantes de campo (ADC), oficiales ordenados (hasta 1809), el Gabinete del Emperador con la Secretaría, un departamento que recopiló inteligencia sobre el enemigo utilizando espías y el departamento topográfico. [21] Adjunto también estaba el Gabinete Civil del Emperador que incluía la oficina del Gran Mariscal del Palacio y el Gran Écuyer .
Los ADC del emperador eran principalmente generales leales y experimentados o, en ocasiones, otros oficiales superiores a quienes conocía de sus campañas en Italia o Egipto . Todos eran famosos por su valentía y eran expertos en sus propias ramas de servicio. Trabajando directamente bajo la supervisión del emperador, a estos oficiales se les asignaba a veces el mando temporal de unidades o formaciones o se les confiaba misiones diplomáticas. La mayor parte del tiempo, sin embargo, sus tareas consistían en realizar recorridos de inspección detallados y reconocimientos de larga distancia. Cuando tuvieran que llevar órdenes del emperador a un comandante del ejército, estas serían verbales en lugar de escritas. El nombramiento de ADC como emperador fue tan influyente que se los consideró "ojos y oídos de Napoleón" e incluso los mariscales fueron prudentes al seguir sus consejos y rendirles el respeto debido a su función. [22]
El 29 de abril de 1809, un decreto organizó su servicio. Cada mañana a las 0700, el ADC de guardia y su personal eran relevados y el nuevo ADC durante las próximas 24 horas tenía que presentar al emperador una lista de nombres del personal bajo su mando. Esto consistiría en dos ADC generales diurnos suplementarios y un ADC nocturno, un escudero y (a través de un sistema de rotación) la mitad del número de oficiales ordenados, la mitad del número de petits aides de camp (dos o tres ADC personales para los ADC generales, que también podría ser comandado directamente por el emperador) y la mitad del número de páginas. Su número difería de vez en cuando, pero solo 37 oficiales fueron comisionados ADC al emperador y en tiempos normales su número estaba restringido a 12. Cada uno de estos oficiales vestía el uniforme de general normal de su rango, pero con aiguilettes de oro como símbolo. de su función. El nombramiento de ADC como emperador no siempre duró tanto como el reinado del emperador; un ADC podría recibir otra posición, como un comando de campo, un cargo de gobernador, etc. y sería removido de su estatus de ADC hasta que sea llamado a ese puesto. [23]
Los officiers d'ordonnance (oficiales ordenados) pueden ser considerados como ADC junior, con el rango de chef d'escadron , capitán o teniente . También se utilizaron para misiones especiales como reconocimiento e inspecciones, pero también para llevar órdenes escritas. En 1806, cuando se crearon estos puestos, eran miembros de la Guardia Imperial ; en 1809, mientras conservaban su estatus militar, fueron tomados bajo el control del Gran Écuyer en la Casa Civil del Emperador. Los decretos que regulan su servicio fueron firmados los días 15, 19 y 24 de septiembre de 1806 y finalmente el 19 de septiembre de 1809 [24].
Cuartel General del Ejército
Junto a la Casa Militar del Emperador, pero funcionando como una organización totalmente independiente, estaba el Grand État-Major Général (Cuartel General del Ejército). Desde la primera colaboración de Napoleón y Berthier, su organización era más o menos fija y sólo vería ligeros cambios durante las últimas campañas del imperio. [25] El Cuartel General del Ejército incluía la oficina del Gabinete del Mayor General (Jefe de Estado Mayor) con sus cuatro departamentos: Movimientos, Secretaría, Contabilidad e Inteligencia (órdenes de batalla). El Major-Général también tenía su propio Estado Mayor privado, que incluía generales de servicio y ayudantes de campo del Estado Mayor. Finalmente, estaba el Estado Mayor del Ejército con las oficinas de los tres Generales Adjuntos del Mayor General .
El papel de Jefe de Estado Mayor en la Grande Armée se convirtió casi en sinónimo de Berthier, que ocupó este puesto en casi todas las grandes campañas de Napoleón. El Cuartel General era el dominio único de Berthier y el emperador respetó esta demarcación. Su personal recibió órdenes sólo de Berthier y ni siquiera Napoleón interfirió en sus inmensas tareas; nunca entraría en contacto con el personal privado de Berthier mientras escribían y copiaban las órdenes que acababa de dar. Dado que el emperador era su propio "oficial de operaciones", se puede decir que el trabajo de Berthier consistía en absorber las intenciones estratégicas de Napoleón, traducirlas en órdenes escritas y transmitirlas con la máxima celeridad y claridad. También recibió en nombre del emperador los informes de los mariscales y los comandantes generales y, cuando fue necesario, los firmó en nombre de Napoleón. Se enviarían informes detallados sobre todo lo que sucediera para bien o para mal a Berthier, quien a su vez seleccionaría los más importantes y se los transmitiría al emperador; nada debía ocultarse a Napoleón. [25]
Para que nadie piense que este fue un trabajo seguro para los oficiales de estado mayor modernos, un oficial de estado mayor subordinado contemporáneo, Brossier, informa que en la Batalla de Marengo :
"El general en jefe Berthier dio sus órdenes con la precisión de un guerrero consumado, y en Marengo mantuvo la reputación que tan acertadamente adquirió en Italia y en Egipto bajo las órdenes de Bonaparte. Él mismo fue alcanzado por una bala en el del brazo. Dos de sus ayudantes de campo, Dutaillis y La Borde, hicieron matar a sus caballos ". [26]
Organización
Uno de los factores más importantes del éxito de la Grande Armée fue su organización superior y altamente flexible. Se subdividió en varios cuerpos (generalmente de cinco a siete), cada uno de los cuales contaba entre 10,000 y 50,000, con un tamaño promedio de alrededor de 20,000 a 30,000 soldados. Estos Corps d'Armée eran ejércitos autónomos y más pequeños de armas combinadas , que consistían en elementos de todas las fuerzas y servicios de apoyo que se describen a continuación. Si bien eran capaces de realizar operaciones totalmente independientes y de defenderse hasta que se reforzaban, el cuerpo solía trabajar en estrecha colaboración y se mantenía a una distancia de marcha de un día el uno del otro. El cuerpo a menudo seguía rutas separadas en un frente amplio y era lo suficientemente pequeño como para vivir de la búsqueda de alimentos, lo que permitía transportar menos suministros. A través de la dispersión y el uso de marchas forzadas, la Grande Armée a menudo podía sorprender a los ejércitos enemigos por su velocidad de maniobra. [27] Un cuerpo, dependiendo de su tamaño y la importancia de su misión, estaba comandado por un mariscal o general de división (general de división ). [28]
Napoleón confiaba mucho en los comandantes de su cuerpo y por lo general les permitía una amplia libertad de acción, siempre que actuaran dentro de los límites de sus objetivos estratégicos y trabajaran juntos para lograrlos. Sin embargo, cuando fallaron en hacer esto a su satisfacción, no dudaría en reprenderlos o relevarlos y, en muchos casos, tomó el mando personal de su cuerpo él mismo. Los cuerpos se formaron por primera vez en 1800, cuando el general Jean Moreau dividió el ejército del Rin en cuatro cuerpos. Sin embargo, se trataba de agrupaciones temporales, y no fue hasta 1804 que Napoleón las convirtió en unidades permanentes. A veces formaba la caballería en cuerpos separados, para que pudieran moverse y agruparse más rápidamente sin ser frenado por la infantería o la artillería a pie. [ cita requerida ]
Las principales unidades tácticas del cuerpo eran las divisiones , generalmente compuestas por 4.000 a 10.000 de infantería o de 2.000 a 4.000 soldados de caballería. Estos a su vez estaban formados por dos o tres brigadas de dos regimientos cada uno y apoyados por una brigada de artillería de tres o cuatro baterías , cada una con seis cañones de campaña y dos obuses , haciendo de 24 a 32 cañones en total. Las divisiones eran también unidades administrativas y operativas permanentes, comandadas por un Général de Division y también capaces de acciones independientes. [ cita requerida ]
Fuerzas de la Grande Armée
Guardia Imperial
La Guardia Imperial ( Garde Impériale ) fue una de las fuerzas militares más elitistas de su tiempo, y surgió de la Garde du Directoire y Garde Consulaire . [ cita requerida ] Formó un solo Cuerpo de Armamento con unidades de infantería, caballería y artillería como otros cuerpos, pero con identidades y uniformes únicos. Napoleón también quiso que fuera un ejemplo a seguir para todo el ejército, y una fuerza que, como había luchado con él en varias campañas, era completamente leal. Aunque la infantería rara vez se comprometía en masa, la caballería de la Guardia a menudo se lanzaba a la batalla como golpe mortal y su artillería se usaba para golpear a los enemigos antes de los asaltos. [ cita requerida ]
Año | Numero de soldados |
---|---|
1800 | 3000 |
1804 | 8.000 |
1805 | 12 000 |
1810 | 56.000 |
1812 | 112.000 |
1813 | 85.000 (en su mayoría guardias jóvenes) |
1815 | 28.000 |
Infantería de la Guardia
Había tres secciones:
- Vieja Guardia ( Vieille Garde ): compuesta por los veteranos con más años de servicio, la Vieja Guardia era la élite de los regimientos de guardias de élite de la Grande Armée .
- Granaderos de infantería de la Guardia Imperial ( Granaderos de Pied de la Garde Impériale ) : [29] [30] Los Granaderos de la Guardia eran el regimiento de mayor rango en la Grande Armée . Durante la campaña de 1807 en Polonia, Napoleón le dio a los Granaderos el sobrenombre de Les Grognards ( Los Grumblers ). Eran los soldados de infantería más experimentados y valientes de la Guardia, algunos veteranos habían servido en más de 20 campañas. Para unirse a los Granaderos, un recluta tenía que haber prestado servicio durante al menos 10 años, haber recibido una mención por valentía, saber leer y escribir y medir más de 178 cm de altura. La Vieja Guardia generalmente se mantenía en reserva para momentos cruciales en el campo de batalla y se desataba para actuar como un golpe de martillo contra un enemigo sacudido. Por ejemplo, el 1er Régiment de Grenadiers à Pied vio una intensa acción en la batalla de Eylau . En 1815, los granaderos de la Vieja Guardia contaban con cuatro regimientos, habiéndose añadido el 3º y 4º Granaderos en 1810 y 1815 respectivamente. Los Granaderos 2, 3 y 4 estaban completamente comprometidos en la Batalla de Ligny, pero dos días después fueron derrotados por los británicos mientras avanzaban en un intento de aplastar la debilitada línea británica en Waterloo. Los dos batallones del 1º de Granaderos formaron cuadrados y se defendieron de los ataques aliados para proteger la retirada general. Los Grenadiers à Pied vestían un hábito azul oscuro largo (abrigo con colas largas) con vueltas rojas, charreteras y solapas blancas. La característica más distintiva de los Granaderos era el sombrero alto de piel de oso , decorado con una placa de oro grabada , una pluma roja y cordones blancos.
- Cazadores a pie de la Guardia Imperial ( Chasseurs à Pied de la Garde Impériale ) : [31] Los Cazadores de la Guardia eran el segundo regimiento más antiguo de la Grande Armée . Los 1er Cazadores eran la formación hermana del 1er Grenadiers à Pied . Tenían los mismos criterios de entrada, sin embargo, aceptaban hombres que medían 172 cm o más. Los Chasseurs estuvieron en acción en varias batallas cruciales. Tras el regreso de Napoleón en 1815, los Cazadores se expandieron a cuatro regimientos también, con los regimientos segundo, tercero y cuarto formados a partir de reclutas con solo cuatro años de experiencia. Estos regimientos también formaron el asalto de la Guardia durante la fase final de la Batalla de Waterloo. El 2º batallón del 1º Cazadores se unió al ataque principal de la Guardia Media, pero fue rechazado, mientras que el segundo custodiaba el cuartel general del emperador. Los Chasseurs à Pied vestían un hábito azul oscuro largo con vueltas rojas, charreteras rojas con flecos verdes y solapas blancas. En campaña, los Chasseurs a menudo usaban pantalones azul oscuro. Al igual que con los granaderos, el rasgo más distintivo de los cazadores era la alta piel de oso, decorada con una pluma roja sobre verde y cordones blancos.
- Guardia media ( Moyenne Garde ) : [32] Consiste en soldados veteranos de al menos 3 campañas.
- Fusileros-Cazadores : En 1806, los Fusileros-Cazadores se formaron como un regimiento de infantería de la Guardia Media. Todos los miembros de la Guardia Media eran veteranos de 2-3 campañas y fueron comisionados como suboficiales en los regimientos de línea. Posiblemente la mejor infantería de toda la Guardia, los Fusiliers-Chasseurs operaban con mayor frecuencia junto con su formación hermana, los Fusiliers-Grenadiers, como parte de una Guardia Fusilier-Brigade. Los Fusilier-Chasseurs vieron una acción extensa, demostrando su valía una y otra vez, hasta que se disolvieron en 1814 después de la abdicación de Napoleón. Los Fusiliers-Chasseurs no se reformaron en 1815 para la campaña de Waterloo . Los Fusiliers-Chasseurs vestían un hábito (o abrigo) azul oscuro con charreteras verdes con flecos rojos, espalda roja y solapas blancas. Debajo llevaban un chaleco blanco y pantalones azules o marrones. El shako de los Fusileros-Cazadores tenía cordones blancos y un penacho alto de color rojo sobre verde. Los Fusiliers-Chasseurs iban armados con un mosquete Charleville modelo 1777 , bayoneta y un sable corto.
- Fusiliers-Grenadiers:[33] Formed in 1807, the Fusiliers-Grenadiers was a regiment of Middle Guard infantry. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers was organised in the same way as the Fusiliers-Chasseurs, being a slightly larger formation. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers most often operated together with its sister formation, the Fusiliers-Chasseurs, as a part of a Guard Fusilier-Brigade. The Fusilier-Grenadiers saw extensive action, proving their worth time and time again, until they were disbanded in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers were not reformed in 1815. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers wore a dark blue habit with red epaulettes, red turnbacks, and white lapels. Under this they wore a white waistcoat and white trousers. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers wore a shako with white cords and a tall red plume. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers were armed with a Charleville model 1777 musket, bayonet, and a short sabre.
- Marines of the Guard (Marins de la Garde): Sometimes translated as Seamen of the Guard, the Marines of the Guard were formed in 1803, with their initial purpose being to man the vessel transporting the emperor during the expected crossing of the English Channel prior to the invasion of Britain. The battalion was formed with five équipages (or crews), companies in all but name. After the cancellation of the invasion, the Marines remained a part of the Guard, manning whatever boat, barge or other water vessel Napoleon traveled in, as well as acting as a combat unit. Seamen of the Guard wore navy blue hussar-style dolman jackets, laced gold, and navy blue Hungarian style trousers decorated with gold lace. They wore a shako trimmed in gold with a tall red plume.[34] Seamen were armed as infantry, with a Charleville model 1777 musket and bayonet, and many seamen were also equipped with pistols, less cumbersome during their engineering tasks.
- Young Guard (Jeune Garde):[35] Initially, the Young Guard was made up of veterans with at least one campaign under their belts, together with bright young officers and the best of the annual intake of conscripts. Later its ranks would be filled almost entirely by select conscripts and volunteers.
- Tirailleurs-Grenadiers: In 1808, Napoleon ordered the most intelligent and strongest recruits to be formed into the first regiments of the Young Guard. The tallest of the recruits were inducted into the Tirailleurs-Grenadier regiments (renamed to Tirailleurs in 1810). All officers of the Tirailleurs-Grenadiers were drawn from the Old Guard, and as such were entitled to wear bearskins. The NCOs were drawn from the Middle Guard. Having this leavening of hardened veterans helped to increase the morale and combat abilities of the Tirailleurs-Grenadiers, and its sister formations the Tirailleurs-Chasseurs. Tirailleurs-Grenadiers wore a dark blue habit with red epaulettes, dark blue turnbacks, and lapels piped white. The Tirailleurs-Grenadiers' shako had red cords with a long red plume.
- Tirailleurs-Chasseurs: The shorter recruits of the Young Guard were inducted into the Tirailleurs-Chasseurs (renamed to Voltigeurs in 1810). The formation was identical to that of the Tirailleurs-Grenadiers, with all officers being drawn from the Old Guard, and NCOs coming from the Middle Guard. Tirailleurs-Grenadiers wore a dark blue habit with red turnbacks and dark blue lapels piped white. This was further decorated by green epaulettes with red fringing. Their shako was decorated with a large plume which could be coloured either green or red over green.
A Grenadier à Pied, 1812 (Napoleon can be seen in the background)
A Grognard of the Old Guard, 1813
A Tirailleur of the 1e Regiment Tirailleurs, Young Guard, 1811
Fusilier-Grenadiers and Fusilier-Chasseurs of the Middle Guard, 1806–1814
Marines of the Guard
The four regiments of marines of the Ancien Régime disappeared on 28 January 1794.[36] The Marins (French spelling) of the Grande Armée were divided into the Bataillon des Marins de la Garde Impériale, also known eventually as the Matelots de la Garde, formed on 17 September 1803, and Matelots des Bataillons de la Marine Impériale of which some 32,000 served with the French Navy at its height of expansion by Napoleon. Units of the latter were created for service on land by conscripting naval personnel surplus to requirement of the navy. There was also the marine artillery, which were mostly naval gunners used for coastal batteries and fortresses called bataillons de la Matelot du Haut-Bord (or Les Equipages de Haut-Bord – marines of the High Shore) created by decree of Napoleon on 1 April 1808.[37] The flag of the 1er Régiment d'Artillerie de Marine survives today, and lists Lützen 1813 as one of its battle honours. Some 63 artillery batteries were manned (some numbers remaining vacant). Some examples include:[38]
- 22ième Équipage de Haut-Bord from the ship Donauwörth
- Marine Regiment de Rochefort included the 16ième bataillon de marins
- Marine equipage de vasseux Admiral de Ruyter
- Marine equipage de vasseux L’Hannibal (serving with the Regiment de Rochefort 16ième bataillon)
- 4ième Équipage de Haut-Bord de vasseux Friedland
- 5ième and 48ième Équipage de Haut-Bord de vasseux La Licorne
The Marins de la Garde (transliterated as Sailors of the Guard, but more accurately Marines of the Guard) were organised into five equipages (ship's company), each with five escouades, with a total strength of 737 men,[39] the unit having been created ostensibly for preparation of the invasion of Britain.
The unit was almost entirely destroyed in the Spanish campaign of 1808 at Bailén, but was rebuilt, and in 1810 the battalion was expanded to eight equipages with a total of 1,136 men, but this was severely reduced during the Russian campaign, and only 350 officers and men remained in its ranks by 1813. With Napoleon's first abdication, an ensign and 21 marines accompanied him to Elba, and returned with him for the Hundred Days campaign when their strength was increased to an equipage of 150 officers and men.
The marines were distinct in several ways from other Grande Armée units in that naval rather than army ranks were used, the uniform was based on that of those of the hussars, and it was the only unit of the Grande Armée in which the musicians used both the drums and the trumpets.[40]
The battalions of marine artillery were conscripted for the 1813 German Campaign, and included four regiments with the 1st regiment intended to have 8 battalions, 2nd regiment with 10 battalions, and the 3rd and 4th regiments with four battalions each, totalling 9,640 men in all[41] serving with Marshal Auguste de Marmont's VI Corps. Combined with sailor battalions, these fought as part of the Division de Marine at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden, and won high praise at the Battle of Leipzig. The Marine Guard units were disbanded in 1815.
Cavalry of the Guard
In 1804, the Cavalry of the Guard consisted of two regiments, the Chasseurs à Cheval and the Grenadiers à Cheval, along with a small unit of elite Gendarmes and a squadron of Mamelukes. A third regiment was added in 1806, the Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impériale (Later known as the Dragons de l'Imperatice, the Empress Dragoons). Following the campaign in Poland in 1807, a regiment of Polish lancers, the Regiment de Chevau-Légers de la Garde Impériale Polonais was added. The final addition was made in 1810, with another regiment of lancers, this time drawn from French and Dutch recruits, the 2e Regiment de Chevau-Légers Lanciers de la Garde Impériale or Red Lancers. The Cavalry of the Guard was involved in combat numerous times, and with few exceptions proved its worth in action.
- Imperial Guard Horse Grenadiers (Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale): Known as the Gods or the Giants, these troopers were the elite of Napoleon's Guard Cavalry and the mounted counterparts of the Grognards. The Horse Grenadiers wore tall bearskin caps, dark blue coats and collars, white lapels, and tall boots. The entire formation was mounted on large black horses. A prospective recruit had to be over 176 cm tall, have accrued 10 years of service serving in a minimum of four campaigns, and have received a citation for bravery. The Grenadiers performed admirably at Austerlitz, where they defeated the Russian Guard cavalry, but their most famous combat was at the Battle of Eylau. After standing under the fire of sixty Russian guns for a time, the troopers began to search for cover. Their commander, Colonel Louis Lepic, ordered the troops, "Up with your heads gentlemen, those are only bullets, not turds".[42] Soon after they joined Marshal Joachim Murat's charge into the Russian lines. The Horse Grenadiers, together with the Polish lancers, were the only Guard Cavalry units never beaten in battle.[citation needed]
- Imperial Guard Horse Chasseurs (Chasseurs à cheval de la Garde Impériale): Known as the Favoured Children (connotations of Spoiled Brats), the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard were the light cavalry of the Guard, Napoleon's favourites, and one of the most recognisable units in the Grande Armée. In 1796, during the Italian campaign, Napoleon ordered the formation of a bodyguard unit after he narrowly escaped an attack by Austrian light cavalry at Borghetto while at lunch.[43] This 200-man unit of Guides was the forerunner of the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard, and their close affiliation with the emperor was shown by the fact that he often wore the uniform of a colonel of their regiment. In their flamboyant green, red, and gold hussar style uniforms, the Chasseurs were known to exploit their position as the emperor's favourites, showing poor discipline and even insubordination on some occasions. They first saw combat during the Battle of Austerlitz, where they played a role in defeating the Russian Guard cavalry. During the Peninsular War, the Chasseurs were ambushed by a large British cavalry force at Benavente in 1808 and were defeated. They regained their reputation by showing extreme bravery during the Battle of Waterloo.[citation needed]
- Elite Gendarmes (Gendarmerie d'Elite): Nicknamed the Immortals because they rarely saw combat, the Gendarmes nonetheless performed a vital role. Gendarmes were the military police of the Grande Armée. Along with maintaining security and order near the headquarters, the Gendarmes would provide honour guards for high-ranking visitors, interrogate prisoners, and protect the emperor's personal baggage. The Gendarmes wore dark blue coats with red lapels and tall boots, along with a bearskin cap slightly smaller than that of the Horse Grenadiers. After 1807, the Gendarmes began to see more combat, distinguishing themselves in guarding the Danube bridges at Aspern-Essling in 1809.[citation needed]
- Squadron of Mamelukes (Escadron de Mamelouks): Fearsome desert warriors, whose loyalty Napoleon purchased during his Egyptian campaign. They combined superb horsemanship and swordsmanship with fanatical courage. Often romantically viewed as "authentic sons of the desert" or even "head-hunters", their officers were French, the NCOs and ranks comprising not only Egyptians and Turks, but also Greeks, Georgians, Syrians, and Cypriots as well, and even many of them were French. Originally they were an attached company (or "Half-Squadron") of the Chasseurs a Cheval de la Garde. They distinguished themselves at Austerlitz in 1805, winning their own standard, a second trumpeter and promotion to full squadron. This unit eventually became part of the Old Guard, and served the emperor right up to Waterloo. In 1813, a second Mameluke company was raised and attached to the Young Guard. As with their predecessors, they were incorporated into the Chasseurs, and served alongside them during the Hundred Days in 1815. By this time, the personnel being almost exclusively Frenchmen. Their distinct and colourful uniforms consisted of a green (later red) cahouk (hat), white turban, a loose shirt and a vest and red saroual (baggy trousers), with yellow, red, or tan boots. Their weapons consisted of a long, curved Scimitar, a brace of pistols, and a dagger. Their hats and weapons were inscribed with a crescent and star insignia of brass.[citation needed]
- Lancers of the Guard (Chevau-Légers-Lanciers de la Garde Impériale):[44]
- 1st Light Horse Regiment (Polish): In 1807 Napoleon authorized the raising of a guard regiment of Polish light cavalry. They were to be given French instructors and training. But during their first review before the emperor, their ranks became so entangled that Napoleon quipped, "These people only know how to fight!" and dismissed their instructors on the spot. But he kept his Polish cavalrymen by his side and the following year at Somosierra they would have another opportunity to prove themselves, on the battlefield instead of the parade ground. Napoleon ordered them to charge against a heavily fortified Spanish artillery position. Armed with only sabres and pistols, they overran four batteries, capturing over 20 cannons and decisively turned the tide. Following this, almost legendary, feat Napoleon proclaimed "Poles, You are worthy of my Old Guard I proclaim you my bravest cavalry!". Promoted to the Old Guard, they were then given lances, remained at the Emperor's side until Waterloo, and were never defeated by enemy cavalry. The 1e Regiment of the Guard developed a rivalry with their fellow Poles of the 1st Vistula Uhlans. This was not simply based on who was the better unit, but on deep political differences as well, with the lancers being fanatical Bonapartists, while many, if not most, of the uhlans held fiercely Republican sentiments. Such differences, political and otherwise, between units were not unusual and are well illustrated here. From being instructed by the French, they, along with their Vistula rivals, would go on to serve as instructors and models for the French and most other lancer regiments of the Grande Armée, thus greatly multiplying their fearsome effectiveness.[citation needed]
- 2nd Light Horse Regiment (French-Dutch): Formed in 1810 from a French and Dutch cadre. They were called Les Lanciers Rouges (the Red Lancers) due to their distinctive uniforms. They too suffered heavily in Russia at the hands of the Cossacks and the hardships of the winter, with most of its men and all but a handful of the horses lost. The regiment was rebuilt in 1813 and it became a powerful unit with its first four squadrons of veterans in the Old Guard and the new recruits of 6 junior squadrons in the Young Guard. They would distinguish themselves in numerous engagements, including Waterloo.
- 3rd Light Horse Regiment (Polish): Formed in 1812 as part of the Young Guard, its officers and NCOs were veterans, but its ranks were filled by enthusiastic yet inexperienced students and sons of Polish and Lithuanian landholders. With little training, they were thrown into the Russian campaign where they were surrounded and the entire regiment wiped out at Slonim later that year by Cossacks and hussars.
- 1st Light Horse Regiment (Polish): In 1807 Napoleon authorized the raising of a guard regiment of Polish light cavalry. They were to be given French instructors and training. But during their first review before the emperor, their ranks became so entangled that Napoleon quipped, "These people only know how to fight!" and dismissed their instructors on the spot. But he kept his Polish cavalrymen by his side and the following year at Somosierra they would have another opportunity to prove themselves, on the battlefield instead of the parade ground. Napoleon ordered them to charge against a heavily fortified Spanish artillery position. Armed with only sabres and pistols, they overran four batteries, capturing over 20 cannons and decisively turned the tide. Following this, almost legendary, feat Napoleon proclaimed "Poles, You are worthy of my Old Guard I proclaim you my bravest cavalry!". Promoted to the Old Guard, they were then given lances, remained at the Emperor's side until Waterloo, and were never defeated by enemy cavalry. The 1e Regiment of the Guard developed a rivalry with their fellow Poles of the 1st Vistula Uhlans. This was not simply based on who was the better unit, but on deep political differences as well, with the lancers being fanatical Bonapartists, while many, if not most, of the uhlans held fiercely Republican sentiments. Such differences, political and otherwise, between units were not unusual and are well illustrated here. From being instructed by the French, they, along with their Vistula rivals, would go on to serve as instructors and models for the French and most other lancer regiments of the Grande Armée, thus greatly multiplying their fearsome effectiveness.[citation needed]
- Empress Dragoons (Dragons de l'Impératice): Formed in 1806 as the Imperial Guard Dragoon Regiment (Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impériale), it was renamed in honor of Empress Joséphine the following year. Originally, candidates had to have at least 6 (later 10) years of service, participated in no fewer than 2 campaigns with citations for bravery, be literate, and at least 173 cm tall (slightly shorter than for the Horse Grenadier Guards). No more than 12 candidates from each of the 30 regular dragoon regiments were allowed to apply at any one call, this quota would later be reduced to 10. Volunteers from other guard regiments were also allowed to transfer. Since this was as much a ceremonial as a combat unit and was rarely committed in battle, billets in the Empress Dragoons were highly sought after positions. As with the Red Lancers, it had squadrons in both the Old and Young Guards and served with the emperor until the end.
- Scouts of the Imperial Guard (Eclaireurs de la Garde Impériale): During the retreat from Moscow, Napoleon was highly impressed by the skills of many regiments of Cossacks. He used them as a model to create a new cavalry brigade, the Scouts, which were formed during the reorganisation of the Imperial Guard in December 1813. 3 regiments of a thousand men each were created and their squadrons attached to existing regiments:
- 1st Regiment: scouts-grenadiers under Colonel-Major Claude Testot-Ferry's command (wounded and titled Baron of the Empire by Napoleon himself on the battlefield of Craonne on 7 March 1814)
- 2nd Regiment: scouts-dragoons under Colonel Hoffmayer's command
- 3rd Regiment: scouts-lanciers under Jean Kozietulski's command
The scouts had only the time to distinguish themselves during the defence of France in 1814 and were dissolved by King Louis XVIII upon the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.
Infantry
While the infantry was perhaps not the most glamorous arm of service in the Grand Armée, they bore the brunt of most of the fighting, and their performance resulted in victory or defeat. The infantry was divided up into two major types, the Infantry of the Line (Infanterie de Ligne) and the Light Infantry (Infanterie Légère).
Line Infantry
The line infantry made up the majority of the Grande Armée. In 1803, Napoleon had reinstated the term "regiment", the revolutionary term "demi-brigade" (due to the fact there were two per brigade and it lacked the royal connotations) was now only used for provisional troops and depot units. At the time of the formation of the Grande Armée, the French Army had 133 Régiments de Ligne, a number which roughly corresponded with the number of départements in France. There would eventually be 156 Ligne regiments
The Régiments de Ligne varied in size throughout the Napoleonic Wars, but the basic building block of the Infantry of the Line was the battalion. A line infantry battalion was numbered at about 840 men; however, this was the battalion's 'full strength' and few units ever reached this. A more typical strength for a battalion would be 400–600 men. From 1800 to 1803, a line infantry battalion had eight fusilier companies and one grenadier company. From 1804 to 1807, a line infantry battalion had seven fusilier companies, one grenadier company, and one voltigeur company. From 1808 to 1815, a line infantry battalion had four companies of fusiliers, one company of grenadiers, and one company of voltigeurs. According to the 1808 regulation,[45][46] the staff of each company and the regiment HQ was the following:
Rank/position | Number | |
---|---|---|
English | French | |
Captain | Capitaine | 1 |
Lieutenant | Lieutenant | 1 |
Second lieutenant | Sous-lieutenant | 1 |
Sergeant major | Sergent-major | 1 |
Sergeant | Sergent | 4 |
Corporal-quartermaster | Caporal-fourrier | 1 |
Corporal | Caporal | 8 |
Private | Soldat | 121 |
Drummer | Tambour | 2 |
Total | 140 |
Rank/position | Number | |
---|---|---|
English | French | |
Colonel | Colonel | 1 |
Major | Major | 1 |
Battalion commander | Chef de bataillon | 4 |
Adjutant major | Adjudant-major | 5 |
Quartermaster treasurer | Quartier-maître trésorier | 1 |
Paymaster officer | Officier payeur | 1 |
Eagle bearer | Porte-aigle | 3 |
Surgeon major | Chirurgien-major | 1 |
Surgeon's assistant | Aide chirurgien | 4 |
Sub-assistant | Sous aide | 5 |
Adjudant sub-officer | Adjudant sous-officier | 10 |
Drum major | Mambour major | 1 |
Drum corporal | Caporal tambour | 1 |
Musician | Musicien | 8 |
Master craftsman | Maîtres ouvrier | 4 |
Total | 50 |
In total, there were supposed to be 3,970 men in a regiment (840 in each four main battalions, and 560 in the rear battalion), among them 108 officers and 3,862 noncommissioned officers and privates.[45]
Grenadiers
Grenadiers were the elite of the line infantry and the veteran shock troops of the Grande Armée. Newly formed battalions did not have a grenadier company; rather, Napoleon ordered that after two campaigns, several of the strongest, bravest, and tallest fusiliers were to be promoted to a grenadier company, so each line battalion which had seen more than two campaigns had one company of grenadiers.
Regulations required that grenadier recruits were to be the tallest, most fearsome men in the regiments, and all were to have moustaches. To add to this, grenadiers were initially equipped with a bonnet à poil or bearskin, as well as red epaulettes on their coat. After 1807, regulations stipulated that line grenadiers were to replace their bearskin with a shako lined red with a red plume; however, many chose to retain their bearskins. In addition to the standard Charleville model 1777 and bayonet, grenadiers were also equipped with a short sabre. This was to be used for close combat, but most often ended up serving as a tool to cut wood for campfires.
A grenadier company would usually be situated on the right side of a formation, traditionally the place of greatest honour since the days of hoplite warfare in which a corps' right flank had less protection from the shield line of its formation. During a campaign, grenadier companies could be detached to form a grenadier battalion or occasionally a regiment or brigade. These formations would then be used as a shock force or the vanguard for a larger formation.
Voltigeurs of the Line
Voltigeurs (literally, Vaulters or Leapers) were elite light infantry of the line regiments. In 1805, Napoleon ordered that the smallest, most agile men of the line battalions be chosen to form a voltigeur company. These troops were to be second only to the grenadiers in the battalion hierarchy. Their name comes from their original mission. Voltigeurs were to vault upon horses of friendly cavalry for faster movement, an idea which proved impractical if not outright impossible. Despite this, the voltigeurs did perform a valuable task, skirmishing and providing scouts for each battalion, as well as providing an organic light infantry component for each line regiment. In training, emphasis was placed on marksmanship and quick movement.
Voltigeurs were equipped with large yellow and green or yellow and red plumes for their bicornes. After 1807, their shakos were lined with yellow and carried similar plumes. They also had yellow epaulettes lined green and a yellow collar on their coats.
Originally, voltigeurs were to be equipped with the short dragoon musket, however in practice, they were equipped with the Charleville model 1777 and bayonet. Like grenadiers, voltigeurs were equipped with a short sabre for close combat, and like grenadiers this was rarely used. Voltigeur companies could be detached and formed into regiments or brigades to create a light infantry formation. After 1808, the voltigeur company was situated on the left of the line when in combat. This was traditionally the second highest position of honour in the line of battle.
Fusiliers
The fusiliers made up the majority of a line infantry battalion, and may be considered the typical infantryman of the Grande Armée. Fusiliers were armed with a smoothbore, muzzle-loaded flintlock Charleville model 1777 musket and a bayonet. Fusilier training placed emphasis on speed of march and endurance, along with individually aimed fire at close range and close quarters combat. This differed greatly from the training given to the majority of European armies, which emphasised moving in rigid formations and firing massed volleys. Many of the early Napoleonic victories were due to the ability of the French armies to cover long distances with speed, and this ability was thanks to the training given to the infantry. From 1803, each battalion comprised eight fusilier companies. Each company numbered around 120 men.
In 1805, one of the fusilier companies was dissolved and reformed as a voltigeur company. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the infantry battalion from nine to six companies. The new companies were to be larger, comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up of fusiliers, one of grenadiers, and one of voltigeurs.
The fusiliers wore a bicorne, until this was superseded by the shako in 1807. The uniform of a fusilier consisted of white trousers, white surcoat and a dark blue coat (the habit long model until 1812, thereafter the habit veste) with white lapels, red collar and cuffs. Each fusilier wore a coloured pom-pom on his hat. The colour of this pom-pom changed depending on the company the man belonged to, as military uniforms reached their excessive pinnacle at around this period in time. After the 1808 reorganisation, the first company was issued with a dark green pom-pom, the second with sky blue, the third with orange and the fourth with violet.
Light Infantry
While the infantry of the line made up the majority of the Grande Armée's infantry, the Infanterie Légère (Light Infantry) also played an important role. The Légère regiments never numbered more than 36 (compared with the 133 of the Ligne regiments), and the Ligne could perform all the same manoeuvres, including skirmishes. The difference laid in the training and the resulting high esprit de corps.
Training for Légère units placed strong emphasis on marksmanship and fast movement. As a result, the general Légère soldier was able to shoot more accurately and move faster than his Ligne counterpart. Légère regiments tended to see more action and were often used to screen large manoeuvres. Naturally, because commanders turned to the Légère for more missions than the Ligne, the Légère troopers enjoyed a higher esprit de corps and were known for their flamboyant uniforms and attitude. Also, Légère troops were required to be shorter than line troops, which helped them to move quickly through forests as well as to hide behind obstacles when skirmishing. The formation of a Légère battalion exactly mirrored that of a line infantry battalion, but different troop types were substituted for the grenadiers, fusiliers and voltigeurs.
Carabiniers-à-Pied
The carabiniers were the grenadiers of the Légère battalions. After two campaigns, the tallest and bravest chasseurs were chosen to join a carabinier company. They performed as elite shock troops for the battalion. As with the grenadiers, carabiniers were required to wear moustaches. They were armed with the Charleville model 1777, a bayonet, and a short sabre. The carabinier uniform consisted of a tall bearskin cap (superseded in 1807 by a red trimmed shako with a red plume). They wore the same uniform as the chasseurs, but with red epaulettes. Carabinier companies could be detached to form larger all carabinier formations for assaults or other operations requiring assault troops.
Light Voltigeurs
Voltigeurs performed exactly the same mission in the Légère battalion as they did in the line battalions, only they were more nimble and better marksmen. The Légère voltigeurs were dressed as chasseurs, but with yellow and green epaulettes and before 1806, a colpack (or busby) replaced the shako. The colpack had a large yellow over red plume and green cords. After 1807, a shako replaced the colpack, with a large yellow plume and yellow lining. As with the line voltigeurs, légère voltigeurs could be detached and used to form larger formations as needed.
Chasseurs
Chasseurs (Hunters) were the fusiliers of the Légère battalions. They made up the majority of the formation. They were armed with the Charleville model 1777 musket and a bayonet, and also with a short sabre for close combat. As was common in the Grande Armée, this weapon was quickly blunted by being used to chop wood for fires.
From 1803, each battalion comprising eight chasseur companies. Each company numbered around 120 men. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the infantry battalion from nine to six companies. The new companies were to be larger, comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up of chasseurs.
The chasseurs had far more ornate uniforms than their contemporaries the fusiliers. Until 1806, they were equipped with a cylindrical shako with a large dark green plume and decorated with white cords. Their uniform was a darker blue than that of the line regiments, to aid with camouflage while skirmishing. Their coat was similar to that of the line troops, but their lapels and cuffs were also dark blue, and it featured dark green and red epaulettes. They also wore dark blue trousers and high imitation hussar boots. After 1807, the cylindrical shako was replaced with the standard shako, but was still embellished by white cords. As with the line fusiliers, chasseur companies were distinguished by coloured pom-poms, but the colours for the different companies changed from regiment to regiment.
A grenadier of the line, c. 1812
Officers of Infanterie Légère, 1803–1815
Chasseurs of Infanterie Légère, 1806
Cavalry
By decree of the emperor himself, cavalry typically were between a fifth and a sixth of the Grande Armée. Cavalry regiments of 800–1,200 men were made up of three or four escadrons of two companies each, plus supporting elements. In light cavalry and dragoon regiments, the first company of every regiment's first escadron, was always designated as 'elite', with presumably, the best men and horses. In the revolution's wake, the cavalry suffered the greatest from the loss of experienced aristocratic officers and NCOs still loyal to the Ancien Régime. Consequently, the quality of French cavalry drastically declined. Napoleon rebuilt the branch, turning it into arguably the finest in the world. Until 1812, it was undefeated in any large engagements above the regimental level. There were two primary types of cavalry for different roles, heavy and light.
Heavy cavalry
Carabiniers-à-Cheval (Horse Carabiners)
The elite among all French heavy cavalry line formations, the two regiments of mounted carabiniers had a very similar appearance with the mounted grenadiers of the Imperial Guard; bearskins, long blue coats, etc. and were mounted exclusively on black horses prior to 1813. They were largely used in identical manner to the Cuirassiers, but being (initially) unarmored, they were less suited for close-quarters, melee combat. Unarmored heavy cavalry was the norm in Europe during most of the Napoleonic Wars, with the French being the first to reintroduce the back-and-breastplate. In 1809, appalled by their mauling at the hands of Austrian uhlans, Napoleon ordered that they be given armour. The carabinier's refusal to copy the less elite cuirassiers resulted in them being given special armor, with their helmets and cuirasses being sheathed in bronze for added visual effect. But this did not prevent them from being defeated by Russian cuirassiers at Borodino in 1812, and panicking before Hungarian hussars at Leipzig the following year.
Cuirassiers
The heavy cavalry, wearing a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and helmets of brass and iron and armed with straight long sabers, pistols, and later carbines. Like medieval knights, they served as mounted shock troops. Because of the weight of their armour and weapons, both the trooper and the horse had to be big and strong, and could put a lot of force behind their charge. Though the cuirass could not protect against direct musket fire, it could deflect ricochets and shots from long range, and offered some protection from pistol shots. More importantly, the breastplates protected against the swords and lances of opposing cavalry. Napoleon often combined together all of his cuirassiers and carabiniers into a cavalry reserve, to be used at the decisive moment of the battle. In this manner, they proved to be an extremely potent force on the battlefield. The British, in particular, who mistakenly believed the cuirassiers were Napoleon's bodyguard, and would later come to adapt their distinctive helmets and breastplates for their own Household Cavalry. There were originally 25 cuirassier regiments, reduced to 12 by Napoleon initially who later added three more. At the beginning of his rule, most of the cuirassier regiments were severely understrength, so Napoleon ordered the best men and horses to be allocated to the first 12 regiments, while the rest were reorganised into dragoons.
Dragoons
The medium-weight mainstays of the French cavalry, although considered heavy cavalry, who were used for battle, skirmishing, and scouting. They were highly versatile being armed not only with distinctive straight swords, but also muskets with bayonets enabling them to fight as infantry as well as mounted, though fighting on foot had become increasingly uncommon for dragoons of all armies in the decades preceding Napoleon. The versatility of a dual-purpose soldier came at the cost of their horsemanship and swordsmanship often not being up to the same standards as those of other cavalry. Finding enough large horses proved a challenge. Some infantry officers were even required to give up their mounts for the dragoons, creating resentment towards them from this branch as well. There were 25, later 30, dragoon regiments. In 1815, only 15 could be raised and mounted in time for the Waterloo campaign.
Light cavalry
Hussars
These fast, light cavalrymen were the eyes, ears, and egos of the Napoleonic armies. They regarded themselves as the best horsemen and swordsmen (beau sabreurs) in the entire Grande Armée. This opinion was not entirely unjustified and their flamboyant uniforms reflected their panache. Tactically, they were used for reconnaissance, skirmishing, and screening for the army to keep their commanders informed of enemy movements while denying the enemy the same information and to pursue fleeing enemy troops. Armed only with curved sabres and pistols, they had reputations for reckless bravery to the point of being almost suicidal. It was said by their most famous commander General Antoine Lasalle that a hussar who lived to be 30 was truly an old guard and very fortunate. Lasalle was killed at the Battle of Wagram at age 34. There were 10 regiments in 1804, with an 11th added in 1810 and two more in 1813.
Chasseurs à Cheval (Mounted Hunters)
These were light cavalry identical to hussars in arms and role. But, unlike the chasseurs of the Imperial Guard and their infantry counterparts, they were considered less prestigious or elite. Their uniforms were less colourful as well, consisting of infantry-style shakos (in contrast to the fur busby worn by some French hussars), green coats, green breeches, and short boots. They were, however, the most numerous of the light cavalry, with 31 regiments in 1811, 6 of which comprised Flemish, Swiss, Italians and Germans. was a cavalry composed of chasseurs but on the horse, they could load into melee or shoot as light infantry
Lancers
Some of the most feared cavalry in the Grande Armée were the Polish lancers of the Vistula Uhlans. Nicknamed Hell's Picadors or Los Diablos Polacos (The Polish Devils) by the Spanish, these medium and light horse (Chevau-Légers Lanciers) cavalry had near equal speed to the hussars, shock power almost as great as the cuirassiers, and were nearly as versatile as the dragoons. They were armed with, as their name indicates, lances along with sabres and pistols. Initially, French ministers of war insisted on arming all lancers identically. Real battlefield experience, however, proved that the Polish way of arming only the first line with lance while the second rank carried carbines instead was much more practical and thus was adopted. Lancers were the best cavalry for charging against infantry squares, where their lances could outreach the infantry's bayonets, (as was the case with Colborne's British brigade at Albuera in 1811) and also in hunting down a routed enemy. Their ability to scour and finish off the wounded without ever stepping off their saddle created perfect scenes of horror for the enemy. They could be deadly against other types of cavalry as well, most famously demonstrated by the fate of Sir William Ponsonby and his Scots Greys at Waterloo. Excluding those of the Guard, there were 9 lancer regiments.
A Carabiniers-à-Cheval
A dragoon officer of the 21ème Régiment de Dragons
French 4th Hussars at the Battle of Friedland
A lancer of the Régiment de la Vistule Uhlans
Artillery
The emperor was a former artillery officer, and reportedly said "God fights on the side with the best artillery."[47] As such, French cannons were the backbone of the Grande Armée, possessing the greatest firepower of the three arms and hence the ability to inflict the most casualties in the least amount of time. The French guns were often used in massed batteries (or grandes batteries) to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines.
Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by General Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster, and much easier to sight, as well as strengthened the carriages and introduced standard sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4-pounders, 8-pounders, or 12-pounders and 6-inch (150 mm) howitzers with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the Napoleonic Wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels, and limbers were painted olive-green. Superb organisation fully integrated the artillery into the infantry and cavalry units it supported, yet also allowed it to operate independently if the need arose. There were two basic types, Artillerie à pied (foot artillery) and Artillerie à cheval (horse artillery).
Foot artillery
As the name indicates, these gunners marched alongside their guns, which were, of course, pulled by horses when limbered (undeployed). Hence, they travelled at the infantry's pace or slower. In 1805, there were eight, later ten, regiments of foot artillery in the Grande Armée plus two more in the Imperial Guard, but unlike cavalry and infantry regiments, these were administrative organisations. The main operational and tactical units were the batteries (or companies) of 120 men each, which were formed into brigades and assigned to the divisions and corps.
- Divisional artillery: Every division had a brigade of three or four batteries of 8 guns (six cannons and two howitzers) each.
- Corps artillery reserve: Each corps would also have its own artillery reserve, of one of more brigades, armed mostly with the larger, heavier calibre pieces.
Battery personnel included not only gun crews, NCOs, and officers, but drummers, trumpeters, metal workers, woodworkers, ouvriers, furriers, and artificers. They would be responsible for fashioning spare parts, maintaining and repairing the guns, carriages, caissons and wagons, as well as tending the horses and storing munitions.
Horse artillery
The cavalry were supported by the fast moving, fast firing light guns of the horse artillery. This arm was a hybrid of cavalry and artillery with their crews riding either on the horses or on the carriages into battle. Because they operated much closer to the front lines, the officers and crews were better armed and trained for close quarters combat, mounted or dismounted much as were the dragoons. Once in position, they were trained to quickly dismount, unlimber (deploy), and sight their guns, then fire rapid barrages at the enemy. They could then quickly limber (undeploy) the guns, remount, and move on to a new position. To accomplish this, they had to be the best trained and most elite of all artillerymen. The horse batteries of the Imperial Guard could go from riding at full gallop to firing their first shot in just under a minute. After witnessing such a performance, an astounded Duke of Wellington remarked, "They move their cannon as if it were a pistol!" There were 6 administrative regiments of horse artillery plus one in the Guard. In addition to the batteries assigned to the cavalry units, Napoleon would also assign at least one battery to each infantry corps or, if available, to each division. Their abilities came at a price, however, as horse batteries were very expensive to raise and maintain. Consequently, they were far fewer in number than their foot counterparts, typically constituting only one fifth of the artillery's strength. It was a boastful joke among their ranks that the emperor knew every horse gunner by name. Besides better training, horses, weapons, and equipment, they used far more ammunition. Horse batteries were given twice the ammo ration of the foot, three times that of the Guard.
Ammunition
Of all the types of ammunition used in the Napoleonic Wars, the cast iron, spherical, round shot was the staple of the gunner. Even at long range when the shot was travelling relatively slowly it could be deadly, though it might appear to be bouncing or rolling along the ground relatively gently. At short range, carnage could result.[48]
Round shots were undeniably inaccurate. This was because, despite their name, round shots were never perfectly spherical, nor did they fit their gun barrels exactly. Air acted on the irregular surface of the projectile. These irregularities invariably threw them off target to some degree. It is often also a matter of confusion as to why a 12pdr shot was so much more effective than a 6pdr shot. This is because the impact of a shot was not only related to its weight but also to its velocity, which, with a heavier projectile, was much greater at the end of the trajectory.[48]
There were two forms of close-range weapons, which were extremely useful at up to 270m (300 yards). Grapeshot and canister, or case, were the anti-personnel weapons of choice of the gunner. Grape was a cluster of large metal spheres tied together around a central spindle and base and normally sewn into a bag, whereas canister was a metal case filled with smaller iron or lead spheres. The whole purpose of these types of shot was to break up when fired from the gun forming a wide cone of flying metal that acted in the same way as a shotgun cartridge.[49]
For longer-range anti-personnel work, the common shell was also used. This was normally only fired from a mortar or howitzer and was a hollow sphere filled with gunpowder charge. The top of the shell had thinner walls than the bottom and had an orifice into which was forced a wooden fuse normally made of beech wood. The fuse was designed to be ignited by the discharge of the gun and had a central channel drilled through it and filled with a burning compound. Before firing, the fuse was cut to a certain length corresponding to the desired time of burning and hammered into the top of the shell by a mallet. When it arrived over the target, the fuse, if correctly prepared, exploded the main charge, breaking open the metal outer casing and forcing flying fragments in all directions. Although favoured for siege work, the common shell was not always effective against infantry.[50]
The final type of projectile for the field artillery used by the French was the incendiary or carcass (a name for an incendiary projectile). Initially, this device was composed of a metal frame, which was covered with a canvas cover and filled with a special recipe, typically 50 saltpetre parts, 25 sulfur parts, 8 rosin parts, 5 antimony parts, and 5 pitch parts. However, during the early 19th century, another form of carcass became common and this took the form of a common shell with two or three apertures in its exterior into which a similar composition was put. Carcass rounds were normally issued only to howitzers or mortars, the suggestion being they were intended to attack towns. This does not preclude them from being used on the field, but quite what their purpose would have been there is not clear.[51]
It is important to know that not all nations shared the same types of artillery projectiles. For example, the Congreve rocket, inspired from the Mysorean rocket artillery, or the shrapnel shell, which combined the killing effect of grapeshot with the ranges achieved by round shot, were used only by the British Army.[50]
Artillery train
The train d'artillerie, was established by Napoleon in January 1800. Its function was to provide the teamsters and drivers which handled the horses that hauled the artillery's vehicles.[52] Prior to this, the French, like all other period armies, had employed contracted, civilian teamsters who would sometimes abandon the guns under fire, rendering them immobile, rather than risk their lives or their valuable teams of horses.[53] Its personnel, unlike their civilian predecessors, were armed, trained, and uniformed as soldiers. Apart from making them look better on parade, this made them subject to military discipline and capable of fighting back if attacked. The drivers were armed with a carbine, a short sword of the same type used by the infantry, and a pistol. They needed little encouragement to use these weapons, earning surly reputations for gambling, brawling, and various forms of mischief. Their uniforms and coats of grey helped enhance their tough appearance. But their combativeness could prove useful as they often found themselves attacked by Cossacks and Spanish and Tyrolian guerillas.
Each train d'artillerie battalion was originally composed of 5 companies. The first company was considered elite and assigned to a horse artillery battery; the three "centre" companies were assigned to the foot artillery batteries and "parks" (spare caissons, field forges, supply wagons, etc.); and one became a depot company for training recruits and remounts. Following the campaigns of 1800, the train was re-organised into eight battalions of six companies each. As Napoleon enlarged his artillery, additional battalions were created, rising to a total of fourteen in 1810. In 1809, 1812, and 1813 the first thirteen battalions were "doubled" to create 13 additional battalions. Additionally, after 1809 some battalions raised extra companies to handle the regimental guns attached to the infantry.[53]
The Imperial Guard had its own train, which expanded as La Garde's artillery park was increased, albeit organised as regiments rather than battalions. At their zenith, in 1813–14, the Old Guard artillery was supported by a 12-company regiment while the Young Guard had a 16-company regiment, one for each of their component artillery batteries.[54]
Foreign troops in the Grande Armée
Many European armies recruited foreign troops, and France was no exception. Foreign troops played an important role and fought with distinction in the Grande Armée during the Napoleonic Wars. Almost every continental European country was, at different stages, a part of the Grande Armée. By the end of the conflict, tens-of-thousands had served. In 1805, 35,000 troops from France's allies were used to protect lines of communications and flanks of the main army. In 1806, 27,000 more troops were called up for similar purposes, plus 20,000 Saxon troops who were used for mopping up operations against the Prussians. In the winter of 1806–7, Germans, Poles, and Spaniards helped seize the Baltic ports of Stralsund and Danzig on the army's left flank. At the Battle of Friedland in 1807, Marshal Jean Lannes' corps was formed considerably from Poles, Saxons, and Dutch. For the first time, foreign troops had played a role in a major battle, and done so with distinction. During the War of the Fifth Coalition, as many as one-third of the Grande Armée, were from the Confederation of the Rhine,[55] and one-quarter of the Army in Italy was Italian. At the Grande Armée's peak in 1812, more than one-third of the troops that marched into Russia were non-French and represented 20 different countries, including Austria and Prussia. General Julius von Grawert initially led the Prussian detachment, but was replaced by General Ludwig Yorck.
Servicios de apoyo
Engineers
While the glory of battle went to the cavalry, infantry, and artillery, the army also included military engineers of various types.
The bridge builders of the Grande Armée, the pontonniers, were an indispensable part of Napoleon's military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting pontoon bridges. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Napoleon to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Berezina River.
They may not have had the glory, but Napoleon clearly valued his pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies, under the command of the brilliant engineer, General Jean Baptiste Eblé. His training, along with their specialized tools and equipment, enabled them to quickly build the various parts of the bridges, which could then be rapidly assembled and reused later. All the needed materials, tools, and parts were carried on their wagon trains. If they did not have a part or item, it could be quickly made using the mobile wagon-mounted forges of the pontonniers. A single company of pontonniers could construct a bridge of up to 80 pontoons (a span of some 120 to 150 metres long) in just under seven hours, an impressive feat even by today's standards.
In addition to the pontonniers, there were companies of sappers, to deal with enemy fortifications. They were used far less often in their intended role than the pontonniers. However, since the emperor had learned in his early campaigns (such as the Siege of Acre) that it was better to bypass and isolate fixed fortifications, if possible, than to directly assault them, the sapper companies were usually put to other tasks.
The different types of engineer companies were formed into battalions and regiments called Génie, which was originally a slang term for engineer. This name, which is still used today, was both a play on the word (jeu de mot) and a reference to their seemingly magical abilities to grant wishes and make things appear much like the mythical Genie.
Logistics
One of Napoleon's most quoted lines is his dictum that "An army is a creature which marches on its stomach", illustrating the vital importance of military logistics. The troops of the Grande Armée each carried four days' provisions. The supply wagon trains following them carried eight days', but these were to be consumed only in emergency. One man was allotted to 750 grams of bread, 550 grams of biscuits, 250 grams of meat, 30 grams of rice, and 60 grams of grain; one liter of wine was shared between four men. Insofar as possible, Napoleon encouraged his men to live off the land through foraging and requisition of food (which was known as La Maraude). An integral part of the French logistics system was the inclusion in every regiment of several women known as cantinières (also known as vivandières, but cantinière was by far the more common term among French troops). These women were married to soldiers in their regiments, and acted as sutlers, selling food and drink (especially alcohol) to the troops. They were considered "absolutely necessary" to the functioning of the army, and the Consular Decree of 7 Thermidor, Year VIII set their number at four per battalion and two per cavalry squadron.[56] These women fed the troops when all other logistical arrangements broke down.
Additional supplies would be stockpiled and stored at forward bases and depots which Napoleon would establish before the start of his campaigns. These would then be moved forward as the army advanced. The supply bases of the Grande Armée would replenish the corps and divisional depots, which in turn would replenish the brigade and regimental supply trains, which would distribute rations and ammunition to the troops as needed to supplement their foraging. The reliance on foraging was sometimes determined by political pressures. When marching over friendly territory armies were told to "live off what the country can supply", but when marching over neutral territory they were issued with supplies. It was this system of planned and improvised logistics which enabled the Grande Armée to sustain rapid marches of up to 15 miles per day for up to five weeks. The logistical system was also aided by a technological innovation in the form of the food preservation technique invented by Nicolas Appert, which led to modern canning methods.
Medical Staff
The medical services had the least glory or prestige, but were required to deal with the full horrors of the war's aftermath. The technology and practice of military medicine did not advance significantly during the Napoleonic Wars, but the Grande Armée did benefit from improvements in organisation and mobility. The established practice was for the wounded to be collected and treated after the battle had ended, by which time many wounded soldiers would have died. The systems adopted by the French Army in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period were the forerunners of almost all modern military ambulance and triage systems, being adopted by the armies of most other Western nations in the following decades.
The most significant innovation was the establishment of a system of ambulances volantes (flying ambulances) in the closing years of the 18th century by Dominique Jean Larrey (who would later become Surgeon-General of the Imperial Guard). His inspiration was the use of fast horse artillery, or "flying artillery", which could manoeuver rapidly around the battlefield to provide urgent artillery support, or to escape an advancing enemy. The flying ambulance was designed to follow the advance guard and provide initial dressing of wounds (often under fire), while rapidly transporting the critically injured away from the battlefield. The personnel for a given ambulance team included a doctor, quartermaster, non-commissioned officer, a drummer boy (who carried the bandages), and 24 infantrymen as stretcher bearers.[57]
Another French military surgeon, Baron L.P. Percy, implemented another system. He was the first to introduce "a regularly trained corps of field litter bearers, soldiers regularly formed and equipped for the duty of picking up the wounded... and carrying them on stretchers to the place where means of surgical aid were provided". Percy's system essentially served as a method of moving surgeons and their instruments closer to the engaged forces from where stretcher bearers would retrieve the wounded, rather than placing an emphasis on evacuating the wounded to the rear in a vehicle.
During the Napoleonic Wars, every French regiment, division, and corps had its own medical staff, consisting of ambulance units, orderlies to perform nursing duties, apothecaries, surgeons, and doctors. Larrey was instrumental in reorganising military hospitals and making them more mobile. This was more than any other army would be able to offer until the 1850s and 1860s, half a century later. Knowing that they would be promptly attended to, then honored and well looked after once back home, helped boost morale in the Grande Armée, and thus further contributed to its fighting abilities. The most revolutionary aspect of the system was Larrey's attention to the wounded on both sides of the battlefield, a practice now enshrined in various Geneva Conventions. Napoleon held the French medical services, and Larrey, in high regard. As stated in the Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène, "The Emperor had only the highest praise for Dr Larrey, declaring that he left him with the image of a truly good man who combined all the virtues of effective philanthropy and science to the highest degree. Every wounded soldier was a member of his family. Larrey is the most virtuous man I have ever met."
Despite these innovations, conditions in the Grande Armée, as in all armies of the time, were primitive at best. Far more soldiers died of their wounds or from sickness than in battle (see Napoleonic Wars casualties). There was little knowledge of hygiene and nothing of antibiotics. The main surgical procedure was amputation. The only crude form of anaesthetic readily available was a strong alcoholic drink, or even, in some cases, knocking the patient unconscious. Opiates such as laudanum were occasionally available for pain control. Typically, only about two-thirds survived such an operation, but this number increased with swift attention.
Accounts of the ordeals of the wounded are horrific reading. Napoleon himself once noted, "It requires more courage to suffer than to die", so he made sure those who did survive were given the best treatment available at hospitals in France, in particular Les Invalides, while they recuperated. The wounded survivours were often treated as heroes, awarded medals, pensions, and provided with prosthetic limbs if needed.
Communications
Most dispatches were conveyed as they had been for centuries, via messengers on horseback. Hussars, due to their bravery and riding skills, were often favoured for this task. Shorter range tactical signals could be sent visually by flags or audibly by drums, bugles, trumpets, and other musical instruments. Thus, standard bearers and musicians, in addition to their symbolic, ceremonial, and morale functions, also played important communication roles.
The Grande Armée did benefit from innovations made in long-range communications during the French Revolution. The French Army was among the first to employ homing pigeons as messengers in any large and organised manner, and also the first to use observation balloons for reconnaissance and communications.[citation needed] But the real advance for conveying long-range dispatches came in the form of an ingenious optical telegraph Semaphore system invented by Claude Chappe.[citation needed]
Chappe's system consisted of an intricate network of small towers, within visual range of one another. On top of each was a 9-metre mast, with three large, movable wooden rods mounted on them.[citation needed] These rods, called the régulateur (regulator), were operated by trained crews using a series of pulleys and levers. The four basic positions of the rods could be combined to form 196 different "signs".[citation needed] Provided with good crews of operators and decent visibility conditions, a sign could be sent through the 15 station towers between Paris and Lille, a distance of 193 km (120 mi), in only 9 minutes, a complete message of 36 signs in about 32 minutes. From Paris to Venice, a message could be sent in only six hours.[citation needed]
Chappe's telegraph soon became one of Napoleon's favourite and most important secret weapons. A special portable version semaphore telegraph travelled with his headquarters.[citation needed] Using it, he was able to coordinate his logistics and forces over longer distances in far less time than his enemies. Work was even begun on a wagon-mounted version in 1812, but was not completed in time for use in the wars.[citation needed]
Formaciones y tácticas
While Napoleon is best known as a master strategist and charismatic presence on the battlefield, he was also a tactical innovator. He combined classic formations and tactics that had been used for thousands of years with more recent ones, such as Frederick the Great's "Oblique Order" (best illustrated at the Battle of Leuthen) and the "mob tactics" of the early Levée en masse armies of the Revolution. Napoleonic tactics and formations were highly fluid and flexible. In contrast, many of the Grande Armée's opponents were still wedded to a rigid system of "Linear" (or Line) tactics and formations, in which masses of infantry would simply line up and exchange vollies of fire, in an attempt to either blow the enemy from the field or outflank them. Due to the vulnerabilities of the line formations to flanking attacks, it was considered the highest form of military manoeuvre to outflank one's adversary. Armies would often retreat or even surrender if this was accomplished. Consequently, commanders who adhered to this system would place a great emphasis on flank security, often at the expense of a strong centre or reserve. Napoleon would frequently take full advantage of this linear mentality by feigning flank attacks or offering the enemy his own flank as "bait" (best illustrated at the Battle of Austerlitz and also later at Lützen), then throw his main effort against their centre, split their lines, and roll up their flanks. He always kept a strong reserve as well, mainly in the form of his Imperial Guard, which could deliver a "knockout blow" if the battle was going well or turn the tide if it was not.
Some of the more famous, widely used, effective, and interesting formations and tactics included:
- Line (Ligne): The basic three rank line formation, best used for delivering volley fire and was also a decent melee formation for infantry or cavalry, but it was relatively slow moving and vulnerable on the flanks.
- March Column (Colonne de Marche): The best formation for rapid or sustained movement of troops and a good melee attacking formation, but it offered little firepower and was also vulnerable to flank attack, ambush, artillery, and "funneling".
- Wedge (Colonne de Charge): An arrow or spearhead shaped cavalry formation, designed to close rapidly and break the enemy's line. Classic and effective mounted formation used throughout history, and still used by tanks today. But if the wedge was halted, or its attack lost momentum, then it was vulnerable to counter-pincer movements on its flanks.
- Attack Column (Colonne d'Attaque): A wide column of infantry, almost a hybrid of line and column, with light infantry skirmishers in front to disrupt the enemy and screen the column's advance. Once the column closed, the skirmishers would move off to its flanks, then the column would fire a massed musket salvo and charge with their bayonets. An excellent formation against a standard, thin line. The Attack Column was developed from the "Mob" or "Horde" tactics of the early French Revolutionary Armies. Its disadvantages were a lack of massed firepower and vulnerability to artillery fire.
- Mixed Order (Ordre Mixte): Was Napoleon's preferred infantry formation. Some units (usually regiments or battalions in size) would be placed in line formation, with other units in attack column behind and in between them. This combined the firepower of the line with the speed, melee, and skirmishing advantages of the attack column. It also had some of the disadvantages of both, so support from artillery and cavalry were especially vital for this tactic to succeed.
- Open Order (Ordre Ouvert): Foot and/or horse would spread out by unit and/or individually. This formation was best for light troops and skirmishers. It allowed for rapid movement, especially over broken or rough terrain such as hills or forests, and offered the best protection from enemy fire since the troops were spread out. Its disadvantages were it did not allow for massed or volley fire and was terrible for melee or close quarters fighting and thus, especially vulnerable to cavalry.
- Square (Carré): Classic infantry formation for defence against cavalry. Soldiers would form a hollow square at least three or four ranks deep on each side, with officers and artillery or cavalry in the middle. It offered infantry their best protection against charges, especially on good defensive terrain such as on the top or reverse slope of a hill. Squares were slow moving, almost stationary targets, however. This, along with their density, made squares very vulnerable to artillery and to a lesser extent, infantry fire. Once broken, squares tended to completely collapse.
- Flying Battery (Batterie Volante): Designed to take advantage of the French artillery's mobility and training. A battery would move to one area on the field, lay down a short, sharp barrage, then rapidly redeploy to another area and fire another barrage, then quickly redeploy again, etc. The combined, cumulative effect of numerous batteries doing this all along the enemy's lines could be devastating. The horse artillery were especially well suited for this tactic. Napoleon used it to great success in the early campaigns of the Grande Armée. Its flexibility allowed him to quickly mass well-aimed fire anywhere it was needed. But it required superbly trained and conditioned artillerymen and horses as well as close command, coordination, and control in order to work.
- Grand Battery (Grande Batterie): An alternative artillery tactic, when circumstances prohibited the flying batteries. Artillery would mass its fire at a single, crucial point on the battlefield (usually against the enemy's centre). It could be devastating if the enemy was caught by surprise or in the open. But massing large numbers of guns in a single area without the enemy's knowledge could be tricky. Once the battery opened fire and its target became clear, measures could be taken to avoid it. It was also vulnerable to counter-battery fire from enemy artillery and needed protection from cavalry attack. Although this has become the most well known French artillery tactic, Napoleon preferred the flying batteries and used it only when he had to or thought it posed a better chance of success. Often at the start of a battle, he would mass batteries into a large battery, then after a few salvoes, break it up into flying batteries. In the early campaigns it was rarely used, but as the quantity of the horses of the Grande Armée and the quality of its artillerymen declined, Napoleon would be forced to employ it much more frequently in later battles.
- Boar's Head (Tête du Sanglier): Another hybrid formation, somewhat like the mixed order, but combining all three arms into a wedge-like square, which could be used for assault or defence. Infantry would form a short, but thick, line many ranks deep on the front, which would be the boar's "snout" (boutoir). Behind them would be two groups of artillery batteries or the "eyes" of the boar. On their flanks and behind them, in oblique order, would be other infantry in column, line, or square to form the boar's "face". Protecting their flanks and rear would be two groups of cavalry, which would serve as the boar's "tusk". This was a highly complex formation, which could not be formed as easily or quickly as the others. Once formed, except for the tusks, it had slow mobility. It was, however, faster moving than the traditional square and less vulnerable to artillery or infantry fire. The "tusks" also gave it stronger offensive capabilities. It would later be employed to great effect during the French conquests in North Africa during the 1830s and 1840s, and would be used up until the 1920s.
Rangos de la Grande Armée
Unlike the armies of the Ancien Régime and other monarchies, advancement in the Grande Armée was based on proven ability rather than social class or wealth. Napoleon wanted his army to be a meritocracy, where every soldier, no matter how humble of birth, could rise rapidly to the highest levels of command, much as he had done (provided, of course, they did not rise too high or too fast).[citation needed] This was equally applied to the French and foreign officers, and no less than 140 foreigners attained the rank of Général.[58] By and large this goal was achieved. Given the right opportunities to prove themselves, capable men could rise to the top within a few years, whereas in other armies it usually required decades if at all. It was said that even the lowliest private carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack.
Maréchal d'Empire, or Marshal of the Empire, was not a rank within the Grande Armée, but a personal title granted to distinguished divisional generals, along with higher pay and privileges. The same applied to the corps commanders (General de Corps d'armee) and army commanders (General en chef). The highest permanent rank in the Grande Armée was actually Général de division and those higher than it were positions of the same rank but with separate insignia for appointment holders.[59] The position of Colonel General of a branch (such as dragoons or grenadiers of the Guard) was akin to Chief Inspector-General of that branch, whose office holder used his current officer rank and its corresponding insignia.
Grande Armée ranks Modern U.S./U.K./NATO equivalent Général de division,
Lieutenant général (Ancien Régime rank reintroduced in 1814)Major general Général de brigade,
'Maréchal de camp (Ancien Régime rank reintroduced in 1814, equivalent of major general)Brigadier general Adjudant-commandant Staff colonel Colonel Colonel Colonel en second Senior lieutenant colonel Major Lieutenant colonel Major en second Senior major Chef de bataillon or Chef d'escadron[60] Major Capitaine adjutant-major Staff captain Capitaine Captain Lieutenant First lieutenant Sous-lieutenant Second lieutenant Non-commissioned officers Adjudant sous-officier Chief warrant officer Adjudant-Chef Warrant officer Adjudant Sergeant-major Sergent-Major or Maréchal des logis Chef[60] First sergeant Sergent or Maréchal des Logis[60] Sergeant Caporal-Fourrier or Brigadier-Fourrier[60] Company clerk/supply sergeant Caporal or Brigadier (cavalry, horse artillery and Gendarmerie)[60] Corporal Soldat or Cavalier (cavalry) or Canonnier (artillery) Private
Ver también
- Spanish Army (Peninsular War)
- British Army during the Napoleonic Wars
- French Imperial Eagle
- Grande Armée slang
- Legion of Honour
- List of French general officers (Peninsular War)
- Types of military forces in the Napoleonic Wars
- Uniforms of La Grande Armée
- Weapons of Honour
- Social background of officers and other ranks in the French Army, 1750–1815
Notas al pie
- ^ It was inscribed on the regimental flags issued in 1804
- ^ Elting, John R.: "Swords Around a Throne", pp. 60–65. Da Capo Press, 1997.
- ^ Mearsheimer 2001, p. 285.
- ^ Bodart 1916, p. 126.
- ^ Zamoyski, p. 536
- ^ "Insects, Disease, and Military History: Destruction of the Grand Armée". Archived from the original on August 20, 2008.
- ^ Wilkin Wilkin, Bernard René (2016). Fighting for Napoleon: French Soldiers’ Letters 1799-1815. pen and Sword Military. p. 8. ISBN 1473833736.
- ^ Fisher, Todd & Gregory Fremont-Barnes, The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire., pp. 36–54.
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes, pp. 54–74.
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 76–92
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 200–09
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 113–44
- ^ Riehn, Richard K. (1991), 1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign (Paperback ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN 978-0471543022
- ^ "INS Scholarship 1998: Henri Clarke, Minister of War, and the Malet Conspiracy". www.napoleon-series.org.
- ^ Christian Wilhelm von Faber du Faur, Campagne de Russie 1812: d'après le journal illustré d'un témoin oculaire, éditions Flammarion, 1812, 319 pages, p. 313.
- ^ Eugène Labaume, Relation circonstanciée de la Campagne de Russie en 1812, éditions Panckoucke-Magimel, 1815, pp.453–54.
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 145–71
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 271–87
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 287–97
- ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 306–12
- ^ a b McNab, p. 40.
- ^ McNab, pp. 40–42.
- ^ McNab, p. 42.
- ^ McNab, pp. 42–44.
- ^ a b McNab, p. 44
- ^ Watson, p. 92
- ^ Smith, Rupert (2005). The Utility of Force. London: Penguin Books. pp. 35–38. ISBN 978-0-14-102044-0.
- ^ Kevin Kiley The Grand Quartier-General Imperial and the Corps d'Armée, Developments in the Military Art, 1795–1815, Part II: The Corps d'Armée [1]
- ^ Uniform of the Grenadiers-á-Pied de la Garde, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Foot Grenadiers in the Imperial Guard, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Uniforms of the Chasseurs-à-Pied de la Garde, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Napoleon's Guard Infantry – Moyenne Garde Archived 2008-02-14 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ FUSILIERS DE LA GARDE 1806 – 1814 ARMEE FRANCAISE PLANCHE N" 101, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Grand Tenue – Marines de la Garde Archived 2008-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Tirailleurs de la Garde Imperiale: 1809–1815, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Corvisier, André; John Childs, Chris Turner. A Dictionary of Military History and the Art of War, p. 488. Blackwell Publishing, 1994.
- ^ "COSTUMES des MARINS & MATELOTS". xavier.mannino.pagesperso-orange.fr.
- ^ Chartrand, René. Napoleon's Sea Soldiers, p. 21. Osprey Publishing.
- ^ Head, Michael G. Foot Regiments of the Imperial Guard, p. 9. Almark Publications, London, 1973.
- ^ Head, Michael G. Foot Regiments of the Imperial Guard, p. 10. Almark Publications, London, 1973.
- ^ p. 14, Napoleon's Sea Soldiers, René Chartrand, Osprey Publishing
- ^ "Heads Up, By God!" French Cavalry At Eylau, 1807 And Napoleon's Cavalry Doctrine, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ By Order of the Commander-in-Chief: the Origin of the Guides-à-cheval, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ Napoleon's Polish Lancers, Accessed March 16, 2006.
- ^ a b "Décret, 18 février 1808". Correspondance de Napoléon Ier. 16. Imprimerie Impériale. 1864. pp. 338–341.
- ^ Crowdy, Terry (2015). Napoleon's Infantry Handbook. Pen and Sword. pp. 6ff. ISBN 978-1-4738-5244-0.
- ^ Mas, M.A. M., p. 81.
- ^ a b McNab, p. 145.
- ^ McNab, p. 145–46.
- ^ a b McNab, p. 146.
- ^ McNab, p. 147.
- ^ Elting, John R.: "Swords Around A Throne", p. 250, Da Capo Press, 1997
- ^ a b Elting, John R.:"Swords Around A Throne", pp. 254–55, Da Capo Press, 1997
- ^ Elting, John R.:"Swords Around A Throne", pp. 186, 194, Da Capo Press, 1997
- ^ Elting, John R. Swords Around A Throne. Da Capo Press, 1997. P. 387.
- ^ Cardoza, Thomas. Intrepid Women: Cantinières and Vivandières of the French Army, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010, 60–61.
- ^ http://www.uwomj.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/2012_ER_Chan.pdf
- ^ Dempsey, p. 19.
- ^ Elting, John R.:"Swords Around A Throne.", p. 124. Da Capo Press, 1997.
- ^ a b c d e The second rank was used by mounted organizations of the Army: cavalry, horse artillery, gendarmerie and trains
Referencias
- (in English) Paul Britten Austin, 1812: Napoleon's Invasion of Russia Greenhill Books, 2000. (Originally published in three volumes: The March on Moscow, Napoleon in Moscow, The Great Retreat.) ISBN 1-85367-415-X
- Bodart, G. (1916). Losses of Life in Modern Wars, Austria-Hungary; France. ISBN 978-1371465520.
- (in English) McNab, Chris, Armies of the Napoleonic Wars, Osprey Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84603-470-1
- (in English) Watson, S.J., By command of the Emperor: A life of Marshal Berthier, The Bodley Head, London, 1957
- La Grande Armée: Introduction to Napoleon's Army, Mas, M.A. M., Andrea Press, 2005.
- Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée, John Robert Elting. 784 pages. 1997. ISBN 0-306-80757-2
- Napoleon's Line Infantry, Philip Haythornthwaite, Bryan Fosten, 48 pages. 1983. ISBN 0-85045-512-X
- Napoleon's Light Infantry, Philip Haythornthwaite, Bryan Fosten, 48 pages. 1983. ISBN 0-85045-521-9
- Campaigns of Napoleon, David G. Chandler. 1216 pages. 1973. ISBN 0-02-523660-1
- The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire., Fisher, Todd & Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2004. ISBN 1-84176-831-6
- Mearsheimer, John J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32396-2.
- Royal, Republican, Imperial, a History of the French Army from 1792–1815: Vol 1 – Infantry – History of Line Infantry (1792–1815), Internal & Tactical Organization; Revolutionary National Guard, Volunteers Federes, & Compagnies Franches; and 1805 National Guard., Nafziger, George. 98 pages. <THE NAFZIGER COLLECTION>
- Royal, Republican, Imperial, a History of the French Army from 1792–1815: Vol 2 – Infantry – National Guard after 1809; Garde de Paris, Gendarmerie, Police, & Colonial Regiments; Departmental Reserve Companies; and Infantry Uniforms., Nafziger, George. 104 pages. <THE NAFZIGER COLLECTION>
- Royal, Republican, Imperial, a History of the French Army from 1792–1815: Vol 3 – Cavalry – Line, National Guard, Irregular, & Coastal Artillery, Artillery & Supply Train, and Balloon Companies., Nafziger, George. 127 pages.
- Royal, Republican, Imperial, a History of the French Army from 1792–1815: Vol 4 – Imperial Guard, Nafziger, George. 141 pages. <THE NAFZIGER COLLECTION>
- 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March on Moscow, Adam Zamoyski, ISBN 0-00-712375-2
- Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns (2nd edition) Owen Connelly. 254 pages. 1999. ISBN 0-8420-2780-7
- Napoleon on the Art of War, Jay Luvaas. 196 pages. 1999. ISBN 0-684-85185-7
- The Bridges That Éblé Built: The 1812 Crossing Of The Berezina, James Burbeck, War Times Journal.
- With Napoleon in Russia, Armand-Augustin-Louis de Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicence, Grosset & Dunlap, 1959
- Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars, David Chandler London 1979.
- Who Was Who in the Napoleonic Wars, Philip Haythornthwaite, London, 1998.
- The Revolutionary Flying Ambulance of Napoleon's Surgeon, Capt. Jose M. Ortiz.
- The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.
- Memoirs of the Duke Rovigo
- The Journal of the International Napoleonic Society
- Supplying War: Logistics From Wallenstein to Patton, 2nd Edition, Martin van Crevald. 2004. ISBN 0-521-54657-5
- Napoleonic Artillery:Firepower Comes Of Age, James Burbeck. War Times Journal
- Napoleon's Elite Cavalry: Cavalry of the Imperial Guard, 1804–1815, Edward Ryan with illustrations by Lucien Rousselot, 1999, 208 pages ISBN 1-85367-371-4
- Napoleon's mercenaries: foreign units in the French Army under Consulate and Empire, 1799 to 1814, Guy C. Dempsey, Greenhill Books, London, 2002
- 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March on Moscow(2004), Adam Zamoyski, Harper Collins Publishing, ISBN 0-00-712374-4
enlaces externos
- French website displaying flags of the Grande Armée
- Soldiers of Fortitude: The Grande Armee of 1812 in Russia by Major James T. McGhee
- French Heavy and Light Cavalry (Lourde et Légère Cavalerie)
- French article on Chappe telegraphs, Les Télégraphes Chappe, l'Ecole Centrale de Lyon
- Uniforms of Napoleon's Guard
- Illustrations (uniforms) by Hippolyte Bellangé from the book P.-M. Laurent de L`Ardèche «Histoire de Napoléon», 1843