Kīlauea ( Estados Unidos : / ˌ k ɪ l ə w eɪ ə / KIL -ə- WAY -ə , Hawaiian: [tiːlɐwwɛjə] ) es un activo volcán de escudo en las islas de Hawai . Históricamente, es el más activo de los cinco volcanes que juntos forman la Isla Grande de Hawai'i . Ubicado a lo largo de la costa sureste de la isla, el volcán tiene entre 210.000 y 280.000 años y emergió sobre el nivel del mar hace unos 100.000 años. Su erupción más reciente comenzó el 20 de diciembre de 2020.[4] y finalizó el 23 de mayo de 2021.
Kilauea | |
---|---|
Punto mas alto | |
Elevación | 4.091 pies (1.247 m) [1] |
Prominencia | 50 pies (15 m) [2] |
Coordenadas | 19 ° 25′16 ″ N 155 ° 17′12 ″ W / 19.421097472 ° N 155.286762433 ° W [1]Coordenadas : 19 ° 25′16 ″ N 155 ° 17′12 ″ O / 19.421097472 ° N 155.286762433 ° W |
Geografía | |
Kilauea | |
Localización | Hawaiʻi , Estados Unidos |
Geología | |
Edad del rock | 210.000 a 280.000 años [3] |
Tipo de montaña | Volcán escudo , volcán hotspot |
Arco / cinturón volcánico | Cadena de montes submarinos Hawaiian-Emperor |
Última erupción | 20 de diciembre de 2020-23 de mayo de 2021 |
Es el segundo producto más joven del hotspot hawaiano y el actual centro eruptivo de la cadena de montes submarinos Hawaiian-Emperor . Debido a que carece de prominencia topográfica y sus actividades coincidieron históricamente con las de Mauna Loa , se pensó una vez que Kilauea era un satélite de su vecino mucho más grande. Estructuralmente, Kilauea tiene una gran caldera de formación relativamente reciente en su cima y dos zonas de ruptura activas , una que se extiende 125 km (78 millas) al este y la otra 35 km (22 millas) al oeste, como una falla activa de profundidad desconocida que se mueve verticalmente un promedio de 2 a 20 mm (0,1 a 0,8 pulgadas) por año.
Kilauea entró en erupción casi continuamente de 1983 a 2018, causando daños considerables a la propiedad, incluida la destrucción de las ciudades de Kalapana y Kaimū junto con la famosa playa de arena negra, en 1990. Durante la erupción de la Puna inferior de 2018 , dos docenas de respiraderos de lava estallaron río abajo desde el cumbre en Puna . La erupción fue acompañada por un fuerte terremoto el 4 de mayo de M w 6,9, y cerca de 2.000 residentes fueron evacuados de las zonas rurales Leilani Estates subdivisión y cerca de las zonas.
El 17 de mayo de 2018, el volcán hizo erupción explosiva en la cumbre de Halemaʻumaʻu , arrojando cenizas a 9.144 m (30.000 pies) en el aire. [5] La actividad explosiva continua en la cumbre provocó un cierre de meses de la sección Kilauea del Parque Nacional de los Volcanes de Hawaii . Fuentes de lava eruptivas vigorosas en la Puna inferior enviaron ríos destructivos de roca fundida al océano en tres lugares. La lava destruyó el lago de agua dulce natural más grande de Hawái , cubrió porciones sustanciales de Leilani Estates y Lanipuna Gardens, e inundó por completo las comunidades de Kapoho , Vacationland Hawaii y la mayoría de los lotes de playa de Kapoho. La lava también llenó la bahía de Kapoho y extendió nuevas tierras casi una milla hacia el mar. [6] [7] El condado de Hawaii informó que 716 viviendas fueron destruidas por lava. [8] A principios de agosto, la erupción disminuyó sustancialmente y la última lava activa se informó en la superficie el 4 de septiembre de 2018. [8] El 5 de diciembre de 2018, después de 90 días de inactividad del volcán, la erupción que comenzó en Se declaró que 1983 había terminado. [9] [10]
El 20 de diciembre de 2020, estalló una erupción en Halemaʻumaʻu, con la lava hirviendo de un lago de agua que había estado creciendo durante más de un año y reemplazándolo por un lago de lava. [4] El lago de lava alcanzó una profundidad de 180 metros (590 pies) a finales de diciembre; sin embargo, la actividad eruptiva disminuyó constantemente en 2021, y la profundidad de la lava aumentó solo ligeramente a 225 metros (738 pies) en abril de 2021. [11] El 26 de mayo de 2021, el Observatorio de Volcanes de Hawai anunció que Kilauea ya no estaba en erupción. El suministro de lava al lago de lava pareció haber cesado entre el 11 y el 13 de mayo, y el lago de lava se había formado por completo el 20 de mayo. La última actividad superficial en Halemaʻumaʻu se observó el 23 de mayo. [12]
Fondo
La historia eruptiva de Kilauea ha sido larga y activa; su nombre significa "escupir" o "mucho esparcirse" en el idioma hawaiano , refiriéndose a su frecuente efusión de lava . Las primeras lavas del volcán se remontan a su etapa de preescudo submarino , habiendo sido recuperadas muestras por vehículos submarinos operados a distancia de sus laderas sumergidas; se han recuperado muestras de otros flujos como muestras de núcleos . Las lavas de menos de 1.000 años cubren el 90 por ciento de la superficie del volcán. Las lavas expuestas más antiguas datan de 2.800 años.
La primera erupción bien documentada de Kilauea ocurrió en 1823 (el contacto occidental y la historia escrita comenzaron en 1778). Desde entonces, el volcán ha entrado en erupción repetidamente. La mayoría de las erupciones históricas ocurrieron en la cima del volcán o en su zona de ruptura oriental, y fueron de carácter prolongado y efusivo . El registro geológico muestra, sin embargo, que la actividad explosiva violenta anterior al contacto europeo era extremadamente común; en 1790, una de esas erupciones mató a más de 400 personas, convirtiéndola en la erupción volcánica más mortífera de lo que hoy es Estados Unidos. [13] Si la actividad explosiva comenzara de nuevo, el volcán se convertiría en un peligro mucho mayor para los humanos. La erupción más reciente de Kilauea (antes de la actual) comenzó el 3 de enero de 1983 y terminó en 2018. Este fue, con mucho, su período histórico de actividad de mayor duración, así como una de las erupciones de mayor duración en el mundo; En enero de 2011, la erupción había producido 3,5 km 3 (1 mi cu) de lava y resurgió 123,2 km 2 (48 millas cuadradas) de tierra.
El alto estado de actividad de Kilauea tiene un gran impacto en la ecología de la ladera de la montaña, donde el crecimiento de las plantas a menudo se ve interrumpido por la tefra fresca y el dióxido de azufre volcánico a la deriva , lo que produce lluvias ácidas, particularmente en un área árida al sur de la zona de ruptura del suroeste conocida como el desierto de Ka'ū . No obstante, la vida silvestre florece donde no se perturba en ningún otro lugar del volcán y es altamente endémica gracias al aislamiento de Kilauea (y la isla de Hawai'i) de la masa terrestre más cercana. Históricamente, los cinco volcanes de la isla fueron considerados sagrados por el pueblo hawaiano , y en la mitología hawaiana, el Halemaʻumaʻu de Kilauea sirvió como el cuerpo y hogar de Pele , diosa del fuego, los relámpagos, el viento y los volcanes. [14] William Ellis , un misionero de Inglaterra, dio el primer relato moderno de Kilauea y pasó dos semanas viajando a lo largo del volcán; Desde su fundación por Thomas Jaggar en 1912, el Observatorio Volcánico Hawaiano , ubicado en el borde de la Caldera Kilauea , ha servido como el principal organismo científico e investigador sobre el volcán y la isla en general. En 1916, el presidente Woodrow Wilson firmó un proyecto de ley que formaba el Parque Nacional de los Volcanes de Hawaii ; Desde entonces, el parque se ha convertido en Patrimonio de la Humanidad y en un importante destino turístico, y atrae aproximadamente a 2,6 millones de personas al año.
Geología
Configuración
Como todos los volcanes hawaianos, Kilauea se creó cuando la placa tectónica del Pacífico se movió sobre el punto caliente de Hawai en el manto subyacente de la Tierra . [15] Los volcanes de las islas de Hawái son la evidencia más reciente de este proceso que, durante más de 70 millones de años, ha creado la cadena de montañas submarinas Emperador-Hawaiano de 6.000 km de longitud . [16] La opinión predominante, aunque no completamente establecida, es que el hotspot ha estado en gran parte estacionario dentro del manto del planeta durante gran parte, si no toda la Era Cenozoica . [16] [17] Sin embargo, mientras que la pluma del manto hawaiano es bien conocida y estudiada, la naturaleza de los puntos calientes en sí sigue siendo bastante enigmática. [18]
Kilauea es uno de los cinco volcanes subaéreos que forman la isla de Hawaiʻi , creado por el hotspot hawaiano. [19] El volcán más antiguo de la isla, Kohala , tiene más de un millón de años, [20] y se cree que Kilauea, el más joven, tiene entre 300.000 y 600.000 años de edad; [19] El monte submarino Lōʻihi , en el flanco de la isla, es más joven y aún no ha salido a la superficie. [21] Por lo tanto, Kilauea es el segundo volcán más joven de la cadena de montes submarinos Hawaiian-Emperor , una cadena de volcanes en escudo y montes submarinos que se extiende desde Hawai hasta la fosa Kuril-Kamchatka en Rusia . [22]
Siguiendo el patrón de formación de volcanes hawaianos, Kilauea comenzó como un volcán submarino , gradualmente construyéndose a través de erupciones submarinas de lava de basalto alcalino antes de emerger del mar con una serie de erupciones explosivas [23] hace entre 50.000 y 100.000 años. Desde entonces, la actividad del volcán probablemente ha sido como es ahora, una corriente continua de erupciones efusivas y explosivas de aproximadamente el mismo patrón que su actividad en los últimos 200 o 300 años. [24]
A lo sumo 600.000 años, Kilauea es todavía bastante joven para ser un volcán hawaiano; [19] El volcán más antiguo de la isla, el noroeste de Kohala , experimentó casi 900.000 años de actividad antes de extinguirse . [20] La actividad futura previsible del volcán probablemente será muy parecida a lo que ha sido durante los últimos 50.000 a 100.000 años; La actividad explosiva y hawaiana hará que Kilauea sea más alta, fortalecerá sus zonas de ruptura y llenará y rellenará la caldera de la cima. [24]
Estructura
Kilauea ha estado activo a lo largo de su historia. [24] Desde 1918, el único período prolongado de descanso de Kilauea fue una pausa de 18 años entre 1934 y 1952. [25] La mayor parte de Kilauea consiste en flujos de lava solidificada , intermitentes con cenizas volcánicas dispersas y tefra provenientes de explosivos de volumen relativamente menor. erupciones . [24] Gran parte del volcán está cubierto por flujos históricos, y el 90 por ciento de su superficie data de los últimos 1.100 años. [26] Kilauea se construyó a partir del lecho marino con el tiempo y, por lo tanto, gran parte de su volumen permanece bajo el agua; [23] su superficie subaérea tiene la forma de un escudo descentralizado alargado, de suave pendiente, con una superficie de aproximadamente 1.500 km 2 (579 millas cuadradas), [27] que constituyen el 13,7 por ciento de la superficie total de la isla. [19]
Kilauea carece de prominencia topográfica , apareciendo solo como un bulto en el flanco sureste del cercano Mauna Loa ; Debido a esto, tanto los nativos de Hawái como los primeros geólogos lo consideraron un satélite activo de su vecino más masivo. Sin embargo, el análisis de la composición química de las lavas de los dos volcanes muestra que tienen cámaras de magma separadas y, por lo tanto, son distintas. No obstante, su proximidad ha llevado a una tendencia histórica en la que la alta actividad en un volcán coincide aproximadamente con la baja actividad en el otro. Cuando Kilauea permaneció inactivo entre 1934 y 1952, Mauna Loa se volvió activo, y cuando este último permaneció en silencio de 1952 a 1974, sucedió lo contrario. Este no es siempre el caso; La erupción de 1984 de Mauna Loa comenzó durante una erupción en Kilauea, pero no tuvo un efecto perceptible en la erupción de Kilauea, y la inflación en curso de la cumbre de Mauna Loa, indicativa de una futura erupción, comenzó el mismo día que nuevos flujos de lava en Pu'u ʻŌʻō de Kilauea. cráter. En 2002, Kilauea experimentó un episodio efusivo de gran volumen al mismo tiempo que Mauna Loa comenzó a inflarse. Esta comunicación inesperada es evidencia de interacciones a nivel de la corteza entre Mauna Loa y Kilauea, aunque se cree que estos dos volcanes son bastante independientes entre sí. [28] Los geólogos han sugerido que los "pulsos" de magma que entran en el sistema de magma más profundo de Mauna Loa pueden haber aumentado la presión dentro de Kilauea y desencadenar las erupciones simultáneas. [29]
Kilauea tiene una gran caldera en la cima , que mide 4 por 3,2 km (2,5 por 2,0 millas) con paredes de hasta 120 m (400 pies) de altura, atravesadas por flujos de lava en el lado suroeste. [25] Se desconoce si la caldera siempre estuvo allí o si es una característica relativamente reciente, y es posible que haya ido y venido a lo largo de la historia eruptiva de Kilauea. [24] Lo que se sabe es que la caldera de la cumbre probablemente se formó durante varios siglos, y se estima que su construcción comenzó hace unos 500 años, [30] y su forma actual fue finalizada por una erupción particularmente poderosa en 1790. [24] A La característica principal dentro de la caldera es Halemaʻumaʻu, un gran cráter de pozo y uno de los centros de erupción más activos históricamente de Kilauea. El cráter tiene aproximadamente 920 m (3.018 pies) de diámetro y 85 m (279 pies) de profundidad, pero su forma ha variado ampliamente a lo largo de su historia eruptiva; el piso de Halemaʻumaʻu ahora está cubierto principalmente por los flujos de su erupción de 1974. [31]
Kilauea tiene dos zonas de ruptura que irradian desde su cumbre, una que conduce 125 km (78 millas) hacia el este, la otra 35 km (22 millas) de largo y una tendencia hacia el suroeste. [24] Una serie de escarpes de falla que conectan las dos zonas de ruptura forman la Zona de falla de Koa'e . La extensión tectónica a lo largo de ambas zonas de la grieta está provocando que la masa de Kilauea se deslice lentamente hacia el mar desde su flanco sur a una velocidad de aproximadamente 6 a 10 cm (2 a 4 pulgadas ) por año, centrada en una falla basal del escote de 7 a 9 km (4 a 6 mi) debajo de la superficie del volcán. [32] La zona de la grieta oriental en particular es una característica dominante en el volcán; está casi completamente cubierto de lava que hizo erupción en los últimos 400 años, y en su cresta cerca de la cumbre tiene de 2 a 4 km (1 a 2 millas) de ancho. [27] Las erupciones no localizadas, típicas de la actividad de la zona de rift, [24] han producido una serie de crestas bajas a lo largo de la mayor parte de la longitud de la zona de rift este. [27] Su segmento superior es la sección más activa actualmente del volcán, [26] [30] y además es el sitio de una serie de grandes cráteres de pozo ; [33] su extremidad inferior se extiende por el flanco sumergido de Kilauea a una profundidad de más de 5.000 m (16.400 pies). [30] Por el contrario, la grieta suroeste mucho más pequeña ha estado tranquila desde un episodio de grieta en 1974, y hasta la fecha, no ha estado involucrado en absoluto en el ciclo eruptivo actual. [32] El extremo de la zona sudoeste de la grieta también está bajo el agua, aunque su longitud submarina es más limitada. La zona de rift suroeste también carece de una línea de cresta bien definida o una gran cantidad de cráteres de pozo, evidencia de que también es geológicamente menos activa que la zona de rift oriental. [30]
Una estructura prominente en el flanco sur de Kilauea es el sistema de fallas Hilina , una falla altamente activa que se desliza verticalmente un promedio de 2 a 20 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16 a 13 ⁄ 16 pulgadas ) por año [ aclaración necesaria ] a lo largo del sistema. Su provincia fisiográfica es de 500 m (1.640 pies) de profundidad, pero se desconoce si se trata de una falla lístrica poco profunda o si penetra hasta la base misma del volcán. [15] En relación con la erupción de la Puna inferior de 2018, el Observatorio de Volcanes de Hawái publicó algunos hechos que llevaron a la conclusión de que un colapso catastrófico sería increíblemente remoto. [34] Varios conos de ceniza , escudos de satélite, tubos de lava y otras estructuras eruptivas también salpican el volcán, evidencia de su actividad reciente. [33] Kilauea tiene algunas interacciones con Mauna Loa , su vecino más grande y único otro volcán recientemente activo en la isla; En sus flancos se han encontrado flujos de lava intercalados y depósitos de ceniza pertenecientes a su vecino, y algunos de los flujos de Mauna Loa están, a su vez, cubiertos de Kilauea tephra . En particular, la silla entre los dos volcanes está actualmente deprimida y es probable que se llene en el futuro. [30]
Todas las erupciones históricas en Kilauea han ocurrido en uno de tres lugares: su caldera de la cumbre , su zona de ruptura oriental o su zona de ruptura suroeste. [19] La mitad de las erupciones históricas de Kilauea se han producido en o cerca de la caldera de la cumbre de Kilauea. La actividad allí fue casi continua durante gran parte del siglo XIX, coronada por una erupción explosiva masiva en 1924, antes de desaparecer en 1934. La actividad reciente se ha desplazado principalmente a la zona de ruptura oriental de Kilauea, el sitio de 24 erupciones históricas, ubicadas principalmente en la parte superior sección; por el contrario, la zona de ruptura suroeste del volcán ha sido relativamente tranquila y solo ha sido el sitio de cinco eventos hasta la fecha. [24]
Historia eruptiva
Erupciones prehistóricas
Los geólogos han fechado y documentado docenas de erupciones importantes a lo largo de la larga historia del volcán, cerrando la gran brecha entre la roca más antigua conocida de Kilauea y solo registros escritos y observaciones históricas extremadamente recientes. [35] Los flujos de lava históricos del volcán generalmente son recuperados por científicos de una de tres maneras. Los flujos más antiguos, que se remontan a 275.000 a 225.000 años, se han recuperado de la ladera sur sumergida de Kilauea mediante vehículos operados por control remoto remolcados por barcos . Estas lavas exhiben formas características de episodios eruptivos tempranos sumergidos en etapa previa al escudo , de cuando el volcán todavía era un monte submarino en ascenso que aún no había atravesado la superficie del océano, [36] y su exposición superficial es inusual, como en la mayoría de los otros volcanes como lavas. desde entonces habría sido sepultado por flujos más recientes. [15]
El segundo método de recuperación de rocas más antiguas es mediante la perforación de muestras de testigos profundos ; sin embargo, los núcleos han resultado difíciles de fechar, y desde entonces se han encontrado erróneas varias muestras de profundidades de alrededor de 1.700 m (5.600 pies) que sugerían fechas tan antiguas como 450.000 años. La datación paleomagnética más confiable , limitada a rocas que datan después de la aparición de Kilauea del mar, ha sugerido edades de alrededor de 50.000 años. Los flujos expuestos sobre el nivel del mar han demostrado ser mucho más recientes. Algunas de las rocas más antiguas datadas de manera confiable, de 43.000 años, provienen del carbón de leña intercalado debajo de una capa de ceniza en un escarpe de falla conocido como Hilina Pali; sin embargo, las muestras datadas de más arriba de la escarpa indican la deposición de cenizas a una tasa promedio de 6 m (20 pies) por mil años, lo que indica que los flujos expuestos más antiguos, desde la base de la característica, podrían remontarse a 70.000 años. [36] Esta fecha es similar a la del flujo de lava existente más antiguo, un flujo de zona de rift del suroeste con una datación por radiocarbono sin corregir de aproximadamente 4650 aC. [35]
El producto eruptivo más antiguo y bien estudiado de Kilauea es el miembro de ceniza de Uwēkahuna, producto de erupciones explosivas hace entre 2.800 y 2.100 años. Aunque desde entonces ha sido enterrado en gran parte por corrientes más jóvenes, permanece expuesto en algunos lugares y se ha rastreado a más de 20 km (12 millas) de la caldera del volcán, evidencia de erupciones muy poderosas. La evidencia sugiere la existencia de un centro eruptivo activo en este momento, denominado Powers Caldera , cuyas fracturas y fallas se encuentran a 2 km (1 mi) fuera de la caldera moderna. Hace al menos 1.200 años, la lava de Powers Caldera superó su borde y solidificó la estructura; esto fue seguido por un período de flujos de pāhoehoe alimentados por tubos muy voluminosos desde la cumbre. Tras el cese de la actividad hace unos 400 años, las erupciones se volvieron a centrar en la parte oriental de la cumbre de Kilauea y, al mismo tiempo, la actividad aumentó en el extremo norte de la zona de la grieta oriental. [30]
1790 hasta 1934
Los primeros registros escritos confiables de la actividad histórica se remontan aproximadamente a 1820, [37] y la primera erupción bien documentada ocurrió en 1823, cuando el volcán fue puesto bajo observación por primera vez; [24] aunque se cree que los nativos hawaianos se asentaron por primera vez en la isla hace unos 1.500 años, los registros orales anteriores a la llegada de los europeos a la isla son pocos y difíciles de interpretar. [30] Una erupción previa al contacto en particular, un evento freatomagmático en 1790, [25] fue responsable de la muerte de un grupo de guerreros, parte del ejército de Keōua Kuahuʻula , el último jefe de la isla en resistir el gobierno de Kamehameha I. ; su muerte se evidencia por un conjunto de huellas conservadas dentro del Parque Nacional de los Volcanes de Hawai'i que se enumeran en el Registro Nacional de Lugares Históricos . [37] Kilauea ha sido el sitio de 61 erupciones separadas desde 1823, convirtiéndolo fácilmente en uno de los volcanes más activos de la Tierra. [19] [25]
Durante su historia observada, el volumen de lava en erupción por Kilauea ha variado ampliamente. En 1823, la caldera de la cumbre de Kilauea era mucho más profunda de lo que es hoy, pero estaba en proceso de llenarse bajo la erupción casi continua de la cumbre, con 3 km 3 (1 cu mi) de lava que hicieron erupción allí solo en 1840. El período entre 1840 y 1920 vio aproximadamente la mitad de eso en volumen eruptivo, y en los treinta años entre entonces y alrededor de 1950, el volcán estuvo inusualmente silencioso y exhibió muy poca actividad; El volumen eruptivo de Kilauea ha aumentado constantemente desde entonces, con una actividad actual comparable a la de principios del siglo XIX. [24]
La duración y el origen de estas erupciones también han variado. Los eventos duran entre días y años, y ocurren en varios sitios diferentes. La mitad de todas las erupciones ocurren en o cerca de la caldera de la cumbre de Kilauea. La actividad allí fue casi continua durante gran parte del siglo XIX, y después de un respiro entre 1894 y 1907, continuó hasta 1924. Ha habido cinco erupciones históricas en la relativamente tranquila zona de ruptura suroeste del volcán y 24 a lo largo de su zona de ruptura oriental más activa. , principalmente a lo largo de su sección superior. [24]
La historia observada del volcán ha sido principalmente una de erupciones efusivas ; sin embargo, esto es un hecho relativamente reciente. Antes de la llegada de los primeros europeos a la isla, Kilauea era el sitio de actividad explosiva regular , evidenciada entonces por los cánticos tribales que hacen referencia a la naturaleza voluble del volcán, y hoy por los registros geológicos de un modo explosivamente activo de actividad pasada. Aunque la actividad explosiva todavía ocurre en el volcán, no es tan intensa como antes, y el volcán se volvería mucho más peligroso para el público en general si volviera a su antigua fase de actividad una vez más. [38]
Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site of a large, effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km (22 mi) of its length, unusually long even for a rift eruption.[39] The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava;[25] the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night, 30 km (19 mi) away.[39]
The volcano was active again in 1868, 1877, 1884, 1885, 1894, and 1918,[25] before its next major eruption in 1918–1919. Halemaʻumaʻu, then a small upwelling in the caldera floor, was topped by a lava lake that then drained, before refilling again, forming an enormous lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of the caldera before draining once more. This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki, building up the large lava shield on the volcano's southwest rift zone over a period of eight months. The eruption also featured concurrent rift activity and a large amount of lava fountaining.[40]
Activity in 1921–1923 followed.[25] The next major eruption occurred in 1924. Halemaʻumaʻu, a fully formed pit crater after the 1919 event and the site of a sizable lava lake, first drained, then quickly began sinking into the ground, deepening to nearly 210 m (689 ft) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash. Explosive activity began on May 10 of that year, blowing rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg (99 lb) 60 m (197 ft) out, and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) out as far as 270 m (886 ft), and, after a brief reprieve, intensified through a major blast on May 18, when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption's only fatality. The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns up to and beyond 9 km (6 mi) in height, before slowly petering down and ending by May 28.[38][41] Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit, and ceased completely after 1934.[25]
1952 to 1982
After the Halemaʻumaʻu event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and for a time, completely silent, with all activity confined to the summit.[25] The volcano came alive again in 1952, with an enormous lava fountain 245 m (800 ft) high at Halemaʻumaʻu. Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m (50 and 100 ft) persisted, and the eruption lasted 136 days.[42] Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954, 1955, and 1959, capped by a large event in 1960, when fissure-based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive ʻaʻā flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever-active Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further.[43]
From 1960 on, eruptive events occurred frequently until August 2018. The period 1967–1968 saw a particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaʻumaʻu.[25] This event was superseded the very next year by the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption, a large effusive eruption which lasted from May 24, 1969 to July 24, 1974 and added 230 acres (93 ha) of new land to the island. After eruptive activity had died down, there was a magnitude 7.2 earthquake that caused a partial summit collapse, after which activity did not resume at Kīlauea until 1977.[44] At the time, Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history. The eruption created a new vent, covered a large area of land with lava, and added new land to the island. The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters, ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae, where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form. Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano. Early on, fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters (1772 ft) high. In early 1973, an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka.[44]
1983–2018
The longest major eruption observed at Kīlauea in modern history occurred from January 1983 to September 2018. It had the longest duration of any observed eruption at this volcano. As of December 2020[update], it is the twelfth-longest duration volcanic eruption on Earth since 1750.[45] The eruption began on January 3, 1983, along the eastern rift zone. The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into the Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone, sending lava flows down the volcano's slope.
In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaʻianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaʻianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km (about 7 mi) to the sea. Between 1986 and 1991, the connection between Chain of Craters Road and Hawaii Route 130 was cut, and the community of Kapa’ahu, the village of Kalapana, and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava.[46] A black sand beach at Kaimū was also engulfed.[47] In 1992, the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō, but continued in the same manner, covering nearly all of the 1983–86 lava flows and large areas of coastline.[48]
As of the end of 2016, the east rift zone eruption had produced 4.4 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava, covered 144 km2 (56 sq mi) of land, added 179 ha (442 acres) of land to the island, destroyed 215 structures, and buried 14.3 km (9 mi) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m (115 ft).[49]
In addition to the nearly continuous activity at Puʻu ʻOʻo and other vents on the east rift zone, a separate eruption began at Kilauea's summit in March 2008. On March 19, 2008, following several months of increased sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremor, a new vent opened at Halemaʻumaʻu at Kilauea's summit in an explosive eruption. Following this event, the new crater formed in the explosion, informally named the "Overlook Crater," emitted a thick gas plume that obscured views into the vent. Several other explosive events occurred at the vent throughout 2008.[50]
On September 5, 2008, scientists observed a lava pond deep within the Overlook Crater for the first time. Beginning in February 2010, a lava pond was visible at the bottom of the crater almost continuously through the beginning of May 2018. Lava briefly overflowed the vent onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu in April and May 2015, October 2016, and April 2018.[50][51][52]
2018 eruptive episodes
Beginning in March 2018, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory began to detect rapid inflation at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō,[53] leading scientists to warn that the increased pressure could lead to the formation of a new vent at Kilauea.[54]
Following weeks of increased pressure, the crater floor of the cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō collapsed on April 30, 2018, as magma migrated underground into the lower Puna region of Kilauea's lower east rift zone.[55] Over the next few days, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea's East rift zone, leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, new fissures formed, and lava began erupting in lower Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions.[56][57]
A seemingly related 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on May 4.[58] By May 9, 27 houses had been destroyed in Leilani Estates.[59][60]
By May 21, two lava flows had reached the Pacific Ocean, creating thick clouds of laze (a toxic lava and haze cloud), which is made up of hydrochloric acid and glass particles.[61]
By May 31, 87 houses in Leilani Estates and nearby areas had been destroyed by lava. Advancing lava flows caused additional evacuation orders, including the town of Kapoho.[62][63] By June 4, with the lava having crossed through Kapoho and entered the ocean, the confirmed number of houses lost had reached 159.[64] Two weeks later, the confirmed number of homes lost was 533,[65] and as of June 25 it had risen to 657.[66]
Effect of the 2018 lower Puna eruption on Kīlauea's summit
Together with the outbreak of lava in lower Puna, a lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu at Kilauea's summit began to drop on May 2, 2018.[55] The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory warned that the lowering of the lava lake increased the potential for phreatic (steam) explosions at the summit caused by interaction of magma with the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[67] On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air.[68] This marked the beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu.[69] These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August.[70][71]
2019–20: Water lake appears at the summit
In late July 2019, a water lake appeared on the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu for the first time in over 200 years,[72] as water from the rebounding water table began entering the crater. Afterward, the crater lake gradually grew in size.[73] On December 1, 2020, the lake was approximately 49 metres (161 ft) deep.[74] Within a month, the water lake would be replaced by a lava lake during the new eruption.
2020–21 summit eruption
On December 20, 2020, at 9:30 PM local time, an eruption broke out within Halemaʻumaʻu at Kīlauea's summit caldera. The US Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory reported that three vents were feeding lava into the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, boiling off the water lake that had been growing since summer 2019 and replacing it with a lava lake.[75] The eruption created a plume that reached 30,000 feet (9,144 m) in elevation. The eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms centered at Kīlauea Caldera on November 30, 2020 and December 2, 2020, the second of which was interpreted as a small intrusion of magma.[4] By the following morning, emergency officials reported that the eruption had stabilized and that two of the three vents remained active and continued to fill the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu with lava.[76] By 7:30 a.m. on December 25, 2020, the lava lake had filled in 176 metres (577 ft) of the crater, and the level of the lake was continuing to rise.[77] On January 8, 2021, the depth of the lava lake had increased to 636 feet (194 m).[78] By February 24, the depth of the lava lake in the western, active portion had increased to 216 metres (709 ft). A spatter cone had also formed around the western vent.[79]
On May 26, 2021, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory announced that Kīlauea was no longer erupting. Lava supply to the lava lake appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lava lake had completely crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23. At the time activity ceased, the lava lake was 229 metres (751 ft) deep. According to the observatory, it is "possible that the Halema‘uma‘u vent could resume eruption or that Kīlauea is entering a period of quiescence prior the next eruption."[12]
Peligros
Future threats
In 2018, the United States Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment gave Kīlauea an overall threat score of 263, and ranked it first among volcanoes in the United States most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.[80]
There was concern that the presence of a water lake in Halemaʻumaʻu following the 2018 summit collapse meant that Kīlauea's next summit eruption might be explosive if magma rose rapidly to the surface.[73] However, when Kīlauea erupted in December 2020, the eruption was non-explosive in nature, with three vents feeding magma into the lake and boiling off the water.
Volcanic Explosivity Index
The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI; the higher the number, the more explosive) to all except six of Kīlauea's ninety-six known eruptions of the last 11,700 years. The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4.[81] The 1983–2018 eruption has a VEI of 3.[82] The eruptions of 1820, 1924, 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2. The eruptions of 680, 1050, 1490, 1500, 1610, 1868 and four eruptions in 1961 have a VEI of 1. The other seventy-four eruptions have a VEI of 0.[81]
VEI | Number of Holocene eruptions for which a VEI has been assigned (total=91) |
---|---|
VEI 0 | 75 |
VEI 1 | 10 |
VEI 2 | 4 |
VEI 3 | 1 |
VEI 4 | 1 |
Ecología
Background
Because of its position more than 3,000 km (1,864 mi) from the nearest continental landmass, the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology. The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth, the result of an isolated evolutionary lineage sheltered from external biotic influence; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development, and an estimated third of the island's natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct.[83]
Kīlauea's ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself;[33] lava flows often overrun sections of the volcano's forests and burn them down, and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life. Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa, and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic "deserts" yet to be recolonized.[84]
Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominantly from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcano's height, result in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank. The volcano's ecology is further complicated by height, though not nearly as much as with its other, far taller neighbors, and by the local distribution of volcanic products, making for varied soil conditions. The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and receives more than 75 in (191 cm) mean annual rainfall, and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community; farther south, the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in (127 cm) mean annual rainfall, and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment.[85]
Ecosystems
Much of Kīlauea's southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, where a’e ferns, ʻōhiʻa trees (Metrosideros polymorpha), and hapu’u of the genus Cibotium are common.[86] The park hosts a large variety of bird species, including the 'apapane (Himatione sanguinea); the 'amakihi (Hemignathus virens); the 'i'iwi (Vestiaria coccinea); the ‘ōma’o (Myadestes obscurus), the ʻelepaio (Chasiempis sp.); and the endangered 'akepa (Loxops coccineus), 'akiapola'au (Hemignathus munroi), nēnē (Branta sandvicensis), ʻuaʻu (Pterodroma sandwichensis), and ʻio (Buteo solitarius) species.[87] The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites on the island.[88]
Some of the area alongside Kīlauea's southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert. Although not a "true" desert (rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1,000 mm (39 in) a year), precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3.4, greatly hampering regional plant growth.[89] The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable. Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent.[90]
Kīlauea's northern lowland wet-forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve. At 27,785 acres (11,244 ha), Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiʻi's largest lowland wet forest reserve, and is home to rare plant species including hāpuʻu ferns (Cibotium spp.), 'ie'ie vines (Freycinetia arborea), and kōpiko (Psychotria mariniana), some of which play a role in limiting invasive species' spread. ʻOpeʻapeʻa (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) ʻio (Buteo solitarius), common ʻamakihi (Hemignathus virens), and nananana makakiʻi (Theridion grallator) live in the trees. There are thought to be many more as-yet-undocumented species within the forest.[91][92] Wao Kele's primary forest tree is ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).[93]
Historia humana
Ancient Hawaiian
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful.[94] Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source.[95] Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates.[96] The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans).[97]
The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In Hawaiian mythology, the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa, giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands.[95] Kīlauea itself means "spewing" or "much spreading" in Hawaiian, referencing its high state of activity,[19] and in Hawaiian mythology, Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.[98] It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaʻa was centered; Halemaʻumaʻu, "House of the ʻamaʻumaʻu fern", derives its name from the struggle between the two gods. Kamapuaʻa, hard-pressed by Pele's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will, covered the feature, a favorite residence of the goddess, with fern fronds. Choked by trapped smoke, Pele emerged. Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction, the other gods called a draw and divided the island between them, with Kamapuaʻa getting the moist windward northeastern side, and Pele directing the drier Kona (or leeward) side. The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu is said to be a product of the legendary struggle.[99]
This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long-term welfare of the environment. These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast.[95]
Modern era
The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778.[100] The first non-native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis, an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano. He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features, establishing a premise for future explorations of the volcano.[101]
Another missionary, C. S. Stewart, U.S.N., wrote of it in his journal 'A Residence in the Sandwich Islands', which Letitia Elizabeth Landon quoted from in the notes to her poem 'The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-A' in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832.
One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana, who, staying with the missionary Titus Coan, studied the island's volcanoes in detail for decades first-hand.[102] Dana visited Kīlauea's summit and described it in detail in 1840.[103] After publishing a summary paper in 1852, he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano, instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa; it was not until another geologist, C. E. Dutton, had elaborated on Dana's research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity.[104]:154–155
The next era of Kīlauea's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano's rim in 1912. The first permanent such installation in the United States, the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar, head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy, he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study, and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment. After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii, Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and, whilst its head between 1912 and 1940, pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes.[105] After initial funding ran out, the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service, the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and the National Park Service, before settling on the USGS, under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947. The main building has been moved twice since establishment, and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea's caldera.[106]
NASA used the area to geologically train the Apollo Astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, planning traverses, collecting samples and taking photographs. Training took place in April 1969, April 1970, December 1970, December 1971, and June 1972. Astronauts of Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 used this training on the Moon. Notable geologist instructors included William R. Muehlberger.[107]
Turismo
Kīlauea has been a tourist attraction since the 1840s, and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim, including Volcano House, which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[108]
In 1891, Lorrin A. Thurston, grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcano's rim, began campaigning for a park on the volcano's slopes, an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle, Jr. in 1903. Thurston, who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper, printed editorials in favor of the idea; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create "Kilauea National Park". Following endorsements from John Muir, Henry Cabot Lodge, and former President Theodore Roosevelt (in opposition to local ranchers) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana'ole, House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1, 1916. It was the 11th National Park in the United States, and the first in a Territory;[109] a few weeks later, the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law, creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system.[110] Originally called "Hawaii National Park", it was split from the Haleakala National Park on September 22, 1960. Today, the park, renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction, and, since 1987, a World Heritage Site.[111]
In its early days, tourism was a relatively new concept, but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959, the year Hawaiʻi became a state. Today, tourism is driven by the island's exotic tropical locations,[112] and Kīlauea, being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption, was a major part of the island's tourist draw.[113] According to the National Park Service, Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2.6 million people annually, most of whom proceeded to visit the volcano from the Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance.[114] The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum was also a popular tourist stop. Located at the edge of Kīlauea Caldera, the museum's observation deck offered the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaʻumaʻu; however, the museum closed indefinitely after the building housing it sustained structural damage from earthquakes associated with the 2018 eruptive episodes.[115]
The Volcano House provides lodging within the park, while additional housing options are available in the nearby Volcano Village. Visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp. The park provides a number of hiking trails, points of interest, and guided ranger programs.[116][117]
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Otras lecturas
- MacQueen, P (2011). "Forward modeling to access and improve gravity network geometry at Kilauea Volcano, Hawai'i". Oregon Undergraduate Research Journal. 1 (1): 24–44. doi:10.5399/uo/ourj.1.1.1551.
- Geologic map of the summit region of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai (Map). 1:24,000. Geologic Investigations Series I-2759. United States Geological Survey. 2003. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
- Geologic map of the middle east rift geothermal subzone of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii (PDF) (Map) (1.0 ed.). 1:24,000. Geologic Investigations Series I-2614. United States Geological Survey. 2006. ISBN 1-4113-0659-7. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
enlaces externos
- Kilauea at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Hawaii Groundwater & Geothermal Resources Center by the University of Hawaii at Manoa
- The Geothermal Collection by UH Manoa
- Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park website
- Hawaiian Volcano Observatory's Kīlauea website
- Hawaiian Volcano Observatory's Kīlauea eruption update website (updated daily)
- "Kilauea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- Live webcam of Halema`uma`u Crater
- Littoral lava fountains at ocean entry 18 and 21 Aug 2008
- Kilauea Visitor Center
- Video footage of the March 2011 Kamoamoa Fissure Eruption and the collapse of Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater
- Aerial video of Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater, Fissure 8 and the lava delta area captured on the 1st anniversary day of the eruptions that started on May 3rd, 2018