Macedonia ( / ˌ m æ s ɪ d oʊ n i ə / ( escuchar ) ; griego antiguo : Μακεδονία ), también llamada Macedonia ( / m æ s ɪ d ɒ n / ), fue un antiguo reino en la periferia del Arcaico y Grecia clásica , [6] y más tarde el estado dominante de Grecia helenística . [7]El reino fue fundado e inicialmente gobernado por la dinastía real Argead , a la que siguieron las dinastías Antipatrid y Antigonid . Hogar de los antiguos macedonios , el primer reino se centró en la parte noreste de la península griega , [8] y limitaba con Epiro al oeste, Paeonia al norte, Tracia al este y Tesalia al sur.
macedonia Μακεδονία | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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El Reino de Macedonia en el 336 a. C. (naranja) | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Lenguajes comunes | Macedonia antigua , ático , griego koiné | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Religión | Politeísmo griego , religión helenística | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Gobierno | Monarquía | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Rey | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 808–778 a. C. | Caranus (primero) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 179–168 a. C. | Perseo (último) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Legislatura | Synedrion | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Era historica | Antigüedad clásica | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Fundada por Caranus | 808 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Vasallo de Persia [3] | 512 / 511–493 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Incorporado al Imperio Persa [3] | 492–479 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Ascenso de Macedonia | 359-336 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Fundación de la Liga Helénica | 338–337 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Conquista de Persia | 335–323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Partición de Babilonia | 323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Guerras de los Diadochi | 322-275 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Batalla de Pydna | 168 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Área | |||||||||||||||||||||||
323 aC [4] [5] | 5.200.000 km 2 (2.000.000 millas cuadradas) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Divisa | Tetradracma | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Antes del siglo IV a. C., Macedonia era un pequeño reino fuera del área dominada por las grandes ciudades-estado de Atenas , Esparta y Tebas , y brevemente subordinada a la Persia aqueménida . [3] Durante el reinado del rey Felipe II de Argead (359-336 a. C.), Macedonia sometió la Grecia continental y el reino de Tracia Odrysian a través de la conquista y la diplomacia. Con un ejército reformado que contenía falanges empuñando la pica sarissa , Felipe II derrotó a los antiguos poderes de Atenas y Tebas en la batalla de Chaeronea en el 338 a. C. Alejandro el Grande , hijo de Felipe II , que dirigía una federación de estados griegos , logró el objetivo de su padre de comandar toda Grecia cuando destruyó Tebas después de la revuelta de la ciudad. Durante la posterior campaña de conquista de Alejandro , derrocó al Imperio aqueménida y conquistó un territorio que se extendía hasta el río Indo . Durante un breve período, su imperio fue el más poderoso del mundo: el estado helenístico definitivo , inaugurando la transición a un nuevo período de la civilización griega antigua . Las artes y la literatura griegas florecieron en las nuevas tierras conquistadas y los avances en filosofía , ingeniería y ciencia se extendieron por gran parte del mundo antiguo. De particular importancia fueron las contribuciones de Aristóteles , tutor de Alejandro, cuyos escritos se convirtieron en piedra angular de la filosofía occidental .
Después de la muerte de Alejandro en 323 a. C., las guerras que siguieron a los Diadochi y la división del efímero imperio de Alejandro, Macedonia siguió siendo un centro cultural y político griego en la región mediterránea junto con el Egipto ptolemaico , el Imperio seléucida y el Reino de Pérgamo. . Importantes ciudades como Pella , Pydna y Amphipolis participaron en luchas de poder por el control del territorio. Se fundaron nuevas ciudades, como Tesalónica, por el usurpador Casandro (llamado así por su esposa Tesalónica de Macedonia ). [9] El declive de Macedonia comenzó con las guerras macedonias y el ascenso de Roma como la principal potencia mediterránea . Al final de la Tercera Guerra de Macedonia en 168 a. C., la monarquía macedonia fue abolida y reemplazada por estados clientes romanos . Un breve resurgimiento de la monarquía durante la Cuarta Guerra de Macedonia en 150-148 a . C. terminó con el establecimiento de la provincia romana de Macedonia .
Los reyes macedonios, que ejercían el poder absoluto y controlaban los recursos estatales como el oro y la plata, facilitaron las operaciones mineras para acuñar moneda , financiar sus ejércitos y, durante el reinado de Filipo II, una armada macedonia. A diferencia de los otros estados sucesores de diadochi , el culto imperial fomentado por Alejandro nunca fue adoptado en Macedonia, sin embargo, los gobernantes macedonios asumieron roles como sumos sacerdotes del reino y principales patrocinadores de los cultos nacionales e internacionales de la religión helenística . La autoridad de los reyes macedonios estaba teóricamente limitada por la institución del ejército, mientras que algunos municipios dentro de la mancomunidad macedonia disfrutaban de un alto grado de autonomía e incluso tenían gobiernos democráticos con asambleas populares .
Etimología
El nombre Macedonia ( griego : Μακεδονία , Makedonía ) proviene del etnónimo Μακεδόνες ( Makedónes ), que a su vez se deriva del adjetivo griego antiguo μακεδνός ( makednós ), que significa "alto, delgado", también el nombre de un pueblo relacionado con los dorios ( Herodoto ), y posiblemente descriptivo de los antiguos macedonios . [10] Es muy probable que esté relacionado con el adjetivo μακρός ( makros ), que significa "largo" o "alto" en griego antiguo . [10] Se cree que el nombre originalmente significaba "montañeses", "los altos" o "hombres adultos". [nota 1] El lingüista Robert SP Beekes afirma que ambos términos son de origen sustrato pre-griego y no pueden explicarse en términos de morfología indoeuropea , [11] sin embargo, De Decker sostiene que los argumentos son insuficientes. [12]
Historia
Historia temprana y leyenda
Los historiadores griegos clásicos Heródoto y Tucídides informaron la leyenda de que los reyes macedonios de la dinastía Argead eran descendientes de Temenus , rey de Argos , y por lo tanto podían reclamar al mítico Heracles como uno de sus antepasados , así como un linaje directo de Zeus , dios principal. del panteón griego . [13] Leyendas contradictorias afirman que Perdiccas I de Macedonia o Carano de Macedonia fueron los fundadores de la dinastía Argead, con cinco u ocho reyes antes de Amintas I. [14] La afirmación de que los Argeads descendían de Temenus fue aceptada por los Hellanodikai autoridades de los Juegos Olímpicos Antiguos , permitiendo a Alejandro I de Macedonia ( r . 498-454 a. C. ) participar en las competiciones debido a su supuesta herencia griega. [15] Poco se sabe sobre el reino antes del reinado del padre de Alejandro I, Amintas I de Macedonia ( r . 547–498 a. C. ) durante el período Arcaico . [dieciséis]
El reino de Macedonia estaba situado a lo largo de los ríos Haliacmon y Axius en la Baja Macedonia , al norte del monte Olimpo . El historiador Robert Malcolm Errington sugiere que uno de los primeros reyes de Argead estableció Aigai ( Vergina moderna ) como su capital a mediados del siglo VII a. C. [17] Antes del siglo IV a. C., el reino cubría una región que correspondía aproximadamente a las partes occidental y central de la región de Macedonia en la Grecia moderna . [18] Se expandió gradualmente a la región de la Alta Macedonia , habitada por las tribus griegas Lyncestae y Elimiotae , y a las regiones de Emathia , Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , Crestonia y Almopia , que fueron habitadas por varios pueblos como tracios y frigios. . [nota 2] Los vecinos no griegos de Macedonia incluían tracios, que habitaban territorios al noreste, ilirios al noroeste y paeonios al norte, mientras que las tierras de Tesalia al sur y Epiro al oeste estaban habitadas por griegos con culturas similares a la de los macedonios. [19]
Un año después de que Darío I de Persia ( r . 522-486 a. C. ) lanzara una invasión a Europa contra los escitas , los peonios , los tracios y varias ciudades-estado griegas de los Balcanes , el general persa Megabazo utilizó la diplomacia para convencer a Amintas I de que se sometiera. como vasallo del Imperio aqueménida , marcando el comienzo del período de la Macedonia aqueménida . [nota 3] La hegemonía persa aqueménida sobre Macedonia fue brevemente interrumpida por la revuelta jónica (499-493 a. C.), pero el general persa Mardonio la devolvió a la soberanía aqueménida . [22]
Aunque Macedonia disfrutó de un alto grado de autonomía y nunca se convirtió en una satrapía (es decir, una provincia) del Imperio aqueménida, se esperaba que proporcionara tropas para el ejército aqueménida . [23] Alejandro I proporcionó apoyo militar macedonio a Jerjes I ( r . 486-465 a. C. ) durante la Segunda invasión persa de Grecia en 480-479 a. C., y los soldados macedonios lucharon del lado de los persas en la batalla de Platea del 479 a. C. . [24] Tras la victoria griega en Salamina en 480 a. C., Alejandro I fue empleado como diplomático aqueménida para proponer un tratado de paz y una alianza con Atenas , oferta que fue rechazada. [25] Poco después, las fuerzas aqueménidas se vieron obligadas a retirarse de la Europa continental , lo que marcó el final del control persa sobre Macedonia. [26]
Participación en el mundo griego clásico
Aunque inicialmente un vasallo persa, Alejandro I de Macedonia fomentado las relaciones diplomáticas amistosas con sus antiguos enemigos griegos, el ateniense y espartana -Led coalición de ciudades-estado griegas. [27] Su sucesor Perdiccas II ( r . 454-413 a. C. ) llevó a los macedonios a la guerra en cuatro conflictos separados contra Atenas, líder de la Liga de Delos , mientras que las incursiones del gobernante tracio Sitalces del reino de Odrysian amenazaron la integridad territorial de Macedonia en el Noreste. [28] El estadista ateniense Pericles promovió la colonización del río Strymon cerca del Reino de Macedonia, donde se fundó la ciudad colonial de Anfípolis en 437/436 a. C. para que pudiera proporcionar a Atenas un suministro constante de plata, oro y madera. y tono para apoyar a la armada ateniense . [29] Inicialmente, Pérdicas II no tomó ninguna medida e incluso podría haber dado la bienvenida a los atenienses, ya que los tracios eran enemigos de ambos. [30] Esto cambió debido a una alianza ateniense con un hermano y primo de Perdiccas II que se había rebelado contra él. [30] Así, se libraron dos guerras distintas contra Atenas entre el 433 y el 431 a. C. [30] El rey macedonio tomó represalias promoviendo la rebelión de los aliados de Atenas en Calcídica y, posteriormente, se ganó la estratégica ciudad de Potidea . [31] Después de capturar las ciudades macedonias Therma y Berea , Atenas sitió Potidea pero no pudo vencerla; Therma fue devuelto a Macedonia y gran parte de Calcidice a Atenas en un tratado de paz negociado por Sitalces, quien proporcionó a Atenas ayuda militar a cambio de adquirir nuevos aliados tracios. [32]
Perdiccas II se puso del lado de Esparta en la Guerra del Peloponeso (431-404 a. C.) entre Atenas y Esparta, y en 429 a. C. Atenas tomó represalias persuadiendo a Sitalces de invadir Macedonia, pero se vio obligado a retirarse debido a la escasez de provisiones en invierno. [33] En 424 a. C., Arrhabaeus , un gobernante local de Lynkestis en la Alta Macedonia, se rebeló contra su señor Perdiccas, y los espartanos acordaron ayudar a sofocar la revuelta. [34] En la batalla de Lyncestis, los macedonios entraron en pánico y huyeron antes de que comenzara la lucha, enfureciendo al general espartano Brasidas , cuyos soldados saquearon el tren de equipajes macedonio desatendido . [35] Pérdicas luego cambió de bando y apoyó a Atenas, y pudo sofocar la revuelta de Arrhabaeus. [36]
Brásidas murió en 422 a. C., el año en que Atenas y Esparta llegaron a un acuerdo, la Paz de Nicias , que liberó a Macedonia de sus obligaciones como aliado ateniense. [37] Después de la Batalla de Mantinea del 418 a. C. , los victoriosos espartanos formaron una alianza con Argos , un pacto militar que Perdiccas II estaba ansioso por unirse dada la amenaza de que los aliados espartanos permanecieran en Calcídica. [38] Cuando Argos repentinamente cambió de bando como una democracia pro-ateniense , la armada ateniense pudo formar un bloqueo contra los puertos marítimos de Macedonia e invadir Calcídica en 417 a. C. [39] Pérdicas II pidió la paz en el 414 a. C. y formó una alianza con Atenas que continuó su hijo y sucesor Arquelao I ( r . 413-399 a . C. ). [40] Atenas luego proporcionó apoyo naval a Arquelao I en el asedio macedonio de Pydna en 410 a. C. , a cambio de madera y equipo naval. [41]
Aunque Archelaus I se enfrentó a algunas revueltas internas y tuvo que defenderse de una invasión de ilirios liderada por Sirras de Lynkestis, pudo proyectar el poder macedonio en Tesalia, donde envió ayuda militar a sus aliados. [42] Aunque conservó Aigai como centro ceremonial y religioso, Arquelao I trasladó la capital del reino al norte de Pella , que luego estaba ubicada junto a un lago con un río que la conectaba con el mar Egeo . [43] Mejoró la moneda de Macedonia acuñando monedas con un mayor contenido de plata y emitiendo monedas de cobre por separado . [44] Su corte real atrajo la presencia de intelectuales de renombre como el dramaturgo ateniense Eurípides . [45] Cuando Arquelao I fue asesinado (tal vez después de una historia de amor homosexual con pajes reales en su corte), el reino se sumió en el caos, en una era que duró desde el 399 al 393 a. C. que incluyó el reinado de cuatro monarcas diferentes: Orestes , hijo de Arquelao I; Aeropus II , tío, regente y asesino de Orestes; Pausanias , hijo de Aeropus II; y Amintas II , que estaba casado con la hija menor de Arquelao I. [46] Se sabe muy poco sobre este período turbulento; llegó a su fin cuando Amintas III ( r . 393-370 a. C. ), hijo de Arrideo y nieto de Amintas I, mató a Pausanias y reclamó el trono macedonio. [47]
Amintas III se vio obligado a huir de su reino en 393 o 383 a. C. (según relatos contradictorios), debido a una invasión masiva de los ilirios Dardani liderados por Bardylis . [nota 4] El pretendiente al trono Argaeus gobernó en su ausencia, sin embargo Amintas III finalmente regresó a su reino con la ayuda de los aliados de Tesalia. [48] Amintas III también casi fue derrocado por las fuerzas de la ciudad calcidia de Olynthos , pero con la ayuda de Teleutias , hermano del rey espartano Agesilao II , los macedonios obligaron a Olynthos a rendirse y disolver su Liga Calcidiana en 379 a. C. [49]
Alejandro II ( r . 370–368 a. C. ), hijo de Eurídice I y Amintas III, sucedió a su padre e inmediatamente invadió Tesalia para librar la guerra contra el tajo (líder militar supremo de Tesalia) Alejandro de Feras , capturando la ciudad de Larisa . [50] Los tesalianos, deseando destituir a Alejandro II y Alejandro de Feras como sus señores supremos , pidieron ayuda a Pelópidas de Tebas ; logró recuperar Larisa y, en el acuerdo de paz concertado con Macedonia, recibió rehenes aristocráticos, incluido el hermano de Alejandro II y futuro rey Felipe II ( r . 359-336 a . C. ). [51] Cuando Alejandro fue asesinado por su cuñado Ptolomeo de Aloros , este último actuó como un regente autoritario de Perdiccas III ( r . 368-359 a. C. ), hermano menor de Alejandro II, quien finalmente hizo ejecutar a Ptolomeo cuando llegó la mayoría de edad en 365 a. C. [52] El resto del reinado de Pérdicas III estuvo marcado por la estabilidad política y la recuperación financiera. [53] Sin embargo, una invasión ateniense dirigida por Timoteo , hijo de Conon , logró capturar Metone y Pydna, y una invasión iliria dirigida por Bardylis logró matar a Pérdicas III y 4.000 tropas macedonias en batalla. [54]
Ascenso de Macedonia
Felipe II tenía veinticuatro años cuando accedió al trono en 359 a. C. [55] Mediante el uso de una hábil diplomacia, pudo convencer a los tracios bajo Berisades de que dejaran de apoyar a Pausanias , un pretendiente al trono, ya los atenienses de que detuvieran su apoyo a otro pretendiente . [56] Lo logró sobornando a los tracios y sus aliados Paeonianos y estableciendo un tratado con Atenas que renunciaba a sus pretensiones de Anfípolis. [57] También pudo hacer las paces con los ilirios que habían amenazado sus fronteras . [58]
Felipe II pasó sus primeros años transformando radicalmente el ejército macedonio . Una reforma de su organización, equipo y entrenamiento, incluida la introducción de la falange macedonia armada con picas largas (es decir, la sarissa ), resultó inmediatamente exitosa cuando se probó contra sus enemigos ilirios y paeónicos. [59] Relatos confusos en fuentes antiguas han llevado a los estudiosos modernos a debatir cuánto pudieron haber contribuido los predecesores reales de Felipe II a estas reformas y hasta qué punto sus ideas fueron influenciadas por sus años de cautiverio adolescente en Tebas como rehén político durante la época tebana. hegemonía , especialmente después de reunirse con el general Epaminondas . [60]
Los macedonios, al igual que los demás griegos, practicaron tradicionalmente la monogamia , pero Felipe II practicó la poligamia y se casó con siete esposas con quizás solo una que no implicó la lealtad de sus súbditos aristocráticos o nuevos aliados. [nota 5] Sus primeros matrimonios fueron con Phila de Elimeia de la aristocracia de la Alta Macedonia, así como con la princesa iliria Audata para asegurar una alianza matrimonial. [61] Para establecer una alianza con Larisa en Tesalia, se casó con la noble de Tesalia Philinna en 358 a. C., quien le dio un hijo que más tarde gobernaría como Felipe III Arrideo ( r . 323-317 a . C. ). [62] En 357 a. C., se casó con Olimpia para asegurar una alianza con Arybbas , el rey de Epiro y los molosenses . Este matrimonio daría a luz a un hijo que más tarde gobernaría como Alejandro III (más conocido como Alejandro el Grande ) y reclamaría descender del legendario Aquiles a través de su herencia dinástica de Epiro . [63] No está claro si los reyes persas aqueménidas influyeron o no en la práctica de la poligamia de Felipe II, aunque su predecesor Amintas III tuvo tres hijos con una posible segunda esposa, Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus y Menelaus . [64] Felipe II mandó ejecutar a Arquelao en 359 a. C., mientras que los otros dos medio hermanos de Felipe II huyeron a Olynthos, sirviendo como casus belli para la Guerra del Olintio (349-348 a. C.) contra la Liga Calcidia. [sesenta y cinco]
Mientras Atenas estaba preocupada por la Guerra Social (357-355 a. C.) , Felipe II retomó Anfípolis de ellos en 357 a. C. y al año siguiente recuperó Pidna y Potidea, la última de las cuales entregó a la Liga Calcidia según lo prometido en un tratado. [66] En 356 a. C., tomó Crenides y la refundó como Filipos , mientras que su general Parmenion derrotaba al rey ilirio Grabos de los Grabaei . [67] Durante el asedio de Metone entre 355 y 354 a . C., Felipe II perdió el ojo derecho por una herida de flecha, pero logró capturar la ciudad y trató a los habitantes con cordialidad, a diferencia de los potidaeanos, que habían sido esclavizados. [nota 6]
Luego, Felipe II involucró a Macedonia en la Tercera Guerra Sagrada (356–346 a . C.). Comenzó cuando Phocis capturó y saqueó el templo de Apolo en Delphi en lugar de presentar multas impagas, lo que provocó que la Liga Anfictiónica declarara la guerra a Phocis y una guerra civil entre los miembros de la Liga de Tesalia alineados con Phocis o Thebes. [68] La campaña inicial de Felipe II contra Pherae en Tesalia en 353 a. C. a instancias de Larisa terminó en dos derrotas desastrosas por parte del general fociano Onomarchus . [nota 7] Felipe II, a su vez, derrotó a Onomarchus en 352 a. C. en la Batalla de Crocus Field , que condujo a la elección de Felipe II como líder ( arconte ) de la Liga de Tesalia, le proporcionó un asiento en el Consejo Anfictiónico y le permitió contraer matrimonio. alianza con Pherae al casarse con Nicesipolis , sobrina del tirano Jason de Pherae . [69]
Felipe II tuvo una participación temprana con el Imperio aqueménida, especialmente al apoyar a los sátrapas y mercenarios que se rebelaron contra la autoridad central del rey aqueménida. El sátrapa helespontino Frigia Artabazos II , que se rebeló contra Artajerjes III , pudo refugiarse como exiliado en la corte macedonia del 352 al 342 a. C. Estuvo acompañado en el exilio por su familia y por su general mercenario Memnon de Rodas . [70] [71] Barsine , hija de Artabazos y futura esposa de Alejandro Magno, creció en la corte macedonia. [71]
Después de hacer campaña contra el gobernante tracio Cersobleptes , en 349 a. C., Felipe II comenzó su guerra contra la Liga Calcidia, que se había restablecido en 375 a. C. tras una disolución temporal. [72] A pesar de una intervención ateniense de Charidemus , [73] Olynthos fue capturado por Felipe II en 348 a. C., y sus habitantes fueron vendidos como esclavos , incluidos algunos ciudadanos atenienses . [74] Los atenienses, especialmente en una serie de discursos de Demóstenes conocidos como los Olynthiacs , no lograron persuadir a sus aliados de contraatacar y en 346 a. C. concluyeron un tratado con Macedonia conocido como la Paz de Filócrates . [75] El tratado estipulaba que Atenas renunciaría a las reclamaciones sobre los territorios costeros de Macedonia, la Calcídica y Anfípolis a cambio de la liberación de los atenienses esclavizados, así como garantías de que Filipo II no atacaría los asentamientos atenienses en el Quersonés tracio . [76] Mientras tanto, Fócida y Termópilas fueron capturadas por las fuerzas macedonias, los ladrones del templo de Delfos fueron ejecutados y Felipe II obtuvo los dos asientos focios en el Consejo Anfictiónico y el puesto de maestro de ceremonias en los Juegos Pitios . [77] Atenas inicialmente se opuso a su membresía en el consejo y se negó a asistir a los juegos en protesta, pero finalmente aceptó estas condiciones, tal vez después de que Demóstenes lo persuadiera en su discurso Sobre la paz . [78]
Durante los años siguientes, Felipe II reformó los gobiernos locales en Tesalia, hizo campaña contra el gobernante ilirio Pleuratus I , depuso a Arybbas en Epiro a favor de su cuñado Alejandro I (a través del matrimonio de Felipe II con Olimpia) y derrotó a Cersebleptes en Tracia. Esto le permitió extender el control macedonio sobre el Helesponto en previsión de una invasión a la Anatolia aqueménida . [80] En 342 a. C., Felipe II conquistó una ciudad tracia en lo que hoy es Bulgaria y la rebautizó como Philippopolis (la actual Plovdiv ). [81] La guerra estalló con Atenas en el 340 a . C. mientras que Felipe II participó en dos asedios finalmente infructuosos de Perinto y Bizancio , seguidos de una exitosa campaña contra los escitas a lo largo del Danubio y la participación de Macedonia en la Cuarta Guerra Sagrada contra Anfisa en el 339 a . C. . [82] Tebas expulsó a una guarnición macedonia de Nicea (cerca de las Termópilas) , lo que llevó a Tebas a unirse a Atenas, Megara , Corinto, Acaya y Eubea en un enfrentamiento final contra Macedonia en la batalla de Chaeronea en 338 a. C. [83] Después de la victoria macedonia en Chaeronea, Felipe II instaló una oligarquía en Tebas, pero fue indulgente con Atenas, deseando utilizar su armada en una invasión planificada del Imperio aqueménida. [84] Entonces fue el principal responsable de la formación de la Liga de Corinto que incluía las principales ciudades-estado griegas excepto Esparta. A pesar de la exclusión oficial del Reino de Macedonia de la liga, en 337 a. C., Felipe II fue elegido líder ( hegemón ) de su consejo ( synedrion ) y comandante en jefe ( estrategos autokrator ) de una próxima campaña para invadir Aqueménida. Imperio. [85] El plan de Felipe para castigar a los persas por el sufrimiento de los griegos y liberar las ciudades griegas de Asia Menor [86] , así como quizás el temor panhelénico de otra invasión persa de Grecia, contribuyeron a su decisión de invadir el Imperio aqueménida. . [87] Los persas ofrecieron ayuda a Perinto y Bizancio en 341-340 a. C., destacando la necesidad estratégica de Macedonia de asegurar Tracia y el mar Egeo contra la creciente invasión aqueménida, ya que el rey persa Artajerjes III consolidaba aún más su control sobre las satrapías en el oeste de Anatolia . [88] Esta última región, que produce mucha más riqueza y recursos valiosos que los Balcanes, también fue codiciada por el rey macedonio por su enorme potencial económico. [89]
Cuando Felipe II se casó con Cleopatra Eurídice , sobrina del general Atalo , hablar de proporcionar nuevos herederos potenciales en el banquete de bodas enfureció al hijo de Felipe II, Alejandro, un veterano de la batalla de Chaeronea, y su madre Olimpia. [90] Huyeron juntos a Epiro antes de que Felipe II llamara a Alejandro a Pella . [90] Cuando Felipe II arregló un matrimonio entre su hijo Arrhidaeus y Ada de Caria , hija de Pixodarus , el sátrapa persa de Caria , Alejandro intervino y propuso casarse con Ada en su lugar. Felipe II canceló la boda por completo y exilió a los consejeros de Alejandro, Ptolomeo , Nearchus y Harpalus . [91] Para reconciliarse con Olimpia, Felipe II hizo que su hija Cleopatra se casara con el hermano de Olimpia (y el tío de Cleopatra) Alejandro I de Epiro, pero Felipe II fue asesinado por su guardaespaldas, Pausanias de Orestis , durante su fiesta de bodas y sucedido por Alejandro en 336 a. C. [92]
Imperio
Los estudiosos modernos han discutido sobre el posible papel de Alejandro III "el Grande" y su madre Olimpia en el asesinato de Felipe II, señalando la decisión de este último de excluir a Alejandro de su planeada invasión de Asia, eligiendo en su lugar que actúe como regente de Grecia. y el hegemón adjunto de la Liga de Corinto, y el potencial de tener otro heredero masculino entre Felipe II y su nueva esposa, Cleopatra Eurídice. [nota 8] Alejandro III ( r . 336–323 a. C. ) fue inmediatamente proclamado rey por una asamblea del ejército y los principales aristócratas, siendo los principales Antipater y Parmenion. [93] Al final de su reinado y carrera militar en 323 a. C., Alejandro gobernaría un imperio formado por Grecia continental , Asia Menor , el Levante , el antiguo Egipto , Mesopotamia , Persia y gran parte de Asia central y meridional (es decir, la moderna Pakistán ). [94] Entre sus primeros actos fue el entierro de su padre en Aigai. [95] Los miembros de la Liga de Corinto se rebelaron ante la noticia de la muerte de Felipe II, pero pronto fueron reprimidos por la fuerza militar junto con la diplomacia persuasiva, eligiendo a Alejandro como hegemón de la liga para llevar a cabo la invasión planificada de Persia aqueménida. [96]
En el 335 a. C., Alejandro luchó contra la tribu tracia de los triballi en Haemus Mons y a lo largo del Danubio , forzando su rendición en la isla de Peuce . [97] Poco después, el rey ilirio Clito de Dardani amenazó con atacar Macedonia, pero Alejandro tomó la iniciativa y sitió a Dardani en Pelion (en la actual Albania ). [98] Cuando Tebas se había rebelado una vez más contra la Liga de Corinto y estaba sitiando la guarnición macedonia en Cadmea , Alejandro abandonó el frente de Iliria y marchó hacia Tebas, que puso bajo asedio . [99] Después de romper las murallas, las fuerzas de Alejandro mataron a 6.000 tebanos, tomaron a 30.000 habitantes como prisioneros de guerra y quemaron la ciudad como una advertencia que convenció a todos los demás estados griegos excepto Esparta de no desafiar a Alejandro de nuevo. [100]
A lo largo de su carrera militar, Alejandro ganó todas las batallas que dirigió personalmente. [101] Su primera victoria contra los persas en Asia Menor en la Batalla del Gránico en 334 a. C. utilizó un pequeño contingente de caballería como distracción para permitir que su infantería cruzara el río seguida de una carga de caballería de su compañero de caballería . [102] Alejandro encabezó la carga de caballería en la batalla de Issus en 333 a. C., lo que obligó al rey persa Darío III ya su ejército a huir. [102] Darío III, a pesar de tener un número superior, se vio nuevamente obligado a huir de la batalla de Gaugamela en el 331 a. C. [102] El rey persa fue capturado y ejecutado más tarde por su propio sátrapa de Bactria y pariente, Bessus , en 330 a. C. Posteriormente, el rey macedonio persiguió y ejecutó a Bessus en lo que ahora es Afganistán , asegurando la región de Sogdia en el proceso. [103] En la batalla de Hydaspes del 326 a. C. (actual Punjab ), cuando los elefantes de guerra del rey Porus de los Pauravas amenazaron a las tropas de Alejandro, hizo que formaran filas abiertas para rodear a los elefantes y desalojar a sus manejadores usando su sarissa. lucios. [104] Cuando sus tropas macedonias amenazaron con un motín en el 324 a. C. en Opis , Babilonia (cerca de la actual Bagdad , Irak ), Alejandro ofreció títulos militares macedonios y mayores responsabilidades a los oficiales y unidades persas, obligando a sus tropas a buscar el perdón en un banquete organizado de reconciliación entre persas y macedonios. [105]
Alejandro quizás socavó su propio gobierno al mostrar signos de megalomanía . [106] Mientras utilizaba propaganda eficaz como cortar el nudo gordiano , también intentó presentarse a sí mismo como un dios viviente e hijo de Zeus después de su visita al oráculo de Siwah en el desierto de Libia (en el actual Egipto) en 331 a. C. [107] Su intento en 327 a. C. de que sus hombres se postraran ante él en Bactra en un acto de proskynesis tomado de los reyes persas fue rechazado como blasfemia religiosa por sus súbditos griegos y macedonios después de que el historiador de la corte Calístenes se negara a realizar este ritual. [106] Cuando Alejandro mandó asesinar a Parmenión en Ecbatana (cerca de la actual Hamadan , Irán ) en 330 a. C., esto fue "sintomático del creciente abismo entre los intereses del rey y los de su país y pueblo", según Errington. [108] Su asesinato de Clito el Negro en 328 aC es descrito como "vengativo e imprudente" por Dawn L. Gilley e Ian Worthington. [109] Continuando con los hábitos polígamos de su padre, Alejandro alentó a sus hombres a casarse con mujeres nativas de Asia, dando el ejemplo cuando se casó con Roxana , una princesa sogdiana de Bactria. [110] Luego se casó con Stateira II , la hija mayor de Darío III, y Parysatis II , la hija menor de Artajerjes III , en las bodas de Susa en 324 a. C. [111]
Mientras tanto, en Grecia, el rey espartano Agis III intentó liderar una rebelión de los griegos contra Macedonia. [112] Fue derrotado en el 331 a. C. en la Batalla de Megalópolis por Antípater, quien se desempeñaba como regente de Macedonia y hegemón adjunto de la Liga de Corinto en lugar de Alejandro. [nota 9] Antes de que Antípatro se embarcara en su campaña en el Peloponeso , Memnón, el gobernador de Tracia, fue disuadido de la rebelión mediante el uso de la diplomacia. [113] Antípater aplazó el castigo de Esparta a la Liga de Corinto encabezada por Alejandro, quien finalmente perdonó a los espartanos con la condición de que sometieran a cincuenta nobles como rehenes. [114] La hegemonía de Antipater era algo impopular en Grecia debido a su práctica (quizás por orden de Alejandro) de exiliar a los descontentos y guarnición de ciudades con tropas macedonias, sin embargo, en 330 a. C., Alejandro declaró que las tiranías instaladas en Grecia debían ser abolidas y griegas. la libertad iba a ser restaurada. [115]
Cuando Alejandro el Grande murió en Babilonia en 323 a. C., su madre Olimpia inmediatamente acusó a Antípatro y su facción de envenenarlo, aunque no hay evidencia que lo confirme. [116] Sin un heredero oficial aparente , el mando militar macedonio se dividió, con un lado proclamando al medio hermano de Alejandro, Filipo III Arrideo ( r . 323-317 a. C. ) como rey y el otro se puso del lado del hijo pequeño de Alejandro y Roxana, Alejandro. IV ( r . 323-309 a. C. ). [117] A excepción de los eubeos y beocios, los griegos también se levantaron inmediatamente en una rebelión contra Antípater conocida como la Guerra Lamiana (323–322 a. C.). [118] Cuando Antípater fue derrotado en la batalla de las Termópilas en el 323 a. C. , huyó a Lamia, donde fue asediado por el comandante ateniense Leóstenes . Un ejército macedonio dirigido por Leonnatus rescató a Antípater levantando el asedio. [119] Antípater derrotó la rebelión, pero su muerte en 319 a. C. dejó un vacío de poder en el que los dos reyes proclamados de Macedonia se convirtieron en peones en una lucha de poder entre los diadochi , los ex generales del ejército de Alejandro. [120]
Un consejo del ejército se reunió en Babilonia inmediatamente después de la muerte de Alejandro, nombrando a Felipe III como rey y al quiliarca Perdiccas como su regente. [121] Antipater, Antigonus Monophthalmus , Craterus y Ptolomeo formaron una coalición contra Perdiccas en una guerra civil iniciada por la toma de Ptolomeo del coche fúnebre de Alejandro el Grande . [122] Pérdicas fue asesinado en 321 a. C. por sus propios oficiales durante una campaña fallida en Egipto contra Ptolomeo, donde su marcha a lo largo del río Nilo resultó en el ahogamiento de 2.000 de sus hombres. [123] Aunque Eumenes de Cardia logró matar a Crátero en batalla, esto tuvo poco o ningún efecto sobre el resultado de la Partición de Triparadisus en Siria en el 321 a. C., donde la coalición victoriosa resolvió el tema de una nueva regencia y derechos territoriales. [124] Antípater fue nombrado regente de los dos reyes. Antes de Antípatro murió en 319 aC, nombró el firme de Argead del leal Poliperconte como su sucesor, pasando por encima de su propio hijo Casandro y haciendo caso omiso del derecho del rey para elegir un nuevo regente (desde que Felipe III fue considerado mentalmente inestable), en efecto, sin pasar por el consejo del ejército también. [125]
Formando una alianza con Ptolomeo, Antígono y Lisímaco , Casandro hizo que su oficial Nicanor capturara la fortaleza de Munichia en la ciudad portuaria de Atenas, El Pireo, desafiando el decreto de Poliperconte de que las ciudades griegas deberían estar libres de guarniciones macedonias, lo que desencadenó la Segunda Guerra de los Diadochi (319). –315 aC). [126] Dada una serie de fracasos militares por parte de Polyperchon, en 317 aC, Felipe III, a través de su esposa Eurydice II de Macedonia , comprometida políticamente , lo reemplazó oficialmente como regente con Cassander. [127] Posteriormente, Polyperchon buscó desesperadamente la ayuda de Olimpia en Epiro. [127] Una fuerza conjunta de tropas epirotas, etolias y Poliperchon invadió Macedonia y forzó la rendición de Felipe III y el ejército de Eurídice, lo que permitió a Olimpia ejecutar al rey y obligar a su reina a suicidarse. [128] Olimpia mandó matar a Nicanor ya decenas de otros nobles macedonios, pero en la primavera del 316 a . C., Casandro había derrotado a sus fuerzas, la había capturado y sometida a juicio por asesinato antes de condenarla a muerte. [129]
Casandro se casó con la hija de Filipo II, Tesalónica y extendió brevemente el control macedonio en Iliria hasta Epidamnos . Hacia el 313 a . C., fue retomada por el rey ilirio Glaucias de Taulantii . [130] Hacia el 316 a . C., Antígono había tomado el territorio de Eumenes y logró expulsar a Seleuco Nicator de su satrapía babilónica, lo que llevó a Casandro, Ptolomeo y Lisímaco a emitir un ultimátum conjunto a Antígono en el 315 a. C. para que entregara varios territorios en Asia. . [9] Antigonus se alió rápidamente con Polyperchon, ahora con base en Corinto, y emitió un ultimátum propio a Cassander, acusándolo de asesinato por ejecutar a Olimpia y exigiendo que entregara a la familia real, el rey Alejandro IV y la reina madre Roxana. [131] El conflicto que siguió duró hasta el invierno de 312/311 a. C., cuando un nuevo acuerdo de paz reconoció a Casandro como general de Europa, Antígono como "primero en Asia", Ptolomeo como general de Egipto y Lisímaco como general de Tracia. [132] Casandro mandó ejecutar a Alejandro IV y Roxana en el invierno de 311/310 a. C., y entre el 306 y el 305 a. C., los diadocos fueron declarados reyes de sus respectivos territorios. [133]
Era helenística
El comienzo de la Grecia helenística se definió por la lucha entre la dinastía Antipatrid , dirigida primero por Cassander ( r . 305-297 a. C. ), hijo de Antipater, y la dinastía Antigonid , dirigida por el general macedonio Antigonus I Monophthalmus ( r . 301 a. C. ) y su hijo, el futuro rey Demetrio I ( r . 294-288 a . C. ). Casandro asedió Atenas en el 303 a. C., pero se vio obligado a retirarse a Macedonia cuando Demetrio invadió Beocia a su retaguardia, intentando cortar su camino de retirada. [134] Mientras Antígono y Demetrio intentaron recrear la liga helénica de Felipe II consigo mismos como hegemones duales, una coalición revivida de Casandro, Ptolomeo I Soter ( r . 305-283 a. C. ) de la dinastía ptolemaica de Egipto , Seleuco I Nicator ( r . 305- 281 a . C. ) del Imperio seléucida , y Lisímaco ( r . 306-281 a. C. ), rey de Tracia , derrotó a los Antígonidas en la batalla de Ipsus en 301 a . C., matando a Antígono y obligando a Demetrio a huir. [135]
Casandro murió en 297 a. C., y su hijo enfermo Felipe IV murió el mismo año, sucedido por los otros hijos de Casandro, Alejandro V de Macedonia ( r . 297-294 a. C. ) y Antípatro II de Macedonia ( r . 297-294 a. C. ), con sus madre Tesalónica de Macedonia actuando como regente. [136] Mientras Demetrius luchaba contra las fuerzas antipatridas en Grecia, Antipater II mató a su propia madre para obtener el poder. [136] Su desesperado hermano Alejandro V pidió ayuda a Pirro de Epiro ( r . 297-272 a. C. ), [136] que había luchado junto a Demetrio en la batalla de Ipsus, pero fue enviado a Egipto como rehén como parte de un acuerdo entre Demetrio y Ptolomeo I. [137] A cambio de derrotar a las fuerzas de Antípatro II y obligarlo a huir a la corte de Lisímaco en Tracia, Pirro se adjudicó las partes más occidentales del reino macedonio. [138] Demetrio hizo asesinar a su sobrino Alejandro V y luego fue proclamado rey de Macedonia, pero sus súbditos protestaron contra su distante autocracia al estilo oriental . [136]
La guerra estalló entre Pirro y Demetrio en 290 a. C. cuando Lanassa, esposa de Pirro , hija de Agatocles de Siracusa , lo dejó por Demetrio y le ofreció su dote de Corcira . [139] La guerra se prolongó hasta el 288 a. C., cuando Demetrio perdió el apoyo de los macedonios y huyó del país. Macedonia luego se dividió entre Pirro y Lisímaco, el primero tomando Macedonia occidental y la última Macedonia oriental. [139] Hacia el 286 a. C., Lisímaco había expulsado a Pirro y sus fuerzas de Macedonia. [nota 10] En 282 a. C., estalló una nueva guerra entre Seleuco I y Lisímaco; este último murió en la Batalla de Corupedion , lo que permitió a Seleuco I tomar el control de Tracia y Macedonia. [140] En dos dramáticos cambios de suerte, Seleuco I fue asesinado en 281 a. C. por su oficial Ptolomeo Keraunos , hijo de Ptolomeo I y nieto de Antípatro, quien luego fue proclamado rey de Macedonia antes de morir en la batalla en 279 a. C. por invasores celtas. en la invasión gala de Grecia . [141] El ejército macedonio proclamó rey al general Sóstenes de Macedonia , aunque aparentemente rechazó el título. [142] Después de derrotar al gobernante galo Bolgios y expulsar al grupo de asalto de Brennus , Sóstenes murió y dejó una situación caótica en Macedonia. [143] Los invasores galos asolaron Macedonia hasta que Antígono Gonatas , hijo de Demetrio, los derrotó en Tracia en la batalla de Lisimaquia en el 277 a. C. y luego fue proclamado rey Antígono II de Macedonia ( r . 277-274, 272-239 a . C. ). [144]
En el 280 a. C., Pirro se embarcó en una campaña en Magna Grecia (es decir, el sur de Italia ) contra la República Romana conocida como la Guerra Pírrica , seguida de su invasión de Sicilia . [145] Ptolomeo Keraunos aseguró su posición en el trono macedonio dándole a Pirro cinco mil soldados y veinte elefantes de guerra para este esfuerzo. [137] Pirro regresó a Epiro en 275 a . C. después del fracaso final de ambas campañas, lo que contribuyó al surgimiento de Roma porque las ciudades griegas del sur de Italia , como Tarento, se convirtieron ahora en aliados romanos. [145] Pirro invadió Macedonia en el 274 a. C., derrotando al ejército mayoritariamente mercenario de Antígono II en la batalla de Aous en el 274 a. C. y expulsándolo de Macedonia, lo que lo obligó a buscar refugio con su flota naval en el Egeo. [146]
Pirro perdió gran parte de su apoyo entre los macedonios en 273 a. C. cuando sus rebeldes mercenarios galos saquearon el cementerio real de Aigai. [147] Pirro persiguió a Antígono II en el Peloponeso, pero Antígono II finalmente pudo recuperar Macedonia. [148] Pirro murió mientras sitiaba Argos en 272 a. C., lo que permitió a Antígono II recuperar el resto de Grecia. [149] Luego restauró las tumbas dinásticas Argead en Aigai y anexó el Reino de Paeonia . [150]
La Liga Etólica obstaculizó el control de Antígono II sobre Grecia central , y la formación de la Liga Aquea en el 251 a. C. expulsó a las fuerzas macedonias de gran parte del Peloponeso y, en ocasiones, incorporó Atenas y Esparta. [151] Mientras que el Imperio seléucida se alineó con la Macedonia antigónida contra el Egipto ptolemaico durante las guerras sirias , la armada ptolemaica interrumpió en gran medida los esfuerzos de Antígono II por controlar la Grecia continental. [152] Con la ayuda de la armada ptolemaica, el estadista ateniense Cromónides encabezó una revuelta contra la autoridad macedonia conocida como la Guerra Cremonidea (267-261 a. C.). [153] Hacia el 265 a. C., Atenas fue rodeada y sitiada por las fuerzas de Antígono II, y una flota ptolemaica fue derrotada en la batalla de Cos . Atenas finalmente se rindió en el 261 a. C. [154] Después de que Macedonia formó una alianza con el gobernante seléucida Antíoco II , finalmente se llegó a un acuerdo de paz entre Antígono II y Ptolomeo II Filadelfo de Egipto en el 255 a. C. [155]
En el 251 a. C., Arato de Sición encabezó una rebelión contra Antígono II, y en el 250 a. C., Ptolomeo II declaró su apoyo al autoproclamado rey Alejandro de Corinto . [157] Aunque Alejandro murió en el 246 a . C. y Antígono pudo obtener una victoria naval contra los Ptolomeos en Andros , los macedonios perdieron el Acrocorinto ante las fuerzas de Arato en el 243 a. C., seguido de la inducción de Corinto en la Liga Aquea. [158] Antígono II hizo las paces con la Liga Aquea en el 240 a. C., cediendo los territorios que había perdido en Grecia. [159] Antígono II murió en 239 a . C. y fue sucedido por su hijo Demetrio II de Macedonia ( r . 239-229 a. C. ). Buscando una alianza con Macedonia para defenderse de los etolios, la reina madre y regente de Epiro, Olimpia II , ofreció a su hija Phthia de Macedonia a Demetrius II en matrimonio. Demetrius II aceptó su propuesta, pero dañó las relaciones con los seléucidas al divorciarse de Stratonice de Macedonia . [160] Aunque los etolios formaron una alianza con la Liga Aquea como resultado, Demetrio II pudo invadir Beocia y capturarla de los etolios en el 236 a. C. [156]
La Liga Aquea logró capturar Megalópolis en 235 a. C., y al final del reinado de Demetrio II la mayor parte del Peloponeso, excepto Argos, fue arrebatada a los macedonios. [161] Demetrio II también perdió un aliado en Epiro cuando la monarquía fue derrocada en una revolución republicana . [162] Demetrio II reclutó la ayuda del rey ilirio Agron para defender Acarnania contra Etolia, y en 229 aC, lograron derrotar a las armadas combinadas de las Ligas Etolia y Aquea en la Batalla de Paxos . [162] Otro gobernante ilirio, Longarus del Reino Dardanian , invadió Macedonia y derrotó a un ejército de Demetrius II poco antes de su muerte en 229 a. C. [163] Aunque su joven hijo Felipe heredó inmediatamente el trono, su regente Antigonus III Doson ( r . 229-221 aC ), sobrino de Antigonus II, fue proclamado rey por el ejército, con Felipe como su heredero, tras una serie de militares victorias contra los ilirios en el norte y los etolios en Tesalia. [164]
Arato envió una embajada a Antígono III en 226 a . C. en busca de una alianza inesperada ahora que el rey reformista Cleómenes III de Esparta estaba amenazando al resto de Grecia en la Guerra de Cleomenea (229-222 a. C.). [165] A cambio de ayuda militar, Antígono III exigió la devolución de Corinto al control de Macedonia, lo que finalmente acordó Arato en 225 a. C. [166] En 224 a. C., las fuerzas de Antígono III tomaron Arcadia de Esparta. Después de formar una liga helénica en la misma línea que la Liga de Corinto de Felipe II, logró derrotar a Esparta en la batalla de Sellasia en 222 a. C. [167] Esparta fue ocupada por una potencia extranjera por primera vez en su historia, restaurando la posición de Macedonia como la principal potencia en Grecia. [168] Antígono murió un año después, quizás de tuberculosis , dejando un fuerte reino helenístico para su sucesor Felipe V. [169]
Filipo V de Macedonia ( r . 221-179 a. C. ) enfrentó desafíos inmediatos a su autoridad por parte de la Liga Iliria Dardani y Etolia. [170] Felipe V y sus aliados tuvieron éxito contra los etolios y sus aliados en la Guerra Social (220-217 a. C.) , pero hizo las paces con los etolios una vez que se enteró de las incursiones de los dardani en el norte y de la victoria cartaginesa sobre los romanos en la batalla del lago Trasimene en 217 a. C. [171] Se alega que Demetrio de Pharos convenció a Felipe V de que primero asegurara Iliria antes de una invasión de la península italiana . [nota 11] En 216 a . C., Felipe V envió un centenar de buques de guerra ligeros al mar Adriático para atacar Iliria, una medida que llevó a Scerdilaidas del Reino de Ardiaean a pedir ayuda a los romanos. [172] Roma respondió enviando diez quinquerremes pesados desde la Sicilia romana para patrullar las costas ilirias, lo que provocó que Felipe V invirtiera el rumbo y ordenara a su flota que se retirara, evitando un conflicto abierto por el momento. [173]
Conflict with Rome
In 215 BC, at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire, Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal declaring an alliance with Philip V.[174] The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid in the event that a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.[175] Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,[176] the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus, which was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces.[177] When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212 BC, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, Elis, Messenia, and Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.[178]
The Aetolian League concluded a peace agreement with Philip V in 206 BC, and the Roman Republic negotiated the Treaty of Phoenice in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.[179] Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally Rhodes in 201 BC.[180] These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the Fifth Syrian War (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.[181] Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the comitia centuriata (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.[182] Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos, which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon, Byzantium, Cyzicus, and Chios against Macedonia.[183] Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201 BC and was blockaded at Bargylia by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.[184]
While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.[note 12] The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.[185] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia.[186]
The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,[187] but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.[188] When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.[188] In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.[189] Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.[190] Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind.[191] His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.[192]
Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the Seleucid king Antiochus III landed with his army at Demetrias, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians.[193] Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.[194] The Romans defeated the Seleucids in the 191 BC Battle of Thermopylae as well as the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a war indemnity, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the Taurus Mountains in the 188 BC Treaty of Apamea.[195] With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BC) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.[196]
Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon Aenus and Maronea, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.[note 13] This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.[197] Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC) succeeded Philip V and executed his brother Demetrius, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with high treason.[198] Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with Prusias II of Bithynia and Seleucus IV Philopator of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.[199] Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League, extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council.[200]
Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to the Senate denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.[201] This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[note 14] Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the Battle of Callinicus in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the Battle of Pydna in June 168 BC.[202] Perseus fled to Samothrace but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to Rome for the triumph of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, and was placed under house arrest at Alba Fucens, where he died in 166 BC.[203] The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied republics in its stead, their capitals located at Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia.[204] The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.[204] A certain Andriscus, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman praetor Publius Juventius Thalna during the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC).[205] Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the second Battle of Pydna by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, whose forces occupied the kingdom.[206] This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman destruction of Carthage and victory over the Achaean League at the Battle of Corinth, ushering in the era of Roman Greece and the gradual establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.[207]
Instituciones
Division of power
At the head of Macedonia's government was the king (basileus).[note 15] From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the royal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (somatophylakes), companions (hetairoi), friends (philoi), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) magistrates.[208] Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.[note 16] Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.[note 17]
Kingship and the royal court
The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its monarchy, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans.[209] The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of Archaic Greece, with Homeric aristocratic roots in Mycenaean Greece.[210] Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own petty king, the tribes of Lower Macedonia eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an overlord over the lesser kings of Upper Macedonia.[16] The direct line of father-to-son succession was broken after the assassination of Orestes of Macedon in 396 BC (allegedly by his regent and successor Aeropus II of Macedon), clouding the issue of whether primogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or of the people to choose another king.[211] It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or consorts were always preferred over others given the accession of Archelaus I of Macedon, son of Perdiccas II of Macedon and a slave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated heir apparent.[212]
It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.[213] After the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commander Mardonius had Alexander I of Macedon sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and Athens. The decision to send Alexander was based on his marriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.[213] With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and royal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of bribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.[214]
Little is known about the judicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the chief judge of the kingdom.[215] The Macedonian kings were also supreme commanders of the military.[note 18] Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the high priest of the nation. He performed daily ritual sacrifices and led religious festivals.[216] Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,[216] but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.[217] Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a royal secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated throne.[218]
Royal pages
The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men conscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.[note 19] Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.[219] After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.[220] During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during symposia (i.e. formal drinking parties).[221] Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with Perseus of Macedon to Samothrace following his defeat by the Romans in 168 BC.[222]
Bodyguards
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.[219] They were split into two categories: the agema of the hypaspistai, a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.[219] Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.[219]
Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies
The companions, including the elite companion cavalry and pezhetairoi infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.[note 20] The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.[223] A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a people's assembly during times of peace.[note 21]
Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.[224] The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as prosecutor in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others were acquitted).[225] However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.[226] At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions immediately formed a council to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by open rivalry and conflict between its members.[227] The army also used mutiny as a tool to achieve political ends.[note 22]
Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states
Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.[228] This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military strategos and the politarch, i.e. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), as well as the politico-religious office of the epistates.[note 23] No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers.[215]
In ancient Athens, the Athenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC.[229] When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed oligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.[note 24] Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of autonomy.[230] After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, city council (boule), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs.[231] Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (ecclesia) of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice.[232] Some cities also maintained their own municipal revenues.[230] The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by temples and priesthoods.[233]
Within the Macedonian commonwealth, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in Panhellenic events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of asylia (inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and the right of asylum at sanctuaries) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.[234] Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek koina (i.e., federations of city-states, the sympoliteia) obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league.[note 25] In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of proxenia (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.[235] Abundant evidence exists for the granting of proxenia as being the sole prerogative of central authorities in the neighboring Epirote League, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.[236] City-states that were allied with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding proxenia.[237] Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the Cretan League signed treaties with Demetrius II Aetolicus and Antigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected Philip V of Macedon as honorary protector (prostates) of the league.[238]
Military
Early Macedonian army
The basic structure of the Ancient Macedonian army was the division between the companion cavalry (hetairoi) and the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.[239] The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon.[240] Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.[241] Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.[242] As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.[243] Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,[244] yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.[245]
Philip II and Alexander the Great
After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of martial exercises and the issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, professional army.[246] Philip II adopted some of the military tactics of his enemies, such as the embolon (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the Scythians.[247] His infantry wielded peltai shields that replaced the earlier hoplon-style shields, were equipped with protective helmets, greaves, and either cuirasses breastplates or kotthybos stomach bands, and armed with sarissa pikes and daggers as secondary weapons.[note 26] The elite hypaspistai infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the pezhetairoi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.[248] Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (somatophylakes).[249]
For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary Cretan archers as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian javelin throwers, slingers, and archers.[250] He hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery that fired large bolts.[247] Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army.[251] The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes.[252]
The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,[249] yet he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians while campaigning in Asia.[253] When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen from Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 prodromoi cavalry from Thrace.[254] Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the Lamian War when it began in 323 BC.[254] The most elite members of Alexander's hypaspistai were designated as the agema, and a new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides (silver shields).[255] The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.[note 27] Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi.[note 28] Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.[256] After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.[256]
Antigonid period military
The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as somatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the hypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of the somatophylakes.[note 29] At the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.[257] Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (Latin: sacra ala; Greek: hiera ile) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the Social War of 219 BC.[258] The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.[258] While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia.[259]
Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[note 31] Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.[260] The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.[note 32] They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into chalkaspides (bronze shield) and leukaspides (white shield) regiments.[261]
The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip the navy.[262] Cassander maintained a small fleet at Pydna, Demetrius I of Macedon had one at Pella, and Antigonus II Gonatas, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in Demetrias, Chalkis, Piraeus, and Corinth.[263] The navy was considerably expanded during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC Battle of Cos and 245 BC Battle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the Cyclades.[263] Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade Caria, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the Battle of Chios in 201 BC.[263] The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some lemboi at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC.[263]
sociedad y Cultura
Language and dialects
Following its adoption as the court language of Philip II of Macedon's regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece.[note 33] Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of Greek similar to Thessalian Greek and Northwestern Greek,[note 34] or a language closely related to Greek.[note 35] The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in Attic Greek and its successor Koine.[264] Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the Ancient Macedonian army, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the drinking party where he killed Cleitus the Black.[265] Macedonian became extinct in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.[266][note 36]
Religious beliefs and funerary practices
By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the same deities of the Greek pantheon.[268] In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of Asklepios, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at Cassandreia, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder Cassander was the nominal head of the city.[269] The main sanctuary of Zeus was maintained at Dion, while another at Veria was dedicated to Herakles and was patronized by Demetrius II Aetolicus (r. 239–229 BC).[270] Meanwhile, foreign cults from Egypt were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of Sarapis at Thessaloniki.[271] The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings Philip III of Macedon and Alexander IV of Macedon made votive offerings to the internationally esteemed Samothrace temple complex of the Cabeiri mystery cult.[271]
In the three royal tombs at Vergina, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of Hades abducting Persephone and royal hunting scenes, while lavish grave goods including weapons, armor, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones were burned before burial in golden coffins.[272] Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a diadem, luxurious goods, and arms and armor.[273] Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since the discovery of their remains in 1977–1978,[274] and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II.[note 37] Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a heroon, a shrine for cult worship of the dead.[275] In 2014, the ancient Macedonian Kasta Tomb was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).[276]
Economics and social class
Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits.[277] Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with irrigation, land reclamation, and horticulture activities supported by the Macedonian state.[note 38] The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by logging and by mining valuable minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.[278] The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.[279]
The Macedonian king was an autocratic figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his hetairoi, the core of the Macedonian aristocracy.[280] These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.[281] It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the Hellenistic kingdoms that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater social mobility for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.[282] Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread use of slaves seen in contemporaneous Greek states.[283]
Visual arts
By the reign of Archelaus I in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps Homeric, funerary rites connected with the symposium that were typified by items such as the decorative metal kraters that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.[284] Among these is the large bronze Derveni Krater from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god Dionysus and his entourage and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.[285] Macedonian metalwork usually followed Athenian styles of vase shapes from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, diadems, and coins among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.[286]
Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes frescoes and murals, but also decoration on sculpted artwork such as statues and reliefs. For instance, trace colors still exist on the bas-reliefs of the late 4th-century BC Alexander Sarcophagus.[288] Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the ancient Macedonians.[289] Aside from metalwork and painting, mosaics are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.[286] The Stag Hunt Mosaic of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.[290] The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion Craterus, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.[290] Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and Helen of Troy being abducted by Theseus, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.[290] Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.[note 39]
Theatre, music and performing arts
Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of Aigai, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra.[291] Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.[292] He was especially fond of the plays by Classical Athenian tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, whose works formed part of a proper Greek education for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the epics of Homer.[293] While he and his army were stationed at Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.[294] The contemporaneous famous actors Thessalus and Athenodorus performed at the event.[note 40]
Music was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the agora, the gymnasium, the theatre, and religious sanctuaries and temples dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the empire of Alexander the Great was the presence of an odeon for musical performances.[295] This was the case not only for Alexandria in Egypt, but also for cities as distant as Ai-Khanoum in what is now modern-day Afghanistan.[295]
Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage
Perdiccas II of Macedon was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet Melanippides and the renowned medical doctor Hippocrates, and Pindar's enkomion written for Alexander I of Macedon may have been composed at his court.[296] Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.[297] His honored guests included the painter Zeuxis, the architect Callimachus, the poets Choerilus of Samos, Timotheus of Miletus, and Agathon, as well as the famous Athenian playwright Euripides.[note 41] The philosopher Aristotle, who studied at the Platonic Academy of Athens and established the Aristotelian school of thought, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.[298] Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was Pyrrho of Elis, founder of Pyrrhonism, the school of philosophical skepticism.[293] During the Antigonid period, Antigonos Gonatas fostered cordial relationships with Menedemos of Eretria, founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, and Zenon, the founder of Stoicism.[292]
In terms of early Greek historiography and later Roman historiography, Felix Jacoby identified thirteen possible ancient historians who wrote about Macedonia in his Fragmente der griechischen Historiker.[299] Aside from accounts in Herodotus and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an Illyrian war fought by Perdiccas III written by Antipater.[300] The Macedonian historians Marsyas of Pella and Marsyas of Philippi wrote histories of Macedonia, the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy I Soter authored a history about Alexander, and Hieronymus of Cardia wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.[note 42] Following the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian military officer Nearchus wrote a work of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus river to the Persian Gulf.[301] The Macedonian historian Craterus published a compilation of decrees made by the popular assembly of the Athenian democracy, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.[301] Philip V of Macedon had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by Theopompus gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.[292]
Sports and leisure
When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the foot race of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic Hellanodikai authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.[302] By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the olive wreath at both Olympia and Delphi (in the Pythian Games) for winning chariot racing contests.[303] Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual horse race or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC.[304] Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.[305] In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged competitions for music and athletics across his empire.[293]
Dining and cuisine
Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine produced in Chalcidice.[307] The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later trencher bread of medieval Europe.[307] Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages.[307] The comedic playwright Menander wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal.[308] The Macedonians also most likely introduced mattye to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course.[309] This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon.[310]
The symposium in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes philosophical discussion.[311] The hetairoi, leading members of the Macedonian aristocracy, were expected to attend such feasts with their king.[281] They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of game meat as well as for sport.[281]
Ethnic identity
Terracotta statues depicting ancient Macedonians wearing the kausia, a headgear that led the Persians to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").[312] Left, Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC. Right, Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC |
Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. Ernst Badian notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of Arrian, who lived at the time of the Roman Empire, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.[313] Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected hegemon Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself),[note 43] N. G. L. Hammond asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).[314] Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,[315] Malcolm Errington,[note 44] and Craige B. Champion.[note 45]
Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as Aristotle in his Politics as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.[note 46] Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.[note 47] Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs.[316] Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC).[317]
Tecnología e ingeniería
Architecture
Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other ancient Greek architecture.[290] Among the classical orders, Macedonian architects favored the Ionic order, especially in the peristyle courtyards of private homes.[319] There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a palace at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of Vergina near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at Demetrias near modern Volos.[319] At Vergina, the ruins of three large banquet halls with marble-tiled floors (covered in the debris of roof tiles) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental triangular roof trusses, if dated before the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.[320] Later Macedonian architecture also featured arches and vaults.[321] The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried bricks, while the latter palace had four corner towers around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.[319]
Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II raised a round memorial building at Olympia known as the Philippeion, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents Amyntas III of Macedon and Eurydice I of Macedon, his wife Olympias, and his son Alexander the Great.[322]
The ruins of roughly twenty Greek theatres survive in the present-day regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece: sixteen open-air theatres, three odea, and a possible theatre in Veria undergoing excavation.[323]
Military technology and engineering
By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful torsion siege engines, naval ships, and standardized designs for arms and armor.[324] Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to siege artillery such as bolt-shooting ballistae and siege engines such as huge rolling siege towers.[325] E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his successor Demetrius I of Macedon had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC.[326] The siege of Salamis, Cyprus, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of West Asia.[327] The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC) and manned by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine stories.[328] It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.[328]
During the siege of Echinus by Philip V of Macedon in 211 BC, the besiegers built tunnels to protect the soldiers and sappers as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift wickerwork curtain wall mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the battering ram.[329] Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt became the center for technological improvements to the catapult by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of Philo of Alexandria.[327]
Other innovations
Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The rotary-operated olive press for producing olive oil may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the Levant or Anatolia.[330] Mold-pressed glass first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and Rhodes and date to the second half of the 4th century BC.[331] Greek technical and scientific literature began with Classical Athens in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamon.[332]
Moneda, finanzas y recursos
The minting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures.[215] Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.[44] The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the Pangaion Hills.[333] During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Kingdom of Pergamon exercised full monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.[334] By the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to Babylon produced standard coins.[335] The right to mint coins was shared by central and some local governments, i.e. the autonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.[336] The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for internal and external circulation.[337]
State revenues were also raised by collecting produce from arable lands, timber from forests, and taxes on imports and exports at harbors.[338] Some mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the hetairoi and philoi.[339] Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian seaports existed from at least the reign of Amyntas III, and Callistratus of Aphidnae (d. c. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 talents.[340]
After the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC, the Roman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous client states that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.[341] The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.[342] The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased money supply from Macedonian silver mining.[343] The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.[344]
Legado
The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the spread of Greek culture to the Near East during and after Alexander's conquests.[345] Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.[346] However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[347]
The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.[348] Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.[349] While Spartan society remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing strict limitations on acquiring citizenship, the cosmopolitan Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.[350]
The deification of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a living god.[note 48] Following his visit to the oracle of Didyma in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the Oracle of Zeus Ammon—the Greek equivalent of the Egyptian Amun-Ra—at the Siwa Oasis of the Libyan Desert in 332 BC to confirm his divine status.[note 49] Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires maintained ancestral cults and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.[351] While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize Egyptian, Persian, and Babylonian priesthoods and deities, strengthening the fusion of Near Eastern and Greek religious beliefs.[352] After his reign, the cult of Isis gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and Roman world, while beliefs in the Egyptian god Sarapis were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.[353] The German historian Johann Gustav Droysen argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and establishment of Christianity in the Roman era.[354]
Ver también
- Historiography of Alexander the Great
- List of kings of Macedon
- Geographic region of Macedonia
- Macedonia region of Greece
- Macedonia naming dispute
- Paeonia
- Tomb of Alexander the Great
- Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)
Referencias
Notes
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 89; Borza 1995, p. 114; Eugene N. Borza writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".
- ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–343; Sprawski 2010, pp. 131, 134; Errington 1990, pp. 8–9.
Errington is skeptical that at this point Amyntas I of Macedon offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias to take refuge at Anthemous in 506 BC. - ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by Bardylis of the Dardani.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169–170, 179.
Müller is skeptical about the claims of Plutarch and Athenaeus that Philip II of Macedon married Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon, a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own midlife crisis. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general Attalus, who along with his father-in-law Parmenion were given command posts in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house. - ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 185–187.
Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC. - ^ Müller 2010, pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Buckler 1989, pp. 63–64, 176–181.
Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC. - ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 189–190; Müller 2010, p. 183.
Without implicating Alexander III of Macedon as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate Philip II of Macedon, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 8–12. - ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 199–200; Errington 1990, pp. 44, 93.
Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of Antipater aside from deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.
N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 32. - ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, p. 155.
Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC. - ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990, pp. 186–189 for further details.
Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990, p. 189. - ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 86–87.
Errington 1990, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war." - ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 93–97; Eckstein 2010, p. 239; Errington 1990, pp. 207–208.
Bringmann dates this event of handing over Aenus and Maronea along the Thracian coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC. - ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."
Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "political calculation" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world". - ^ Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before Philip II of Macedon's reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin. Contemporary accounts given by those such as Demosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; even Aristotle, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include Livy, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Plutarch, and Arrian. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's hereditary monarchy and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government. See: King 2010, pp. 373–374.
However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. See: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military. On this, Sekunda 2010, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the 'Alexander Sarcophagus' in particular and the 'Alexander Mosaic'... In the case of the Antigonid army ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by Diodorus and Plutarch, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by Philip V." - ^ King 2010, p. 374; for an argument about the absolutism of the Macedonian monarchy, see Errington 1990, pp. 220–222.
However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13. - ^ King 2010, p. 375.
In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and customary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to appoint a new king and judge cases of treason stems from the reign of Alexander III of Macedon. See Granier 1931, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and King 2010, pp. 374–375.
Pietro de Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: de Francisci 1948, pp. 345–435 as well as King 2010, p. 375 and Errington 1990, p. 220 for further details. - ^ King 2010, p. 379; Errington 1990, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the Greco-Persian Wars but also the city-state of Potidaea's acceptance of Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander-in-chief during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC.
- ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 403–405.
According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the military campaigns of Alexander the Great in Asia.King 2010, pp. 380–381.
However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that the royal pages are attested to as far back as the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon. Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 13. - ^ King 2010, p. 382.
The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: Sawada 2010, p. 404. - ^ King 2010, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians.
- ^ For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See Adams 2010, p. 210 and Errington 1990, pp. 119–120 for details.
- ^ King 2010, p. 390.
Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule. - ^ Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12: under Antipater's oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 drachma. Athenian democracy was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son Cassander reconquered the city, which came under the regency of Demetrius of Phalerum. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 drachma, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and direct democracy was restored. Demetrius I of Macedon reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of Ptolemy I of Egypt. Antigonus II Gonatas, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the Roman Republic conquered both Macedonia and then mainland Greece by 146 BC.
- ^ Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the Achaean League, Acarnanian League, and Achaean League; see Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
- ^ According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the Third Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts: Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–450; see also Errington 1990, p. 238 for further details.
However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by military officers, while pikemen wore the kotthybos stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See Errington 1990, p. 241. - ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–456.
Errington 1990, p. 245: in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." - ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–457.
However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great's army, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 22–23. - ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 459; Errington 1990, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after Alexander. One is the evolution of the hypaspistai from an elite unit to a form of military police or bodyguard under Philip V; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see Errington 1990, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 461–462;
Errington 1990, p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under Doson, was the formation and training of a special unit of peltastai separate from the phalanx. This unit operated as a form of royal guard similar in function to the earlier hypaspistai." - ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian peltasts mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the Social War (220–217 BC).
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Woodard 2010, p. 9; see also Austin 2006, p. 4 for further details.
Edward M. Anson contends that the native spoken language of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet. Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58. - ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10.
Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than Koine Greek also betray a slight phonetic influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were assimilated or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from Phrygian spoken by the Bryges who migrated to Anatolia.
Errington 1990, pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used loanwords from Thracian and Illyrian languages, which "does not surprise modern philologists" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek. - ^ Woodard 2004, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.
Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."
Georgiev 1966, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. - ^ For instance, Cleopatra VII Philopator, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See Jones 2006, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Sansone 2017, p. 224; Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 6.
Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine." Seeker. Retrieved 17 January 2017. - ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of land reclamation near Amphipolis during the reign of Alexander the Great, see Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 31.
- ^ This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later Byzantine literature, particularly in the Acritic songs about Digenes Akritas. See Cohen 2010, pp. 13–34 for details.
- ^ The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous Dionysia festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his patron Alexander agreed to pay). SeeWorthington 2014, pp. 185–186 for details.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59; Sansone 2017, p. 223; Roisman 2010, p. 157.
Although Archelaus I of Macedon was criticized by the philosopher Plato, supposedly hated by Socrates, and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of barbarian, the historian Thucydides held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in Panhellenic sports and fostering of literary culture. See Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59. - ^ Errington 1990, pp. 224–225.
For Marsyas of Pella, see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 27 for further details. - ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 69–71.
Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the Epirotes and Cypriots, despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "Hellas" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and Epirotes, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as Philip II of Macedon had done. See: Engels 2010, pp. 83–84. - ^ Errington 1990, pp. 3–4.
Errington 1994, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. Demosthenes' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all." - ^ Champion 2004, p. 41: "Demosthenes could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of Aeschines, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different mythological genealogies concocted for the Macedonian people, with Hesiod's Catalogue of Women claiming that the Macedonians descended from Macedon, son of Zeus and Thyia, and was therefore a nephew of Hellen, progenitor of the Greeks. See: Anson 2010, p. 16; Rhodes 2010, p. 24.
By the end of the 5th century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos asserted Macedon was the son of Aeolus, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the Aeolians, one of the major tribes of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans, and Ionians, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the polis (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: Anson 2010, p. 15. - ^ For instance, Demosthenes when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas Polybius called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or kin). See: Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: Engels 2010, pp. 83–89.
- ^ Worthington 2012, p. 319.
As pharaoh of the Egyptians, he was already titled Son of Ra and considered the living incarnation of Horus by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the Ptolemaic successors of Alexander would foster for their own dynasty in Egypt). See: Worthington 2014, p. 180 and Sansone 2017, p. 228 for details. - ^ Worthington 2012, p. 319; Worthington 2014, pp. 180–183.
After the priest and Oracle of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See Worthington 2012, p. 319 and Worthington 2014, pp. 182–183 for details.
Citations
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–106; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 92; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
- ^ a b c Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–138; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–345.
- ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
- ^ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58.
- ^ Austin 2006, pp. 1–4.
- ^ "Macedonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017..
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 215.
- ^ a b Beekes 2009, p. 894.
- ^ Beekes 2009, p. 894
- ^ De Decker, Filip (2016). "An Etymological Case Study On The And Vocabulary In Robert Beekes's New Etymological Dictionary Of Greek: M". Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis. 133 (2). doi:10.4467/20834624SL.16.006.5152.
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127; Errington 1990, pp. 2–3.
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Errington 1990, pp. 3, 251.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 34; Sprawski 2010, p. 142.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 376.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 2.
- ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 67–68, 74–78.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 343–344
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–137; Errington 1990, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344; Sprawski 2010, p. 137; Errington 1990, p. 10.
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 344–345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–141; see also Errington 1990, pp. 11–12 for further details.
- ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 141–143; Errington 1990, pp. 9, 11–12.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 145–147.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; Müller 2010, p. 171; Cawkwell 1978, p. 72; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14 for further details.
- ^ a b c Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; see also Errington 1990, p. 18 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 147–148; Errington 1990, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 149–150; Errington 1990, p. 20.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 150–152; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, p. 22.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 152–153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 153–154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 154–155; Errington 1990, p. 24.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 156; Errington 1990, p. 26.
- ^ a b Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157; Errington 1990, p. 26.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 157–158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 159–160; Errington 1990, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 161; Errington 1990, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163; Errington 1990, p. 36.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 163–164; Errington 1990, p. 37.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 166–167; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472; Errington 1990, pp. 38.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 167.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 168.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 169.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 170; Buckler 1989, p. 62.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 170–171; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 187.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010, p. 161.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, p. 84; Errington 1990, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 171; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 172; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Cawkwell 1978, p. 42; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989, pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. BRILL. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739.
- ^ a b Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, p. 44; Schwahn 1931, col. 1193–1194.
- ^ Cawkwell 1978, p. 86.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996, pp. 474–475.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008, pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 96–98.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 98–101.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002, pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996, pp. 478–479.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 175.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 227.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002, p. 277; Buckley 1996, p. 482; Errington 1990, p. 44.
- ^ Mollov & Georgiev 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 136–142; Errington 1990, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 143–148.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 177–179; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–171; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 16 for further details.
- ^ Davis Hanson, Victor (2010). Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Princeton University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0691137902.
Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 348, 351
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 347–349
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 351
- ^ a b Müller 2010, pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978, p. 170.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 180–181; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 14 for further details.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 181–182; Errington 1990, p. 44; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186; see Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190; Müller 2010, p. 183; Renault 2001, pp. 61–62; Fox 1980, p. 72; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 190–191; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 15–16 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 34–38.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 40–47.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; see also Errington 1990, p. 91 and Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 47 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990, pp. 91–92 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 192–193.
- ^ a b c Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 193.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194; Holt 2012, pp. 27–41.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 194; Errington 1990, p. 113.
- ^ a b Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 195.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 198.
- ^ Holt 1989, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 196.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 199; Errington 1990, p. 93.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 200–201; Errington 1990, p. 58.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 201.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 201–203.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, p. 44 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, pp. 115–117 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; Adams 2010, p. 209; Errington 1990, pp. 69–70, 119.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 204–205; Adams 2010, pp. 209–210; Errington 1990, pp. 69, 119.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 205; see also Errington 1990, p. 118 for further details.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 208–209; Errington 1990, p. 117.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 210–211; Errington 1990, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 211; Errington 1990, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 211–212; Errington 1990, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 212–213; Errington 1990, pp. 124–126.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 213; Errington 1990, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 213–214; Errington 1990, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 214; Errington 1990, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 216.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 216–217; Errington 1990, p. 129.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, p. 145.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Adams 2010, p. 218.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 218; Errington 1990, p. 153.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, pp. 61–63; Errington 1990, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 160.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 162–163.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 164.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 167.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 165–166.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; see also Errington 1990, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, p. 168.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 169–171.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 222.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 221–222; Errington 1990, p. 172.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 173.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 174.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 173–174.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, p. 174.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; see also Errington 1990, pp. 179–180 for further details.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 180–181.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 181–183.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; see also Errington 1990, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Errington 1990, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 185–186, 189.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 230; Errington 1990, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 230–231; Errington 1990, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 79; Eckstein 2010, p. 231; Errington 1990, p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986, p. 19.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 231 and Errington 1990, pp. 191–193 for further details.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 191–193, 210.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Errington 1990, p. 193.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Eckstein 2010, pp. 232–233; Errington 1990, pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986, pp. 17–18, 20.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 83; Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–234; Errington 1990, pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986, p. 21; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 85; see also Errington 1990, pp. 196–197 for further details.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 234–235; Errington 1990, pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007, p. 86 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236; Errington 1990, pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986, p. 22.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 235 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; Errington 1990, pp. 197–198.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 87.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 87–88; Errington 1990, pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236 for further details.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 236.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 88.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, p. 236; Errington 1990, p. 203.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, pp. 236–237; Errington 1990, p. 204.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010, p. 237.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 237 and Gruen 1986, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 91; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 30, 33 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; see also Errington 1990, pp. 207–208 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; Eckstein 2010, pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240; Errington 1990, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 243–244; Errington 1990, pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43 for further details.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 43–46 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 104; Eckstein 2010, pp. 246–247.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, p. 247; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, pp. 247–248; Errington 1990, pp. 203–205, 216–217.
- ^ King 2010, p. 374; see also Errington 1990, pp. 220–221 for further details.
- ^ King 2010, p. 373.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 375–376.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 376–377.
- ^ King 2010, p. 377.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 378.
- ^ King 2010, p. 379.
- ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 222.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 380.
- ^ King 2010, p. 380; for further context, see Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 345–346.
- ^ a b c d King 2010, p. 381.
- ^ Sawada 2010, p. 403.
- ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 404–405.
- ^ Sawada 2010, p. 406.
- ^ King 2010, p. 382; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 382–383.
- ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5, 12.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 384–389; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 383–384; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ King 2010, p. 390.
- ^ Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 231.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 230.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 231–232.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 365–366.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 367–369.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 368–369.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 242.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 447; Errington 1990, pp. 243–244.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 447–448.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449; see also Errington 1990, pp. 238–239 for further details.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 238–239; 243–244.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 449.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 239–240.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 238; 247.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 451.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 450; Errington 1990, p. 244.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 452.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–451.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 247–248; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 453.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 454.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 455; Errington 1990, p. 245.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, pp. 458–459.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 461.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 460.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 469
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 462.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 463–464.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 247–248.
- ^ a b c d Errington 1990, p. 248.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 95.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 94.
- ^ Sansone 2017, p. 223.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 17–18; see also Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–429.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 226; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 430–431
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 226.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257–260; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 432–433; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–7 for further details.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 259–260; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–6 for further details.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257, 260–261.
- ^ Borza 1992, p. 257.
- ^ Sansone 2017, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; Errington 1990, p. 7.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48; Errington 1990, pp. 7–8; 222–223.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b c Anson 2010, p. 10.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Hardiman 2010, p. 515.
- ^ Hardiman 2010, pp. 515–517.
- ^ a b Hardiman 2010, p. 517.
- ^ Palagia 2000, pp. 182, 185–186.
- ^ Head 2016, pp. 12–13; Piening 2013, pp. 1182.
- ^ Head 2016, p. 13; Aldrete, Bartell & Aldrete 2013, p. 49.
- ^ a b c d Hardiman 2010, p. 518.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 182.
- ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 224.
- ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 186.
- ^ Worthington 2014, p. 185.
- ^ a b Worthington 2014, pp. 183, 186.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 58; Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 58–59; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
- ^ Chroust 2016, p. 137.
- ^ Rhodes 2010, p. 23.
- ^ Rhodes 2010, pp. 23–25; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 225.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 34, Anson 2010, p. 16; Sansone 2017, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59.
- ^ Nawotka 2010, p. 2.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 19
- ^ Cohen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Dalby 1997, p. 157.
- ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Dalby 1997, p. 156.
- ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 10; Cohen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 87; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: Engels 2010, p. 82.
- ^ Hammond, N.G.L. (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 11. ISBN 0807823503.
The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.
- ^ Sakellariou 1983, pp. 52.
- ^ Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0754665250.
The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 74.
- ^ Bolman 2016, pp. 120–121.
- ^ a b c Winter 2006, p. 163.
- ^ Winter 2006, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Winter 2006, p. 165.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 227; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3, 7–8 for further details.
- ^ Koumpis 2012, p. 34.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 375–376.
- ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, p. 570.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 376, no. 531.
- ^ a b Treister 1996, p. 376.
- ^ a b Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–571.
- ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–572.
- ^ Curtis 2008, p. 380.
- ^ Stern 2008, pp. 530–532.
- ^ Cuomo 2008, pp. 17–20.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 246.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 379.
- ^ Meadows 2008, p. 773.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Kremydi 2011, pp. 163.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 433.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 434.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 433–434; Roisman 2010, p. 163.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 373–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 374.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 249.
- ^ Asirvatham 2010, p. 104.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 9.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 435–436.
- ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, p. 436.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 3.
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Otras lecturas
- Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
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- Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1.
- Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22241-3.
- Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. doi:10.2307/630417. JSTOR 630417.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 9789025610500.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
- Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8.
- Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5.
- Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6.
- Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215256-5.
- Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
enlaces externos
- Ancient Macedonia at Livius, by Jona Lendering
- Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford
- "Macedonia, ancient kingdom", entry from the Encyclopædia Britannica
- "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great", from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History