La guerra chino-vietnamita ( vietnamita : Chiến tranh biên giới Việt-Trung ; chino :中越战争; pinyin : Zhōng-Yuè Zhànzhēng ) fue una guerra fronteriza librada entre China y Vietnam a principios de 1979. China lanzó una ofensiva en respuesta a las acciones de Vietnam contra el Khmer Rouge en 1978, que puso fin al gobierno del Khmer Rouge respaldado por China . Tanto China como Vietnam se adjudicaron la victoria en la última de las guerras de Indochina .
Guerra chino-vietnamita | |||||||||
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Parte de la Tercera Guerra de Indochina y la Guerra Fría | |||||||||
Mapa de ciudades vietnamitas que fueron atacadas por China. | |||||||||
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porcelana |
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Guerra chino-vietnamita | ||||||||||||
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nombre chino | ||||||||||||
Chino simplificado | 对 越 自卫 反击 战 | |||||||||||
Chino tradicional | 對 越 自衛 反擊 戰 | |||||||||||
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Nombre vietnamita | ||||||||||||
vietnamita | Chiến tranh biên giới Việt Nam-Trung Quốc |
Las fuerzas chinas entraron en el norte de Vietnam y capturaron varias ciudades cerca de la frontera . El 6 de marzo de 1979, China declaró que la puerta de Hanoi estaba abierta y que se había cumplido su misión punitiva. Luego, las tropas chinas se retiraron de Vietnam. Como las tropas vietnamitas permanecieron en Camboya hasta 1989, China no tuvo éxito en su objetivo de disuadir a Vietnam de involucrarse en Camboya . Tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética en 1991, se finalizó la frontera chino-vietnamita. Aunque no pudo disuadir a Vietnam de expulsar a Pol Pot de Camboya, China demostró que su adversario comunista de la Guerra Fría , la Unión Soviética , era incapaz de proteger a su aliado vietnamita. [18]
Nombres
La Guerra Sino-Vietnamita ( vietnamita : Chiến tranh biên giới Việt-Trung ) también se conoce como la Tercera Guerra de Indochina, para distinguirla de la Primera Guerra de Indochina y la Guerra de Vietnam , también conocida como Segunda Guerra de Indochina. [19] En Vietnam, el conflicto se conoce como la Guerra contra el expansionismo chino (en vietnamita: Chiến tranh chống bành trướng Trung Hoa ). [20] En China, la guerra se conoce como el contraataque defensivo contra Vietnam ( chino :对 越 自卫 反击 战; pinyin : Duì Yuè zìwèi fǎnjī zhàn ). [21]
Fondo
Así como la Primera Guerra de Indochina, que surgió de la compleja situación que siguió a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y la Guerra de Vietnam estallaron ambas como consecuencia de las relaciones políticas no resueltas, la Tercera Guerra de Indochina siguió de nuevo a los problemas no resueltos de las guerras anteriores. [22]
Los principales vencedores aliados de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, coincidieron en que el área pertenecía a los franceses. [23] Como los franceses no tenían los medios para retomar Indochina inmediatamente, las principales potencias acordaron que los británicos tomarían el control y las tropas ocuparían el sur, mientras que las fuerzas nacionalistas chinas se moverían desde el norte. [23] Las tropas nacionalistas chinas entraron en el país para desarmar a las tropas japonesas al norte del paralelo 16 el 14 de septiembre de 1945. El paralelo dividió Indochina en zonas controladas por China y Gran Bretaña (Ver Cronología de la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1945) ). [24] Los británicos aterrizaron en el sur rearmando el pequeño cuerpo de fuerzas francesas internadas, así como partes de las fuerzas japonesas rindidas para ayudar a retomar el sur de Vietnam, ya que no había suficientes tropas británicas disponibles de inmediato. [23]
A instancias de la Unión Soviética, Ho Chi Minh inicialmente intentó negociar con los franceses, quienes poco a poco estaban restableciendo su control en toda la zona, aunque todavía bajo el control británico hasta que cesaron las hostilidades. Una vez finalizadas las hostilidades, los británicos entregaron el territorio a los franceses. [25] En enero de 1946, el Viet Minh ganó las elecciones en el centro y norte de Vietnam. [26] El 6 de marzo de 1946, Ho firmó un acuerdo que permitía a las fuerzas francesas reemplazar a las fuerzas nacionalistas chinas, a cambio del reconocimiento francés de la República Democrática de Vietnam como una república "libre" dentro de la Unión Francesa , con las especificaciones de tal reconocimiento para ser determinado por la negociación futura. [27] [28] [29] Las fuerzas británicas partieron el 26 de marzo de 1946, dejando Vietnam bajo el control de los franceses. [30] Los franceses desembarcaron en Hanoi en marzo de 1946 y en noviembre de ese año expulsaron al Viet Minh de la ciudad. [25] Poco después, el Viet Minh comenzó una guerra de guerrillas contra las fuerzas de la Unión Francesa, comenzando la primera Guerra de Indochina.
Colonialismo francés y la Primera Guerra de Indochina
Vietnam se convirtió por primera vez en una colonia francesa cuando Francia invadió en 1858. En la década de 1880, los franceses habían expandido su esfera de influencia en el sudeste asiático para incluir a todo Vietnam, y en 1893 tanto Laos como Camboya se habían convertido también en colonias francesas. [31] Las rebeliones contra el poder colonial francés fueron comunes hasta la Primera Guerra Mundial . La guerra europea aumentó el sentimiento revolucionario en el sudeste asiático, y la población con mentalidad independiente se unió en torno a revolucionarios como Hồ Chí Minh y otros, incluidos los realistas.
Antes de su ataque a Pearl Harbor , los japoneses ocuparon la Indochina francesa , pero dejaron la administración civil a la administración francesa de Vichy . [32] [33] El 9 de marzo de 1945, temiendo que los franceses de Vichy estuvieran a punto de cambiar de bando para apoyar a los aliados, los japoneses derrocaron la administración de Vichy y las fuerzas que tomaron el control de Indochina y establecieron su propia administración títere, el Imperio de Vietnam . La rendición japonesa en agosto de 1945 creó un vacío de poder en Indochina, mientras las diversas facciones políticas luchaban por el control. [34]
Los eventos que llevaron a la Primera Guerra de Indochina están sujetos a disputas históricas. [35] Cuando el Việt Minh intentó apresuradamente establecer la República Democrática de Vietnam , los franceses restantes consintieron mientras esperaban el regreso de las fuerzas francesas a la región. [33] [35] El Kuomintang apoyó la restauración francesa, pero los esfuerzos de Viet Minh hacia la independencia fueron ayudados por los comunistas chinos bajo el poder de la Unión Soviética. Al principio, la Unión Soviética apoyó indirectamente a los comunistas vietnamitas, pero luego apoyó directamente a Hồ Chí Minh. [36] [37] No obstante, los soviéticos siguieron siendo menos solidarios que China hasta después de la escisión chino-soviética , durante la época de Leonid Brezhnev, cuando la Unión Soviética se convirtió en el aliado clave del Vietnam comunista.
La guerra en sí involucró numerosos eventos que tuvieron importantes impactos en toda Indochina. Se celebraron dos conferencias importantes para lograr una resolución. Finalmente, el 20 de julio de 1954, la Conferencia de Ginebra resultó en un acuerdo político para la reunificación del país, firmado con el apoyo de China, Rusia y las potencias de Europa Occidental. [36] Si bien la Unión Soviética jugó un papel constructivo en el acuerdo, nuevamente no estuvo tan involucrada como China. [36] [37] Estados Unidos no firmó el acuerdo y rápidamente se movió para respaldar a Vietnam del Sur .
División chino-soviética
El Partido Comunista Chino y el Viet Minh tenían una larga historia. Durante las etapas iniciales de la Primera Guerra de Indochina con Francia, la República Popular de China comunista recientemente fundada continuó la misión rusa de expandir el comunismo. Por lo tanto, ayudaron al Viet Minh y se convirtieron en el conector entre los soviéticos y el Viet Minh. A principios de 1950, el Viet Minh luchó independientemente del Grupo Asesor Militar Chino bajo Wei Guoqing . Esta fue una de las razones por las que China cortó el soporte de armas para el Viet Minh.
Después de la muerte de Joseph Stalin en marzo de 1953, las relaciones entre la Unión Soviética y China comenzaron a deteriorarse. Mao Zedong creía que el nuevo líder soviético Nikita Khrushchev había cometido un grave error en su Discurso Secreto denunciando a Stalin en febrero de 1956, y criticó la interpretación de la Unión Soviética del marxismo-leninismo , en particular el apoyo de Jruschov a la coexistencia pacífica y su interpretación. Esto condujo a relaciones cada vez más hostiles y, finalmente, a la división chino-soviética . A partir de aquí, los comunistas chinos jugaron un papel cada vez menor en la ayuda a sus antiguos aliados porque el Viet Minh no apoyó a China contra los soviéticos.
Tras el empeoramiento de las relaciones entre la Unión Soviética y China como resultado de la división chino-soviética de 1956-1966, hasta 1,5 millones de tropas chinas estaban estacionadas a lo largo de la frontera chino-soviética en preparación para una guerra a gran escala contra los soviéticos.
Tras la muerte de Mao en septiembre de 1976, el derrocamiento de la Banda de los Cuatro y el ascenso de Deng Xiaoping , el liderazgo chino revisaría sus propias posiciones para volverse compatibles con los aspectos del mercado, denunciar la Revolución Cultural y colaborar con los EE. UU. Unión Soviética.
guerra de Vietnam
Cuando Francia se retiró de un Vietnam dividido provisionalmente a fines de 1954, Estados Unidos intervino cada vez más para apoyar a los líderes de Vietnam del Sur debido a la teoría de Domino , que teorizaba que si una nación se volvía al comunismo, era probable que las naciones circundantes cayeran como fichas de dominó. y conviértete también en comunista. La Unión Soviética y Vietnam del Norte se convirtieron en aliados importantes juntos debido al hecho de que si Vietnam del Norte se apoderaba con éxito de Vietnam del Sur, entonces el comunismo en el lejano oriente encontraría reforzada su posición estratégica. A los ojos de la República Popular China, la creciente relación soviético-vietnamita fue un acontecimiento inquietante; temían un cerco por la poco hospitalaria esfera de influencia soviética.
Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética no pudieron ponerse de acuerdo sobre un plan para una elección propuesta de 1956 destinada a unificar el Vietnam dividido. En cambio, el Sur celebró una elección separada que fue ampliamente considerada fraudulenta, lo que llevó a un conflicto interno continuo con las facciones comunistas lideradas por el Viet Cong que se intensificó hasta fines de la década de 1950. Con suministros y apoyo de la Unión Soviética, las fuerzas norvietnamitas se involucraron directamente en la guerra de guerrillas en curso en 1959 e invadieron abiertamente el sur en 1964.
Estados Unidos desempeñó un papel cada vez más importante en el apoyo a Vietnam del Sur durante ese período. Estados Unidos había apoyado a las fuerzas francesas en la Primera Guerra de Indochina, envió suministros y asesores militares a Vietnam del Sur durante la década de 1950 y principios de la de 1960, y finalmente se hizo cargo de la mayor parte de los combates contra Vietnam del Norte y el Viet Cong a mediados de la década de 1960. En 1968, más de 500.000 soldados estadounidenses participaron en la guerra de Vietnam. Debido a la falta de un éxito militar claro y al enfrentarse a una oposición cada vez más estridente a la guerra en los EE. UU., Las fuerzas estadounidenses comenzaron una retirada lenta en 1969 mientras intentaban reforzar el ejército de Vietnam del Sur para que pudieran hacerse cargo de los combates. De acuerdo con los Acuerdos de Paz de París el 29 de marzo de 1973, todas las fuerzas de combate estadounidenses habían abandonado Vietnam del Sur; sin embargo, se permitió que las fuerzas de combate de Vietnam del Norte permanecieran en su lugar. Vietnam del Norte atacó a Vietnam del Sur a principios de 1975 y Vietnam del Sur cayó el 30 de abril de 1975.
La República Popular China inició conversaciones con Estados Unidos a principios de la década de 1970, que culminaron en reuniones de alto nivel con Henry Kissinger y más tarde con Richard Nixon . Estas reuniones contribuyeron a una reorientación de la política exterior china hacia Estados Unidos . Mientras tanto, la República Popular China también apoyó al Khmer Rouge en Camboya .
Camboya
Aunque los comunistas vietnamitas y los jemeres rojos habían cooperado anteriormente, la relación se deterioró cuando el líder de los jemeres rojos, Pol Pot, llegó al poder y estableció la Kampuchea Democrática el 17 de abril de 1975. La República Popular China , por otro lado, también apoyó a los jemeres rojos maoístas contra El régimen de Lon Nol durante la Guerra Civil de Camboya y su posterior toma de control de Camboya. China proporcionó un amplio apoyo político, logístico y militar a los jemeres rojos durante su gobierno. [38] Después de numerosos enfrentamientos a lo largo de la frontera entre Vietnam y Camboya, y con el estímulo de los desertores de los jemeres rojos que huían de una purga de la zona oriental, Vietnam invadió Camboya el 25 de diciembre de 1978. El 7 de enero de 1979, las fuerzas vietnamitas habían entrado en Phnom Penh y los jemeres. El liderazgo de Rouge había huido al oeste de Camboya.
Minorías étnicas
China apoyó a la minoría étnica Frente Unido para la Liberación de las Razas Oprimidas contra Vietnam durante la insurgencia FULRO contra Vietnam .
Los vietnamitas ejecutaron a colaboradores que trabajaban para los chinos, independientemente de su origen étnico. [39] [40] [41]
Los chinos recibieron una cantidad significativa de desertores de la minoría étnica Thu Lao en Vietnam durante la guerra. [42] Durante la guerra, China recibió como migrantes a toda la población de la minoría étnica Phù Lá, con base en A Lù . [43] China recibió tantos desertores de las minorías étnicas en Vietnam que generó conmoción entre Vietnam, que tuvo que lanzar un nuevo esfuerzo para reafirmar el dominio sobre las minorías étnicas y clasificarlas. [44] Después de la Guerra de Vietnam, la insurgencia contra Vietnam duró entre los indígenas Mon-Khmer y Malayo-Polinesios de las Tierras Altas Centrales. [45] La minoría étnica Hmong solicitó ayuda a China . [46] La frontera fue cruzada con frecuencia por chinos, laosianos, kinh, hmong, yao, nung y tai. [47] Los hmong de Laos y FULRO fueron apoyados contra Vietnam por China y Tailandia. [48] [49]
China ataca a Vietnam
China, ahora bajo Deng Xiaoping, estaba iniciando la reforma económica china y abriendo el comercio con Occidente, a su vez, cada vez más desafiante de la Unión Soviética. El 3 de noviembre de 1978, la Unión Soviética y Vietnam firmaron un tratado de defensa mutua de 25 años, que convirtió a Vietnam en el "eje" del "impulso de la Unión Soviética para contener a China". [50] Sin embargo, la Unión Soviética había pasado de una animosidad abierta a unas relaciones más normalizadas con China poco después. [51]
El 1 de enero de 1979, el viceprimer ministro chino Deng Xiaoping visitó los Estados Unidos por primera vez y le dijo al presidente estadounidense Jimmy Carter : "El niño pequeño se está poniendo travieso, es hora de que le peguen". (palabras originales en chino: 小朋友 不 听话 , 该 打 打屁股 了。). [52] El 15 de febrero, el primer día en que China pudo haber anunciado oficialmente la terminación del Tratado de Amistad, Alianza y Asistencia Mutua sino-soviética de 1950 , Deng Xiaoping declaró que China planeaba llevar a cabo un ataque limitado contra Vietnam.
La razón citada para el ataque fue apoyar al aliado de China, el Khmer Rouge de Camboya, además del maltrato a la minoría étnica china de Vietnam y la ocupación vietnamita de las Islas Spratly que fueron reclamadas por China. Para evitar la intervención soviética en nombre de Vietnam, Deng advirtió a Moscú al día siguiente que China estaba preparada para una guerra a gran escala contra la Unión Soviética; En preparación para este conflicto, China puso a todas sus tropas a lo largo de la frontera chino-soviética en alerta de guerra de emergencia, estableció un nuevo comando militar en Xinjiang e incluso evacuó a unos 300.000 civiles de la frontera chino-soviética. [53] Además, la mayor parte de las fuerzas activas de China (hasta un millón y medio de tropas) estaban estacionadas a lo largo de la frontera de China con la Unión Soviética. [54]
Orden de batalla
Fuerzas chinas
Aunque el Ejército Popular de Liberación superaba ampliamente en número a las fuerzas vietnamitas, la alianza soviético-vietnamita obligó a los chinos a desplegar la mayoría de sus fuerzas a lo largo de la frontera norte de China con la Unión Soviética (así como, en menor medida, Mongolia aliada soviética ) como un elemento disuasorio de la intervención soviética.
La fuerza china que se enfrentó a los vietnamitas consistió en unidades de la Región Militar de Kunming , la Región Militar de Chengdu , la Región Militar de Wuhan y la Región Militar de Guangzhou , pero comandada por el cuartel general de la Región Militar de Kunming en el frente occidental y la Región Militar de Guangzhou en el frente oriental.
Algunas tropas involucradas en esta guerra, especialmente unidades de ingeniería, cuerpos ferroviarios, unidades logísticas y unidades antiaéreas, habían sido asignadas para ayudar a Vietnam del Norte en su guerra contra Vietnam del Sur solo unos años antes durante la Guerra de Vietnam . Contrariamente a la creencia de que más de 600.000 soldados chinos entraron en Vietnam del Norte, el número real fue sólo de 200.000, mientras que se movilizaron 600.000 soldados chinos, de los cuales 400.000 se desplegaron lejos de sus bases originales durante el conflicto de un mes. [ fuente no confiable? ]
Los despliegues de tropas chinas fueron observados por satélites espías estadounidenses. En su visita de Estado a los Estados Unidos en 1979, se le presentó esta información al líder supremo chino Deng Xiaoping y se le pidió que confirmara las cifras. Él respondió que la información era completamente precisa. Después de esta confirmación pública en los EE. UU., Los medios de comunicación nacionales chinos finalmente pudieron informar sobre estos despliegues.
- Dirección de Guangxi (Frente Este) comandada por el Cuartel General del Frente de la Región Militar de Guangzhou en Nanning . Comandante - Xu Shiyou , Comisario político - Xiang Zhonghua , Jefe de personal - Zhou Deli
- Grupo Norte: Comandante- Ou Zhifu ( Subcomandante de la Región Militar de Guangzhou)
- Comandante del 41o Ejército - Zhang Xudeng , Comisario Político - Liu Zhanrong
- Comandante de la 121a División de Infantería -Zheng Wenshui
- Comandante de la 122a División de Infantería - Li Xinliang
- Comandante de la 123a División de Infantería -Li Peijiang
- Comandante del 41o Ejército - Zhang Xudeng , Comisario Político - Liu Zhanrong
- Grupo Sur: Comandante- Wu Zhong (Subcomandante de la Región Militar de Guangzhou)
- Comandante del 42o Ejército - Wei Huajie , Comisario Político - Xun Li
- 124th Infantry Division Commander-Gu Hui
- 125th Infantry Division
- 126th Infantry Division
- Comandante del 42o Ejército - Wei Huajie , Comisario Político - Xun Li
- East Group: Commander-Jiang Xieyuan (Deputy Commander of Guangzhou Military Region)
- 55th Army Commander-Zhu Yuehua, Temporary Political Commissar-Guo Changzeng
- 163rd Infantry Division Commander-Bian Guixiang, Political Commissar-Wu Enqing, Chief of Staff-Xing Shizhong
- 164th Infantry Division Commander-Xiao Xuchu (also Deputy Commander of 55th Corps)
- 165th Infantry Division
- 1st Artillery Division
- 55th Army Commander-Zhu Yuehua, Temporary Political Commissar-Guo Changzeng
- Reserve Group (came from Wuhan Military Region except 50th Corps from Chengdu Military Region), Deputy Commander-Han Huaizhi (Commander of 54th Corps)
- 43rd Army Commander-Zhu Chuanyu, Temporary Political Commissar-Zhao Shengchang
- 127th Infantry Division Commander-Zhang Wannian (also as the Deputy Commander of 43rd Corps)
- 128th Infantry Division
- 129th Infantry Division
- 54th Army Commander-Han Huaizhi (pluralism), Political Commissar-Zhu Zhiwei
- 160th Infantry Division (commanded by 41st Corp in this war) Commander-Zhang Zhixin, Political Commissar-Li Zhaogui
- 161st Infantry Division
- 162nd Infantry Division Commander-Li Jiulong
- 50th Army Temporary Commander-Liu Guangtong, Political Commissar-Gao Xingyao
- 148th Infantry Division
- 150th Infantry Division
- 20th Army (only dispatched the 58th Division into the war)
- 58th Infantry Division (commanded by the 50th Corps during the war)
- 43rd Army Commander-Zhu Chuanyu, Temporary Political Commissar-Zhao Shengchang
- Guangxi Military Region (as a provincial military region) Commander-Zhao Xinran Chief of Staff-Yin Xi
- 1st Regiment of Frontier Defense in Youyiguan Pass
- 2nd Regiment of Frontier Defense in Baise District
- 3rd Regiment of Frontier Defense in Fangcheng County
- The Independent Infantry Division of Guangxi Military Region[55]
- Air Force of Guangzhou Military Region (armed patrol in the sky of Guangxi, did not see combat)
- 7th Air Force Corps
- 13th Air Force Division (aerotransport unit came from Hubei province)
- 7th Air Force Corps
- 70th Antiaircraft Artillery Division
- The 217 Fleet of South Sea Fleet
- 8th Navy Aviation Division
- The Independent Tank Regiment of Guangzhou Military Region
- 83rd Bateau Boat Regiment
- 84th Bateau Boat Regiment
- Grupo Norte: Comandante- Ou Zhifu ( Subcomandante de la Región Militar de Guangzhou)
- Yunnan Direction (the West Front) commanded by the Front Headquarter of Kunming Military Region in Kaiyuan. Commander-Yang Dezhi, Political Commissar-Liu Zhijian, Chief of Staff-Sun Ganqing
- 11th Army (consisted of two divisions) Commander-Chen Jiagui, Political Commissar-Zhang Qi
- 31st Infantry Division
- 32nd Infantry Division
- 13th Army(camed from Chengdu Military Region) Commander-Yan Shouqing, Political Commissar-Qiao Xueting
- 37th Infantry Division
- 38th Infantry Division
- 39th Infantry Division
- 14th Army Commander-Zhang Jinghua, Political Commissar-Fan Xinyou
- 40th Infantry Division
- 41st Infantry Division
- 42nd Infantry Division
- 149th Infantry Division (from Chengdu Military Region, belonged to 50th Corps, assigned to Yunnan Direction during the war)
- Yunnan Military Region (as a provincial military region)
- 11th Regiment of Frontier Defence in Maguan County
- 12th Regiment of Frontier Defence in Malipo County
- 13th Regiment of Frontier Defence in
- 14th Regiment of Frontier Defence in
- 1st Garrison Division of Chengdu Military Region commanded by 11th Army in the war
- 65th Antiaircraft Artillery Division
- 4th Artillery Division
- Independent Tank Regiment of Kunming Military Region
- 86th Bateau Boat Regiment
- 23rd Logistic Branch (consisted of five army service stations, six hospitals, eleven medical establishments)
- 17th Automobile Regiment commanded by 13th Corps during the war
- 22nd Automobile Regiment
- 5th Air Force Corps
- 44th Air Force Division (fighter unit)
- Independent unit of 27th Air Force Division
- 15th Air Force Antiaircraft Artillery Division
- 11th Army (consisted of two divisions) Commander-Chen Jiagui, Political Commissar-Zhang Qi
Vietnamese forces
The Vietnamese government claimed they only had a force of about 70,000 including several army regular divisions in its northern area. However, the Chinese estimates indicate more than twice this number.[unreliable source?] Some Vietnamese forces used American military equipment captured during the Vietnam War.
1st Military Region: commanded by Major General Dam Quang Trung, responsible for the defense at Northeast region.[56]
- Main forces:
- 3rd Infantry Division (Golden Star Division), consisted of 2nd Infantry Regiment, 12th Infantry Regiment, 141st Infantry Regiment and 68th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Dong Dang, Van Dang, Cao Loc and Lạng Sơn town of Lạng Sơn Province
- 338th Infantry Division, consisted of 460th Infantry Regiment, 461st Infantry Regiment, 462nd Infantry Regiment and 208th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Loc Binh and Dinh Lap of Lạng Sơn Province
- 346th Infantry Division (Lam Son Division), consisted of 246th Infantry Regiment, 677th Infantry Regiment, 851st Infantry Regiment and 188th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Tra Linh, Ha Quang and Hoa An of Cao Bằng Province
- 325th-B Infantry Division, consisted of 8th Infantry Regiment, 41st Infantry Regiment, 288th Infantry Regiment and 189th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Tien Yen and Binh Lieu of Quảng Ninh Province
- 242nd Infantry Brigade, located at coastlines and islands of Quảng Ninh Province
- Local forces:
- At Cao Bằng Province: 567th Infantry Regiment, 1 artillery battalion, 1 battalion of air defense artillery and 7 infantry battalions
- At Lạng Sơn Province: 123rd Infantry Regiment, 199th Infantry Regiment and 7 infantry battalions
- At Quảng Ninh Province: 43rd Infantry Regiment, 244th Infantry Regiment, 1 artillery battalion, 4 battalions of air defense artillery and 5 infantry battalions
- Armed police forces (Border guard): 12th Mobile Regiment at Lang Son, 4 battalions at Cao Bang and Quang Ninh, some companies and 24 border posts
2nd Military Region: commanded by Major General Vu Lap, responsible for the defense at Northwest region.[56]
- Main forces:
- 316th Infantry Division (Bong Lau Division), consisted of 98th Infantry Regiment, 148th Infantry Regiment, 147th Infantry Regiment and 187th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Binh Lu and Phong Tho of Lai Châu Province
- 345th Infantry Division, consisted of 118th Infantry Regiment, 121st Infantry Regiment, 124th Infantry Regiment and 190th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Bao Thang of Hoang Lien Son province
- 326th Infantry Division, consisted of 19th Infantry Regiment, 46th Infantry Regiment, 541st Infantry Regiment and 200th Artillery Regiment. All were located at Tuan Giao and Dien Bien of Lai Châu Province
- Local forces:
- At Ha Tuyen: 122nd Infantry Regiment, 191st Infantry Regiment, 1 artillery battalion and 8 infantry battalions
- At Hoang Lien Son: 191st Infantry Regiment, 254th Infantry Regiment, 1 artillery battalion and 8 infantry battalions
- At Lai Châu: 193rd Infantry Regiment, 741st Infantry Regiment, 1 artillery battalion and 5 infantry battalions
- Armed police forces (Border guard): 16th Mobile Regiment at Hoang Lien Son, some companies and 39 border posts
In addition, Vietnamese forces were supported by about 50,000 militia at each Military Region
Air force
- 372nd Air Division[57]
- 1 air flight of ten F-5s (captured after Vietnam War)
- 1 air flight of ten A-37s (captured after Vietnam War)
- 1 air flight of seven UH-1s and three UH-7s (captured after Vietnam War)
- 919th Air Transport Regiment[57] responsible for transporting troops
- Several C-130, C-119 and C-47 (captured after Vietnam War)
- 371st Air Division[58]
- 916th Helicopter Regiment
- Several Mi-6 and Mi-8
- 918th Air Transport Regiment
- 923rd Fighter Regiment
- Several MiG-17s and MiG-21
- 916th Helicopter Regiment
The Vietnam People's Air Force did not participate in the combat directly, instead they provided support to the ground troops, transported troops from Cambodia to northern Vietnam as well as performed reconnaissance purposes.
Air Defence[59]
- Northern and Northwestern regions:
- 267th Air Defence Regiment
- 276th Air Defence Regiment
- 285th Air Defence Regiment
- 255th Air Defence Regiment
- 257th Air Defence Regiment
- Northeastern region:
- 274th Air Defence Regiment
Curso de la guerra
Preparation of war
According to Vietnam,[60] since January 1979 Chinese forces performed numerous reconnaissance activities across the border and made 230 violations into Vietnamese land. To prepare for a possible Chinese invasion, the Central Military Committee of the Communist Party ordered all armed forces across the border to be on stand-by mode.
Chinese engagement
On 17 February 1979, a People's Liberation Army (PLA) force of about 200,000 troops supported by 200 Type 59, Type 62, and Type 63 tanks entered northern Vietnam in the PLA's first major combat operation since the end of the Korean War in 1953.[61]
The PLA invasion was conducted in two directions: western and eastern
- Western direction, commanded by Xu Shiyou, aimed to attack Cao Bằng, Lạng Sơn and Quảng Ninh Provinces:[60]
- Eastern direction, commanded by Yang Dezhi, aimed to attack Ha Tuyen, Hoang Lien Son and Lai Châu Provinces
Vietnamese counter-attacks
Vietnam quickly mobilized all its main forces in Cambodia, southern Vietnam and central Vietnam to the northern border. From 18 February to 25 February, the 327th Infantry Division of Military District 3 and the 337th Infantry Division of Military District 4 were deployed to join Military District 1 for the defense of northwestern region. From 6 March to 11 March the Second Corp (Huong Giang Corp) stationed in Cambodia was deployed back to Hanoi.
The 372nd Air Division in central Vietnam as well as the 917th, 935th and 937th Air Regiments in southern Vietnam were quickly deployed to the north.[59]
Apoyo soviético a Vietnam
The Soviet Union, although it did not take direct military action, provided intelligence and equipment support for Vietnam.[62] A large airlift was established by the Soviet Union to move Vietnamese troops from Cambodia to Northern Vietnam. Moscow also provided a total of 400 tanks and armored personnel carriers (APCs), 500 mortar artillery and air defense artillery, 50 BM-21 rocket launchers, 400 portable surface-to-air missiles, 800 anti-tank missiles and 20 jet fighters. About 5,000 to 8,000 Soviet military advisers were present in Vietnam in 1979 to train Vietnamese soldiers.
During the Sino-Vietnamese War, the Soviet Union deployed troops at the Sino-Soviet border and Mongolian-Chinese border as an act of showing support to Vietnam, as well as tying up Chinese troops. However, the Soviets refused to take any direct action to defend their ally.[63]
The Soviet Pacific Fleet also deployed 15 ships to the Vietnamese coast to relay Chinese battlefield communications to Vietnamese forces.[64]
Soviet inaction
While the Soviet Union deployed naval vessels and supplied materiel to Vietnam, they felt that there was simply no way that they could directly support Vietnam against China; the distances were too great to be an effective ally, and any sort of reinforcements would have to cross territory controlled by China or U.S. allies.[citation needed] The only realistic option would be to restart the unresolved border conflict with China.[citation needed] Vietnam was important to Soviet policy but not enough for the Soviets to go to war over.[65] When Moscow did not intervene, Beijing publicly proclaimed that the Soviet Union had broken its numerous promises to assist Vietnam.
Another reason why Moscow did not intervene was because Beijing had promised both Moscow and Washington that the invasion was only a limited war, and that Chinese forces would withdraw after a short incursion. After moderation by the U.S., Moscow decided to adopt a "wait and see" approach to see if Beijing would actually limit their offense. Deng Xiaoping, because Vietnam's anti-air capabilities were among the best in the world at the time and in order to reassure Moscow it was conducting a limited war, ordered the Chinese navy and air force to remain out of the war; only limited support was provided by the air force.[66] When Beijing kept its promise, Moscow did not retaliate.
Lucha
The PLA quickly advanced about 15–20 kilometres into Vietnam, with fighting mainly occurring in the provinces of Cao Bằng, Lào Cai and Lạng Sơn. The Vietnamese avoided mobilizing their regular divisions, and held back some 300,000 troops for the defence of Hanoi.[citation needed] The People's Army of Vietnam (VPA) tried to avoid direct combat and often used guerrilla tactics.[citation needed]
The initial PLA attack soon lost its momentum and a new attack wave was sent in with eight PLA divisions joining the battle. After capturing the northern heights above Lạng Sơn, the PLA surrounded and paused in front of the city in order to lure the VPA into reinforcing it with units from Cambodia. This was the main strategic ploy in the Chinese war plan as Deng did not want to risk escalating tensions with the Soviet Union. After three days of bloody house-to-house fighting, Lạng Sơn fell on 6 March. The PLA then took the southern heights above Lạng Sơn[67] and occupied Sa Pa. The PLA claimed to have crushed several of the VPA regular units.[9]
Retirada china
On 6 March, China declared that the gate to Hanoi was open and that their punitive mission had been achieved. On the way back to the Chinese border, the PLA destroyed all local infrastructure and housing and looted all useful equipment and resources (including livestock), severely weakening the economy of Vietnam's northernmost provinces.[9] The PLA crossed the border back into China on 16 March. Both sides declared victory with China claiming to have crushed the Vietnamese resistance and Vietnam claiming to have repelled the invasion using mostly border militias. Henry J. Kenny, a research scientist for US Center for Naval Analyses, noted that most Western writers agree that Vietnam outperformed the PLA on the battlefield.[68]
Secuelas
China and Vietnam each lost thousands of troops, and China lost 3.45 billion yuan in overhead, which delayed completion of their 1979–80 economic plan.[69] Following the war, the Vietnamese leadership took various repressive measures to deal with the problem of real or potential collaboration. In the spring of 1979, the authorities expelled approximately 8,000 Hoa people from Hanoi to the southern "New Economic Zones", and partially resettled the Hmong tribes and other ethnic minorities from the northernmost provinces. In response to the defection of Hoàng Văn Hoan, a purge was launched to cleanse the Communist Party of Vietnam of pro-Chinese elements and persons who had surrendered to the advancing Chinese troops during the war. In 1979, a total of 20,468 members were expelled from the party.[70] Although Vietnam continued to occupy Cambodia, China successfully mobilized international opposition to the occupation, rallying such leaders as Cambodia's deposed king Norodom Sihanouk, Cambodian anticommunist leader Son Sann, and high-ranking members of the Khmer Rouge to deny the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian People's Party in Cambodia diplomatic recognition beyond the Soviet bloc. China improved relations with ASEAN by promising protection to Thailand and Singapore against "Vietnamese aggression". In contrast, Vietnam's decreasing prestige in the region led it to be more dependent on the Soviet Union, to which it leased a naval base at Cam Ranh Bay.[71] On 1 March 2005, Howard W. French wrote in The New York Times: Some historians stated that "the war was started by Mr. Deng (China's then paramount leader Deng Xiaoping) to keep the army preoccupied while he consolidated power..."[72]
Chinese casualties
The number of casualties during the war is disputed. Vietnamese sources claimed the PLA had suffered 62,500 total casualties, including 550 military vehicles, and 115 artillery pieces destroyed;[73] while Chinese democracy activist Wei Jingsheng told western media in 1980 that the Chinese troops had suffered 9,000 dead and about 10,000 wounded during the war.[74] Leaks from Chinese military sources indicate that China suffered 6,954 dead.[6][9][75]
Vietnamese casualties
Like their Chinese counterparts, the Vietnamese government has never officially announced any information on its actual military casualties. China estimated that Vietnam lost 57,000 soldiers and 70,000 militia members during the war.[74][76][77] The official Nhân Dân newspaper claimed that Vietnam suffered more than 100,000 civilian deaths during the Chinese invasion[78][79] and earlier on 17 May 1979, reported statistics on heavy losses of industry and agricultural properties.[78]
Prisoners
The Chinese held 1,636 Vietnamese prisoners and the Vietnamese held 238 Chinese prisoners; they were exchanged in May–June 1979.[13][14]
The 238 Chinese soldiers surrendered after getting separated from their main unit during the withdrawal from Vietnam and became surrounded by Vietnamese. After surrendering, they were transferred by the Vietnamese soldiers to a prison. The Chinese prisoners reported that they were subjected to torturous and inhumane treatment, such as being blindfolded and having their bodies bound and restrained with metal wire.[80]
Sino-Vietnamese relations after the war
Border skirmishes continued throughout the 1980s, including a significant skirmish in April 1984 and a naval battle over the Spratly Islands in 1988 known as the Johnson South Reef Skirmish.
Armed conflict only ended in 1989 after the Vietnamese agreed to fully withdraw from Cambodia. Both nations planned the normalization of their relations in a secret summit in Chengdu in September 1990, and officially normalized ties in November 1991.
In 1999, after many years of negotiations, China and Vietnam signed a border pact.[81] There was an adjustment of the land border, resulting in Vietnam giving China part of its land which was lost during the battle, including the Ai Nam Quan Gate which served as the traditional border marker and entry point between Vietnam and China, which caused widespread frustration within Vietnamese communities.[82] Vietnam's official news service reported the implementation of the new border around August 2001. In January 2009 the border demarcation was officially completed, signed by Deputy Foreign Minister Vu Dung on the Vietnamese side and his Chinese counterpart, Wu Dawei, on the Chinese side.[citation needed] Both the Paracel (called Hoàng Sa in Vietnam, Xīshā in China) and Spratly (Trường Sa in Vietnam, Nansha in China) islands remain a point of contention.[citation needed]
The December 2007 announcement of a plan to build a Hanoi–Kunming highway was a landmark in Sino-Vietnamese relations. The road will traverse the border that once served as a battleground. It is predicted to contribute to demilitarizing the border region, as well as facilitating trade and industrial cooperation between the nations.[83]
En la cultura popular
Chinese media
There are a number of Chinese songs, movies and T.V. programs depicting and discussing this conflict from the Chinese viewpoint. These vary from the patriotic song "Bloodstained Glory" originally written to laud the sacrifice and service of the Chinese military, to the 1986 film The Big Parade which carried veiled criticism of the war.[citation needed] The 1984 Xie Jin film Wreaths at the Foot of the Mountain was the earliest mainland China film to depict the war, although its narrative was that the Chinese were on the defensive after Vietnamese attacked the Chinese border first with the objective of Nanning. The male protagonist of the television series Candle in the Tomb was a veteran of conflict.[84] The 2017 Chinese movie Youth covers the period of the Sino-Vietnamese conflict from the perspective of the larger cultural changes taking place in China during that period of time.
Vietnamese media
The war was mentioned in the film Đất mẹ (Motherland) directed by Hải Ninh in 1980 and Thị xã trong tầm tay (Town at the Fingertips) directed by Đặng Nhật Minh in 1982.[85] Besides in 1982, a documentary film called Hoa đưa hương nơi đất anh nằm (Flowers over Your Grave) was directed by Truong Thanh, the film told a story of a Japanese journalist who died during the war.[86] During the war, there were numerous patriotic songs produced to boost the nationalism of Vietnamese people, including "Chiến đấu vì độc lập tự do" ("Fight for Independence and Freedom") composed by Phạm Tuyên, "Lời tạm biệt lúc lên đường" ("Farewell When Leaving") by Vu Trong Hoi, "40 thế kỷ cùng ra trận" ("40 Centuries We Fought Side By Side") by Hong Dang, "Những đôi mắt mang hình viên đạn" ("The Eyes Shaped Like Bullets") by Tran Tien and "Hát về anh" (Sing for you) by The Hien. The Sino-Vietnamese War also appeared in some novels such as: Đêm tháng Hai (Night of February) written by Chu Lai in 1979 and Chân dung người hàng xóm (Portrait of My Neighbors[87]) written by Duong Thu Huong in 1979.
Ver también
- List of wars involving the People's Republic of China
- List of wars involving Vietnam
- Cambodian–Vietnamese War
- Sino-Soviet border conflict
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|volume=
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Otras lecturas
- Kurlantzick, Joshua. China-Vietnam Military Clash (Washington: Council on Foreign Relations, 2015). online
- Liegl, Markus B. China’s use of military force in foreign affairs: The dragon strikes (Taylor & Francis, 2017). excerpt
- Neale, Jonathan (2001). The American War: Vietnam 1960–1975. Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-898876-67-0.
- Path, Kosal. "China's Economic Sanctions against Vietnam, 1975-1978." China Quarterly (2012) Vol. 212, pp 1040–1058.
- Path, Kosal. "The economic factor in the Sino-Vietnamese split, 1972–75: an analysis of Vietnamese archival sources." Cold War History 11.4 (2011): 519-555.
- Path, Kosal. "The Sino-Vietnamese Dispute over Territorial Claims, 1974-1978: Vietnamese Nationalism and its Consequences." International Journal of Asian Studies 8.2 (2011): 189–220. online
- Willbanks, James H. (2009). Vietnam War almanac. Facts On File. ISBN 9781438126883.
- Zhang, Xiaoming. Deng Xiaoping's Long War: The Military Conflict Between China and Vietnam, 1979-1991 (U of North Carolina Press 2015) excerpt
- Zhang, Xiaoming. "Deng Xiaoping and China's Decision to go to War with Vietnam." Journal of Cold War Studies 12.3 (2010): 3-29 online
- Zhang, Xiaoming. "China's 1979 war with Vietnam: a reassessment." China Quarterly (2005): 851-874. online
enlaces externos
- Analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese War at GlobalSecurity.org
- Order of Battle
- Air Power in the War
- G. D. Bakshi: The Sino-Vietnam War – 1979: Case Studies in Limited Wars
- "China's War Against Vietnam, 1979: A Military Analysis" at the School of Law, University of Maryland
Additional sources
- 外国专家点评中国对越自卫反击战的战略战术 (The PLA's war strategy and tactic in the eyes of western experts)
- 对越自卫反击战:我军大量伤亡原因分析