El Programa de Exploradores es un programa de exploración espacial de los Estados Unidos que brinda oportunidades de vuelo para investigaciones de física, geofísica , heliofísica y astrofísica desde el espacio. Lanzado en 1958, Explorer 1 fue la primera nave espacial de los Estados Unidos en alcanzar la órbita. Desde entonces se han lanzado más de 90 misiones espaciales. Comenzando con Explorer 6 , ha sido operado por la NASA , con una colaboración regular con una variedad de otras instituciones, incluidos muchos socios internacionales.
Los lanzadores para el programa Explorers han incluido Júpiter C ( Juno I ), Juno II , varios cohetes Thor , Scout , Delta y Pegasus , y Falcon 9 .
Actualmente, el programa tiene tres clases: Exploradores de clase media (MIDEX), Exploradores pequeños (SMEX) y Exploradores de clase universitaria (UNEX), con misiones de oportunidad seleccionadas operadas con otras agencias.
Historia
Primeros satélites Explorer
El Programa de Exploradores comenzó como una propuesta del Ejército de los Estados Unidos ( Proyecto Orbiter ) para poner en órbita un satélite artificial "civil" durante el Año Geofísico Internacional . Aunque esa propuesta fue rechazada a favor del Proyecto Vanguard de la Armada de los Estados Unidos , que realizó el primer vuelo suborbital Vanguard TV0 en diciembre de 1956, el lanzamiento de la Unión Soviética del Sputnik 1 el 4 de octubre de 1957 (y la resultante " crisis del Sputnik " ) y el fracaso del intento de lanzamiento del Vanguard 1 dio como resultado que el programa del Ejército fuera financiado para igualar los logros espaciales soviéticos. El Explorer 1 fue lanzado en el Juno-I el 31 de enero de 1958, convirtiéndose en el primer satélite estadounidense, además de descubrir el cinturón de radiación de Van Allen .
El cohete Juno I lanzó cuatro satélites de seguimiento de la serie Explorer en 1958, de los cuales Explorer 3 y Explorer 4 tuvieron éxito, mientras que Explorer 2 y Explorer 5 no pudieron alcanzar la órbita. [1] El vehículo Juno-1 fue reemplazado por el Juno II en 1959.
Continuación del programa Explorers
Con el establecimiento de la NASA en 1958, el Programa de Exploradores fue transferido a la NASA desde el Ejército de los Estados Unidos. La NASA continuó usando el nombre para una serie en curso de misiones espaciales relativamente pequeñas, generalmente un satélite artificial con un enfoque científico específico. Explorer 6 en 1959 fue el primer satélite científico bajo la dirección del proyecto del Centro de Vuelo Espacial Goddard de la NASA. [2] [3]
La Plataforma de Monitoreo Interplanetario (IMP) se lanzó en 1963 e involucró una red de once satélites Explorer diseñados para recopilar datos sobre la radiación espacial en apoyo del programa Apollo . El programa IMP fue un gran paso adelante en el diseño de la electrónica de la nave espacial , ya que fue el primer programa espacial en utilizar chips de circuito integrado (IC) y MOSFET (transistores MOS). [4] [5] El IMP A ( Explorer 18 ) en 1963 fue la primera nave espacial en usar chips IC, y el IMP D ( Explorer 33 ) en 1966 fue el primero en usar MOSFET. [4]
Durante las siguientes dos décadas, la NASA ha lanzado más de 50 misiones Explorer, [6] algunas en conjunto con programas militares, generalmente de naturaleza exploratoria o de reconocimiento o con objetivos específicos que no requieren las capacidades de un observatorio espacial importante. Los satélites Explorer han hecho muchos descubrimientos importantes sobre: la magnetosfera de la Tierra y la forma de su campo de gravedad ; el viento solar ; propiedades de los micrometeoroides que caen sobre la Tierra; rayos ultravioleta, cósmicos y X del Sistema Solar y más allá; física ionosférica ; Plasma solar ; partículas energéticas solares ; y física atmosférica . Estas misiones también han investigado la densidad del aire, la radioastronomía, la geodesia y la astronomía de rayos gamma .
Con caídas en el presupuesto de la NASA, las misiones Explorer se volvieron poco frecuentes a principios de la década de 1980.
Programas SMEX, MIDEX y Student Explorer
En 1988, la clase Small Explorer (SMEX) se estableció con un enfoque en las oportunidades de vuelo frecuentes para misiones de ciencia espacial altamente enfocadas y relativamente económicas en las disciplinas de astrofísica y física espacial. [7] [8] Las tres primeras misiones SMEX se eligieron en abril de 1989 entre 51 candidatos y se lanzaron en 1992, 1996 y 1998. [9] La segunda serie de dos misiones se anunció en septiembre de 1994 y se lanzó en 1998 y 1999. . [7]
A mediados de la década de 1990, la NASA inició el Explorador de clase media (MIDEX) para permitir vuelos más frecuentes. Estas son más grandes que las misiones SMEX y se lanzarían a bordo de un nuevo tipo de vehículo de lanzamiento de clase media-ligera. [7] Este nuevo vehículo de lanzamiento no se desarrolló y, en cambio, estas misiones se volaron en un cohete Delta II modificado . [10] [11] La primera oportunidad de anuncio para MIDEX se publicó en marzo de 1995, y el primer lanzamiento de esta nueva clase fue FUSE en 1999. [7]
En mayo de 1994, la NASA inició el programa piloto Student Explorer Demonstration Initiative (STEDI) , para demostrar que la ciencia espacial de alta calidad se puede llevar a cabo con misiones pequeñas y de bajo costo. De las tres misiones seleccionadas, SNOE se lanzó en 1998 y TERRIERS en 1999, pero esta última fracasó después del lanzamiento. El programa STEDI se terminó en 2001. [7] Más tarde, la NASA estableció el programa University-Class Explorers (UNEX) para misiones mucho más baratas, que se considera un sucesor de STEDI. [12]
Las misiones Explorer fueron administradas inicialmente por la Oficina del Proyecto Small Explorer en el Centro de Vuelo Espacial Goddard de la NASA (GSFC). A principios de 1999, esa oficina se cerró y con el anuncio de la oportunidad para el tercer conjunto de misiones SMEX, la NASA convirtió la clase SMEX para que cada misión fuera administrada por su investigador principal , con la supervisión del GSFC Explorers Project. [13] La Oficina del Programa de Exploradores en el Centro de Vuelo Espacial Goddard en Greenbelt, Maryland , administra las muchas misiones de exploración científica operativa que se caracterizan por costos relativamente moderados y misiones pequeñas y medianas que pueden construirse, probarse y lanzado en un intervalo de tiempo corto en comparación con observatorios más grandes como los Grandes Observatorios de la NASA . [14]
Excluyendo los lanzamientos, la clase MIDEX tiene un costo máximo de misión actual de 250 millones de dólares en 2018, [15] con futuras misiones MIDEX con un límite de 350 millones de dólares. [16] El límite de costos para las misiones SMEX en 2017 fue de 165 millones de dólares. [17] Las misiones UNEX tienen un límite de 15 millones de dólares. [18] Un subproyecto llamado Missions of Opportunity (MO) ha financiado instrumentos científicos o componentes de hardware de misiones espaciales a bordo que no son de la NASA, y tiene un límite de costo total de la NASA de $ 70 millones. [15] [18]
Clases
Exploradores de clase media (MIDEX)
Nombre | Número MIDEX | Número de explorador | Lanzamiento (UTC) | Estado |
---|---|---|---|---|
RXTE | Explorer-69 | 30 de diciembre de 1995 | Finalizado en 2012 | |
AS | Explorer-71 | 25 de agosto de 1997 | Operacional | |
FUSIBLE | MIDEX-0 | Explorer-77 | 23 de junio de 1999 | Terminado en 2007 |
IMAGEN | MIDEX-1 | Explorador 78 | 25 de marzo de 2000 | Contacto perdido en 2005. Contacto parcial restablecido en enero de 2018 |
WMAP | MIDEX-2 | Explorer-80 | 30 de junio de 2001 | Terminado en 2010 |
Rápido | MIDEX-3 | Explorer-84 | 20 de noviembre de 2004 | Operacional |
FAMA | MIDEX-4 | Programado para 2004 | Cancelado en 2002 (costo) | |
TEMA A | MIDEX-5A | Explorer-85 | 17 de febrero de 2007 | Operacional |
TEMA B | MIDEX-5B | Explorer-86 | 17 de febrero de 2007 | Operacional |
TEMA C | MIDEX-5C | Explorer-87 | 17 de febrero de 2007 | Operacional |
TEMA D | MIDEX-5D | Explorer-88 | 17 de febrero de 2007 | Operacional |
TEMA E | MIDEX-5E | Explorer-89 | 17 de febrero de 2007 | Operacional |
WISE / NEOWISE | MIDEX-6 | Explorer-92 | 14 de diciembre de 2009 | Operacional [22] |
TESS | MIDEX-7 | Explorer-95 | 18 de abril de 2018 | Operacional |
ICONO | MIDEX-8 | Explorer-96 | 11 de octubre de 2019 | Operacional |
SPHEREx | MIDEX-9 | 2024 | En desarrollo [23] |
Pequeños exploradores (SMEX)
La clase Small Explorers se implementó en 1989 específicamente para financiar misiones de exploración espacial que no costaron más de 120 millones de dólares . [18] [9] Las misiones son gestionadas por el Proyecto Exploradores en el Centro de Vuelo Espacial Goddard (GSFC). [13]
El primer conjunto de tres misiones SMEX se lanzó entre 1992 y 1998. El segundo conjunto de dos misiones se lanzó en 1998 y 1999. Estas primeras misiones fueron administradas por la Oficina del Proyecto Small Explorer en el Centro de Vuelo Espacial Goddard. A principios de 1999, esa oficina se cerró y con el anuncio de la oportunidad para el tercer conjunto de misiones SMEX, la NASA convirtió el programa para que cada misión fuera administrada por su Investigador Principal, con la supervisión del Proyecto GSFC Explorers. [13]
La NASA financió un estudio competitivo de cinco misiones de heliofísica Small Explorers candidatas para volar en 2022. Las propuestas fueron Mecanismos de eyección de masa energética - eXplorer (MEME-X), Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager (FOXSI), Multi-Slit Solar Explorer ( MUSE), Satélites de Reconocimiento Electrodinámico de Cúspide y Reconexión en Tándem (TRACERS) y Polarímetro para Unificar la Corona y la Heliosfera (PUNCH). [24] [25] [26] En junio de 2019, la NASA seleccionó TRACERS y PUNCH para el vuelo. [27]
Nombre | Número SMEX | Número de explorador | Lanzamiento (UTC) | Fin de la misión | Estado |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SAMPEX | SMEX-1 | Explorer-68 | 3 de julio de 1992 | 30 de junio de 2004 | Reingreso el 13 de noviembre de 2012 |
RÁPIDO | SMEX-2 | Explorer-70 | 21 de agosto de 1996 | 4 de mayo de 2009 | |
SWAS | SMEX-3 | Explorer-74 | 6 de diciembre de 1998 | 21 de julio de 2004 | |
RASTRO | SMEX-4 | Explorer-73 | 2 de abril de 1998 | 21 de junio de 2010 | |
CABLE | SMEX-5 | Explorer-75 | 5 de marzo de 1999 | N / A | Fallo del equipo de la nave espacial; volvió a entrar el 10 de mayo de 2011 |
RHESSI | SMEX-6 | Explorador-81 | 5 de febrero de 2002 | Abril de 2018 | Retirado el 16 de agosto de 2018 |
GALEX | SMEX-7 | Explorer-83 | 28 de abril de 2003 | Mayo de 2012 | Retirado el 28 de junio de 2013 |
SPIDR | SMEX-8 | Programado para 2005 | N / A | Cancelado en 2003 debido a la escasa sensibilidad del instrumento [29] | |
APUNTAR | SMEX-9 | Explorer-90 | 25 de abril de 2007 | Operacional | |
CABRA MONTÉS | SMEX-10 | Explorer-91 | 19 de octubre de 2008 | Operacional | |
NuSTAR | SMEX-11 | Explorer-93 | 13 de junio de 2012 | Operacional | |
IRIS | SMEX-12 | Explorer-94 | 28 de junio de 2013 | Operacional | |
Gemas | SMEX-13 | Programado para 2014 | N / A | Cancelada en 2012 debido a sobrecostos previstos [30] | |
IXPE | SMEX-14 | 2021 [31] | En desarrollo [32] | ||
PUÑETAZO | 2023 [33] | En desarrollo | |||
TRAZADORES | 2023 [33] | En desarrollo |
SAMPEX
RHESSI
CABRA MONTÉS
IXPE
Exploradores de clase universitaria (UNEX)
Nombre | Número UNEX | Número de explorador | Lanzamiento (UTC) | Estado |
---|---|---|---|---|
SNOE | UNEX-1 | Explorador-72 | 26 de febrero de 1998 | Terminado en 2000 |
IMEX | UNEX-2 | Programado para 2003 | Cancelado antes de 2005 (costo) [35] | |
PAPAS FRITAS | UNEX-3 | Explorer-82 | 12 de enero de 2003 | Terminado en 2008 |
Misiones de oportunidad (MO)
Las Misiones de Oportunidad (MO) son investigaciones que se caracterizan por ser parte de una misión espacial de cualquier tamaño que no es de la NASA y tener un costo total para la NASA de menos de $ 55 millones. Estas misiones se llevan a cabo sin intercambio de fondos con la organización que patrocina la misión. La NASA solicita propuestas para misiones de oportunidad sobre investigaciones SMEX, MIDEX y UNEX. [36]
Nombre | Lanzador (misión) | Lanzamiento (UTC) | Estado |
---|---|---|---|
HETE-2 | NASA (Explorer-79) | 9 de octubre de 2000 | Finalizado en 2008 [37] |
INTEGRAL | ESA [38] | 17 de octubre de 2002 | Operacional |
Suzaku (Astro-E2) | JAXA [39] | 10 de julio de 2005 | Finalizado en 2015 |
MELLIZOS | NRO ( USA-184 ; [40] USA-200 [41] ) | TWINS-1: 28 de junio de 2006 TWINS-2: 13 de marzo de 2008 | Operacional |
CINDI | Departamento de Defensa ( C / NOFS ) [42] | 16 de abril de 2008 | Finalizado en 2015 |
Hitomi (Astro-H) | JAXA [43] | 17 de febrero de 2016 | Ha fallado |
NICER | ISS ( CRS-11 ) | 3 de junio de 2017 | Operacional |
ORO | SES ( SES-14 ) | 25 de enero de 2018 | Operacional |
ENTUSIASMO | NASA, globo de gran altitud | Diciembre de 2021 | En desarrollo [44] |
XRISM | JAXA | January 2022 | In development |
AWE | ISS (CRS-?) | August 2022 | In development[45] |
SunRISE | NASA (Maxar satellite) | July 2023 | In development[46] |
EZIE | NASA, JHUAPL | June 2024 | In development[47] |
Solar-C EUVST | JAXA | 2026 | In development[48] |
CASE | ESA (Cosmic Vision M4) | 2028 | In development[49][50] |
Nave espacial lanzada
Explorers name numbers can be found in the NSSDC master catalog, typically assigned to each spacecraft in a mission. These numbers were not officially assigned until after 1975.[51]
# | Name(s) | Launch date | Rocket | Mass (kg) | Orbit regime | End of data | Re-entry [55] | Mission/Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Explorer 1 | January 31, 1958 | Juno I | 14 | MEO | May 23, 1958 | March 31, 1970 | First American satellite, third satellite to achieve orbit; discovered the Van Allen radiation belt; launched by the US Army[56] |
2 | Explorer 2 | March 5, 1958 | Juno I | 15 | failed | — | — | Failed to achieve orbit[57] |
3 | Explorer 3 (Gamma 1) | March 26, 1958 | Juno I | 14 | MEO | June 27, 1958 | June 27, 1958 | Energetic particle studies helped confirm the presence of Van Allen radiation belt[58] |
4 | Explorer 4 | July 26, 1958 | Juno I | 26 | MEO | October 5, 1958 | October 23, 1959 | Monitor charged particles inside Van Allen belts from nuclear detonations (during Operation Argus)[59] |
5 | Explorer 5 | August 24, 1958 | Juno I | 17 | failed | — | — | Planned in conjunction with Explorer 4, but launch failed[60] |
— | Explorer 7x (S 1) | July 16, 1959 | Juno I | 42 | failed | — | — | Planned to measure Earth's radiation balance, but destroyed within seconds by range safety[61] |
6 | Explorer 6 (S-2, Able 3) | August 7, 1959 | Thor-Able | 64 | HEO | October 6, 1959 | July 1, 1961 | Magnetosphere research and digital telemetry; first NASA launch, first Earth photo from orbit[62][63] |
7 | Explorer 7 (S-1A) | October 13, 1959 | Juno II | 42 | LEO | August 24, 1961 | In orbit | Micrometeoroids and energetic particle studies, first satellite to measure Earth's climate[64][65][66] |
– | S-46A (IE-B) | March 23, 1960 | Juno II | 16 | failed | — | — | Analyze electron and proton radiation energies, failed to achieve orbit[67] |
8 | Explorer 8 (S-30) | November 3, 1960 | Juno II | 41 | LEO | December 27, 1960 | March 27, 2012 | Measured atmospheric composition of the ionosphere[68] |
– | S-56 | December 4, 1960 | Scout X-1 | 6 | failed | — | — | Atmosphere density measurement, but failed to achieve orbit[69] |
9 | Explorer 9 (S-56A) | February 16, 1961 | Scout X-1 | 36 | LEO | April 9, 1964 | April 9, 1964 | Atmospheric density measurements, first spacecraft placed in orbit by a solid-fuel rocket[70] |
– | S-45 | February 24, 1961 | Juno II | 34 | failed | — | — | Ionosphere research, but failed to achieve orbit[71] |
10 | Explorer 10 (P 14) | March 25, 1961 | Thor-Delta | 79 | HEO | March 25, 1961 | June 1, 1968 | Investigated the magnetic field between the Earth and Moon[72] |
11 | Explorer 11 (S 15) | April 27, 1961 | Juno II | 37 | LEO | November 17, 1961 | In orbit | Gamma ray astronomy[73] |
– | S-45A | May 25, 1961 | Juno II | 34 | failed | — | — | Ionosphere research, failed to achieve orbit. Last Juno II launch.[74] |
– | S-55 (satellite) (Meteoroid Satellite-A, Micrometeorite Explorer) | June 30, 1961 | Scout X-1 | 85 | failed | — | — | Micrometeoroid research, failed to achieve orbit[75] |
12 | EPE-A (S 3, Energetic Particle Explorer-A) | August 16, 1961 | Thor-Delta | 38 | HEO | December 6, 1961 | September 1, 1963 | Energetic particle research[76] |
13 | S-55A | August 25, 1961 | Scout X-1 | 86 | LEO | August 28, 1961 | August 28, 1961 | Micrometeoroid research; partial failure[77] |
14 | EPE-B (Energetic Particle Explorer-B) | October 2, 1962 | Delta A | 40 | HEO | August 11, 1963 | July 1, 1966 | Energetic particle research[78] |
15 | EPE-C (S-3B, Energetic Particle Explorer-C) | October 27, 1962 | Delta A | 44 | HEO | January 30, 1963 | January 15, 1978 | Energetic particle research[79] |
16 | S-55B | December 16, 1962 | Scout X-3 | 101 | LEO | July 22, 1963 | In orbit | Micrometeoroid research[80] |
17 | AE-A (S-6, Atmosphere Explorer-A) | April 3, 1963 | Delta B | 184 | LEO | July 10, 1963 | November 24, 1966 | Atmospheric research[81] |
18 | IMP-A (IMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-A) | November 27, 1963 | Delta C | 138 | HEO | May 10, 1965 | December 30, 1965 | Magnetospheric research[82] |
19 | AD-A (Atmospheric Density-A) | December 19, 1963 | Scout X-4 | 8 | LEO | May 10, 1981 | May 10, 1981 | Atmospheric density measurements[83] |
– | BE-A (Beacon Explorer-A, S-66A) | March 19, 1964 | Delta B | 114 | failed | — | — | Launch failure[84] |
20 | IE-A (S 48, TOPSI, Ionosphere Explorer-A) | August 25, 1964 | Scout X-4 | 45 | LEO | December 29, 1965 | In orbit | Ionosphere research[85] |
21 | IMP-B (IMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-B) | October 4, 1964 | Delta C | 135 | HEO | October 13, 1965 | January 30, 1966 | Magnetospheric research[86] |
22 | BE-B (Beacon Explorer-B, S-66B) | October 10, 1964 | Scout X-4 | 53 | LEO | February 1970 | In orbit | Ionospheric and geodetic research[87] |
23 | S 55C | November 6, 1964 | Scout X-4 | 134 | LEO | November 7, 1965 | June 29, 1983 | Micrometeoric research[88] |
24 | AD-B (Atmospheric Density-B) | November 21, 1964 | Scout X-4 | 9 | MEO | October 18, 1968 | October 18, 1968 | Atmospheric density measurements[89] |
25 | Injun 4 (IE-B, Ionosphere Explorer-B) | November 21, 1964 | Scout X-4 | 40 | LEO | December 1966 | In orbit | Ionospheric research[90] |
26 | EPE-D (Energetic Particle Explorer-D) | December 21, 1964 | Delta C | 46 | MEO | December 27, 1967 | In orbit | High energy particle observations[91] |
27 | BE-C (Beacon Explorer-C,S-66C) | April 29, 1965 | Scout X-4 | 61 | LEO | July 20, 1973 | In orbit | Magnetospheric research[92] |
28 | IMP-C (IMP 3, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-C) | May 29, 1965 | Delta C | 128 | HEO | May 12, 1967 | July 4, 1968 | Magnetospheric research[93] |
29 | GEOS 1 (GEOS-A, Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite-1) | November 6, 1965 | Delta E | 387 | LEO | June 23, 1978 | In orbit | Geodetic Earth monitoring[94] |
30 | SOLRAD 8 (SE-A) | November 19, 1965 | Scout X-4 | 57 | LEO | November 5, 1967 | In orbit | Solar radiation monitoring (Cover for covert ELINT mission)[95] |
31 | DME-A (Direct Measurements Explorer) | November 29, 1965 | Thor-Agena B | 99 | LEO | October 1, 1969 | In orbit | Ionospheric research[96] |
32 | AE-B (Atmosphere Explorer-B) | May 25, 1966 | Delta C1 | 225 | LEO | March 1967 | February 22, 1985 | Atmospheric research[97] |
33 | IMP-D (AIMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-D) | July 1, 1966 | Delta E1 | 212 | HEO | September 21, 1971[98] | In orbit | Magnetospheric research |
34 | IMP-F (IMP 4, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-F) | May 24, 1967 | Delta E1 | 163 | MEO | May 3, 1969 | May 3, 1969 | Magnetospheric research[99] |
35 | IMP-E (AIMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-E) | July 19, 1967 | Delta E1 | 230 | Lunar | June 24, 1973 | Lunar orbit | Magnetospheric research[100] |
36 | GEOS 2 (GEOS-B, Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite-2) | January 11, 1968 | Delta E1 | 469 | LEO | July 1, 1982 | In orbit | Geodetic Earth monitoring[101] |
37 | SOLRAD 9 (SE B) | March 5, 1968 | Scout B | 198 | LEO | April 30, 1974 | November 16, 1990 | Solar radiation monitoring (Cover for covert ELINT mission)[102] |
38 | RAE-A (RAE 1, Radio Astronomy Explorer-A) | July 4, 1968 | Delta J | 602 | MEO | (~1969) | In orbit | Radio astronomy[103] |
39 | AD-C (Atmospheric Density-C) | August 8, 1968 | Scout B | 9 | LEO | June 23, 1971 | June 22, 1981 | Atmospheric density measurements[104] |
40 | Injun 5 (Injun C, IE-C, Ionosphere Explorer-C) | August 8, 1968 | Scout B | 71 | LEO | June 1971 | In orbit | Magnetospheric Research[105] |
41 | IMP-G (IMP 5, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-G) | June 21, 1969 | Delta E1 | 145 | HEO | December 23, 1972 | December 23, 1972 | Magnetospheric research[106] |
42 | Uhuru (SAS-A, SAS 1) | December 12, 1970 | Scout B | 142 | LEO | January 4, 1975 | April 5, 1979 | X-ray astronomy[107] |
43 | IMP-H (IMP 7, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-H) | March 13, 1971 | Delta M6 | 635 | MEO | October 2, 1974 | October 2, 1974 | Magnetospheric research[108] |
44 | SOLRAD 10 (SE-C, SOLRAD-C) | July 8, 1971 | Scout B | 260 | LEO | June 30, 1973 | December 15, 1979 | Solar radiation monitoring (Cover for covert ELINT mission)[109] |
45 | SSS-A (S-Cubed A) | November 15, 1971 | Scout B | 52 | MEO | September 30, 1974 | January 10, 1992 | Magnetospheric research[110] |
46 | MTS (Meteoroid Technology Satellite, METEC)[111] | August 13, 1972 | Scout D-1 | 90 | LEO | November 4, 1974 | November 2, 1979 | Micrometeoroids research[112] |
47 | IMP-I (IMP 6, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-I) | September 23, 1972 | Delta 1604 | 635 | HEO | October 31, 1978 | In orbit | Magnetospheric research[113] |
48 | SAS-B (Small Astronomy Satellite-B, SAS 2) | November 15, 1972 | Scout D-1 | 166 | LEO | June 8, 1973 | August 20, 1980 | X-ray astronomy[114] |
49 | RAE-B (RAE 2, Radio Astronomy Explorer-B) | June 10, 1973 | Delta 1913 | 328 | Lunar | April 26, 1977 | Lunar orbit | Radio astronomy[115] |
50 | IMP-J (IMP 8, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-J) | October 26, 1973 | Delta 1604 | 371 | HEO | October 7, 2006 | In orbit | Magnetospheric research[116] |
51 | AE-C (Atmosphere Explorer-C) | December 16, 1973 | Delta 1900 | 658 | LEO | (December 12, 1978) | December 12, 1978 | Atmospheric research[117] |
52 | Hawkeye 1 (Injun-F, Injun 6, IE-D, Ionosphere Explorer-D) | June 3, 1974 | Scout E-1 | 23 | HEO | April 28, 1978 | April 28, 1978 | Magnetospheric research[118] |
53 | SAS-C (Small Astronomy Satellite-C, SAS 3) | May 7, 1975 | Scout F-1 | 197 | LEO | April 7, 1979 | April 9, 1979 | X-ray astronomy[119] |
54 | AE-D (Atmosphere Explorer-D) | October 6, 1975 | Delta 2910 | 681 | LEO | January 29, 1976 | March 12, 1976 | Atmospheric research[120] |
55 | AE-E (Atmosphere Explorer-E) | November 20, 1975 | Delta 2910 | 735 | LEO | September 25, 1980 | June 10, 1981 | Atmospheric research[121] |
— | DADE-A (Dual Air Density Explorer-A) | December 5, 1975 | Scout F-1 | 40 | failed | — | — | Atmospheric research; failed during launch[122] |
— | DADE-B (Dual Air Density Explorer-B) | December 5, 1975 | Scout F-1 | 43 | failed | — | — | Atmospheric research; failed during launch[123] |
56 | ISEE-1 (ISEE-A) | October 22, 1977 | Delta 2914 | 340 | HEO | September 26, 1987 | September 26, 1987 | Magnetospheric research; launched with ESA's ISEE-2; co-mission with ISEE 3[124] |
57 | IUE | January 26, 1978 | Delta 2914 | 669 | MEO | September 30, 1996 | In orbit | Ultraviolet astronomy[125] |
58 | HCMM (AEM-A) | April 26, 1978 | Scout F | 117 | LEO | September 30, 1980 | December 22, 1981 | Thermal mapping of the Earth[126] |
59 | ICE (ISEE 3, ISEE-C) | August 12, 1978 | Delta 2914 | 390 | Sun–Earth L1 | September 16, 2014 | Heliocentric orbit | Magnetospheric research; heliocentric mission, re-purposed in 1982 as a cometary probe (renamed International Cometary Explorer). First spacecraft to be placed at a libration point, and first one to perform a flyby of a comet.[127][63] |
60 | SAGE (AEM-B) | February 18, 1979 | Scout D-1 | 149 | LEO | January 7, 1982 | April 11, 1989 | Stratospheric aerosol and ozone data[128] |
61 | MAGSAT (AEM-C) | October 30, 1979 | Scout G-1 | 158 | LEO | May 6, 1980 | June 11, 1980 | Mapped the near surface magnetic field of the Earth[129] |
62 | DE 1 (DE-A) | August 3, 1981 | Delta 3913 | 424 | MEO | February 28, 1991 | In orbit | Magnetospheric research[130] |
63 | DE 2 (DE-B) | August 3, 1981 | Delta 3913 | 420 | LEO | February 19, 1983 | February 19, 1983 | Magnetospheric research[131] |
64 | SME | October 6, 1981 | Delta 2310 | 145 | LEO | April 4, 1989 | March 5, 1991 | Atmospheric research[132] |
65 | CCE (AMPTE 1) | August 16, 1984 | Delta 3924 | 242 | MEO | July 12, 1989 | In orbit | Magnetospheric research[133] |
66 | COBE | November 18, 1989 | Delta 5920 | 2,206 | LEO | December 23, 1993 | In orbit | Microwave astronomy[134] |
67 | EUVE (BERKSAT) | June 7, 1992 | Delta II 6920-X | 3,275 | LEO | January 31, 2001 | January 30, 2002 | Ultraviolet astronomy[135] |
68 | SAMPEX | July 3, 1992 | Scout G-1 | 158 | LEO | June 30, 2004[136] | November 13, 2012.[137] | SMEX: magnetospheric research[138] |
69 | RXTE | December 30, 1995 | Delta II 7920 | 3,200 | LEO | January 3, 2012 | April 30, 2018[139] | MIDEX: X-ray astronomy[140] |
70 | FAST | August 21, 1996 | Pegasus XL | 187 | LEO | May 4, 2009 | In orbit | SMEX: auroral phenomena[141] |
— | HETE 1 | November 4, 1996 | Pegasus XL | 128 | LEO | — | April 7, 2002 | Separation failure, mission relaunched as HETE 2[142] |
71 | ACE | August 25, 1997 | Delta II 7920 | 596 | Sun–Earth L1 | Operational | In L1 orbit | MIDEX: solar/interplanetary/interstellar particle research[143] |
72 | SNOE | February 26, 1998 | Pegasus XL | 120 | LEO | December 13, 2003 | December 13, 2003 | STEDI, UNEX: atmospheric research[144] |
73 | TRACE | April 2, 1998 | Pegasus XL | 250 | LEO | June 21, 2010[145] | In orbit | SMEX: solar observatory[146] |
74 | SWAS | December 6, 1998 | Pegasus XL | 288 | LEO | September 1, 2005 | In orbit | SMEX: submillimeter astronomy[147] |
75 | WIRE | March 5, 1999 | Pegasus XL | 250 | SSO | September 30, 2000[148] | May 10, 2011[149] | SMEX, Infrared astronomy, primary mission failed due to loss of coolant[150] |
76 | TERRIERS | May 18, 1999 | Pegasus XL | 120 | Polar LEO | May 18, 1999 | In orbit | STEDI: atmospheric research, satellite failed shortly after achieving orbit[151] |
77 | FUSE | June 23, 1999 | Delta II 7320 | 1,400 | LEO | October 18, 2007 | In orbit | MIDEX: ultraviolet astronomy[152] |
78 | IMAGE | March 25, 2000 | Delta II 7326 | 536 | Polar MEO | December 18, 2005[153] | In orbit | MIDEX: magnetospheric research[154] |
79 | HETE-2 | October 9, 2000 | Pegasus-H | 124 | LEO | March 28, 2007[155] | In orbit | MO: UV, X-ray, and gamma ray astronomy[156] |
80 | WMAP | June 30, 2001 | Delta II 7425-10 | 840 | Sun–Earth L2 | October 2010[157] | Heliocentric orbit | MIDEX: microwave astronomy[158] |
81 | RHESSI | February 5, 2002 | Pegasus XL | 230 | LEO | August 16, 2018 | In orbit | SMEX: X-ray and gamma ray solar flare imaging[159] |
— | INTEGRAL | October 17, 2002 | Proton-K Blok DM-2 | 4,000 | HEO | Operational | In orbit | International: space telescope for observing gamma rays[160] |
82 | CHIPSat | January 13, 2003 | Delta II 7320-10 | 60 | LEO | April 11, 2008[161] | In orbit | UNEX: ultraviolet spectroscopy and astronomy[162] |
83 | GALEX | April 28, 2003 | Pegasus XL | 280 | LEO | June 28, 2013[163] | In orbit | SMEX: ultraviolet astronomy[164] |
84 | Swift | November 20, 2004 | Delta II 7320-10C | 1,470 | LEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: gamma ray astronomy[165] |
— | Suzaku (Astro E2) | July 10, 2005 | M-V | 1,706 | LEO | September 2, 2015 | In orbit | MO: instrument on JAXA's Suzaku mission[166] |
— | TWINS A | June 28, 2006 | Delta IV M+(4,2) | classified | Molniya | Operational | In orbit | MO: payload on Trumpet-F/O-1 1 (USA-184) |
85 | THEMIS A | February 17, 2007 | Delta II 7925 | 77 | HEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: magnetospheric research[167] |
86 | THEMIS B (ARTEMIS P1) | February 17, 2007 | Delta II 7925 | 77 | Lunar | Operational | Lunar orbit | MIDEX; Magnetospheric research[168] |
87 | THEMIS C (ARTEMIS P2) | February 17, 2007 | Delta II 7925 | 77 | Lunar | Operational | Lunar orbit | MIDEX: magnetospheric research[169] |
88 | THEMIS D | February 17, 2007 | Delta II 7925 | 77 | HEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: magnetospheric research[170] |
89 | THEMIS E | February 17, 2007 | Delta II 7925 | 77 | HEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: magnetospheric research[171] |
90 | AIM | April 25, 2007 | Pegasus XL | 197 | SSO | Operational | In orbit | SMEX: noctilucent cloud observation[172] |
— | TWINS B | March 13, 2008 | Atlas V 411 | classified | Molniya | Operational | In orbit | MO: payload on Trumpet-F/O-1 2 (USA-200) |
— | CINDI | April 16, 2008 | Pegasus XL | 395 | LEO | November 28, 2015 | November 28, 2015 | MO: instruments on C/NOFS |
91 | IBEX | October 19, 2008 | Pegasus XL | 107 | MEO | Operational | In orbit | SMEX: mapping the boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.[173] |
92 | WISE | December 14, 2009 | Delta II 7320 | 661 | LEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: infrared astronomy, NEOWISE extension. Discovered first Earth trojan.[174] |
93 | NuSTAR | June 13, 2012 | Pegasus XL | 350 | LEO | Operational | In orbit | SMEX: high-energy X-ray astronomy[175] |
94 | IRIS | June 27, 2013 | Pegasus XL | 183 | SSO | Operational | In orbit | SMEX: solar UV astronomy[176] |
— | Hitomi (NeXT, ASTRO-H) | February 7, 2016 | H-2A-202 | 2,700 | LEO | March 26, 2016 | In orbit | MO: X-ray instrument on JAXA's Hitomi, but spacecraft failed after initial checkouts[177] |
— | NICER | May 3, 2017 | Falcon 9 FT | 372 | ISS | Operational | ISS | MO: instrument on ISS for neutron star observations |
— | GOLD | January 25, 2018 | Ariane 5 ECA | 37 | GEO | Operational | In orbit | MO: instrument on SES-14 comsat for studying Earth–space boundary |
95 | TESS | April 18, 2018 | Falcon 9 FT | 362 | HEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: survey for transiting exoplanets |
96 | ICON | October 11, 2019 | Pegasus XL | 287 | LEO | Operational | In orbit | MIDEX: ionospheric studies |
Misiones canceladas
Many missions are proposed, but not selected. For example, in 2011, the Explorers Program received 22 full missions solicitations, 20 Missions of Opportunity, and 8 USPI.[178] Sometimes mission are only partially developed but must be stopped for financial, technological, or bureaucratic reasons. Some missions failed upon reaching orbit including WIRE and TERRIERS.
Examples of missions that were not developed or cancelled were:[54]
- Owl 1 and 2 (cost, 1965)[179]
- MSS A (Magnetic Storm Satellite, Explorer-A, 1970)[180][181]
- CATSAT (STEDI 3) (cost)[35]
- IMEX (UNEX 2) (cost)[35]
- FAME (MIDEX 4)
- SPIDR (SMEX 8) (technical, 2003)[35]
- GEMS (SMEX 13)
Recent examples of conclusions of launched missions, cancelled due to budgetary constraints:
- FAST - 2009
- TRACE - 2010 (Solar observatory, see Solar Dynamics Observatory)
- Wilkinson MAP - 2010
- WISE - 2011 (extended in 2013 as NEOWISE mission)
- RXTE - 2012
- Galaxy Evolution Explorer - 2013
Estadísticas de lanzamiento
Number of launches per decade:[182]
Decade | |
---|---|
1950s | 8 |
1960s | 34 |
1970s | 20 |
1980s | 5 |
1990s | 11 |
2000s | 15 |
2010s | 7 |
Ver también
- Cosmic Vision, a European Space Agency (ESA) programme
- Cosmic Vision S-class missions, the European Space Agency equivalent to the Small Explorer program
- Discovery program
- New Frontiers program
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enlaces externos
- "Explorers Program". Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
- NASA Explorers Program missions page
- NSSDC updated list of Explorers missions
- Explorers Program Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
- Small Explorers Missions by Goddard Space Flight Center
- SMEX-series satellites by Colorado State University