Oliver Cromwell (abril 25, 1599 a septiembre 3, 1658 ) [nota 1] fue un hombre de estado general y de Inglés que, por primera vez como un subordinado y luego como comandante en jefe, dirigidos ejércitos del Parlamento de Inglaterra contra el rey Carlos I durante el Inglés Guerra Civil , gobernando posteriormente las Islas Británicas como Lord Protector desde 1653 hasta su muerte en 1658. Actuó simultáneamente como jefe de estado y jefe de gobierno de la nueva mancomunidad republicana .
Su altura Oliver Cromwell | |
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Lord Protector de la Commonwealth de Inglaterra, Escocia e Irlanda | |
En el cargo 16 de diciembre de 1653-3 de septiembre de 1658 | |
Precedido por | Consejo de Estado |
Sucesor | Richard Cromwell |
Miembro del Parlamento por Cambridge | |
En el cargo 20 de febrero de 1640-30 de enero de 1649 | |
Monarca | Carlos I |
Precedido por | Compra de Thomas |
Miembro del Parlamento por Huntingdon | |
En el cargo 31 de enero de 1628-2 de marzo de 1629 | |
Monarca | Carlos I |
Precedido por | Arthur Mainwaring |
Detalles personales | |
Nació | 25 de abril de 1599 Huntingdon , Huntingdonshire , Reino de Inglaterra |
Fallecido | 3 de septiembre de 1658 (59 años) Palacio de Whitehall , Londres, Protectorado |
Lugar de descanso | Tyburn, Londres |
Nacionalidad | inglés |
Esposos) | |
Niños |
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Padres |
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alma mater | Universidad de Sidney Sussex, Cambridge |
Ocupación | Granjero, parlamentario, comandante militar |
Firma | |
Servicio militar | |
Apodo (s) |
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Lealtad | Cabeza redonda |
Sucursal / servicio |
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Años de servicio | 1643–1651 |
Rango |
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Comandos |
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Batallas / guerras | Guerra civil inglesa (1642-1651): |
Estilos reales de Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector de la Commonwealth | |
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Estilo de referencia | Su altura |
Estilo hablado | Su Alteza |
Estilo alternativo | señor |
Cromwell nació en la nobleza terrateniente de una familia descendiente de la hermana del ministro de Enrique VIII , Thomas Cromwell . Poco se sabe de los primeros 40 años de su vida, ya que solo sobreviven cuatro de sus cartas personales, junto con un resumen de un discurso que pronunció en 1628. [2] Se convirtió en un puritano independiente después de sufrir una conversión religiosa en la década de 1630. , adoptando una visión generalmente tolerante hacia las muchas sectas protestantes de la época; [3] un hombre intensamente religioso, Cromwell creía fervientemente en Dios guiándolo a la victoria. Cromwell fue elegido miembro del Parlamento por Huntingdon en 1628 y por Cambridge en los parlamentos Short (1640) y Long (1640-1649). Entró en las guerras civiles inglesas del lado de los " Roundheads ", o parlamentarios, y se ganó el apodo de "Old Ironsides ". Cromwell demostró su habilidad como comandante y rápidamente fue ascendido de liderar una sola tropa de caballería a ser uno de los principales comandantes del Nuevo Ejército Modelo , desempeñando un papel importante bajo el mando del general Sir Thomas Fairfax en la derrota del Realista ("Cavalier"). efectivo.
Cromwell fue uno de los signatarios de la sentencia de muerte del rey Carlos I en 1649 y dominó la efímera Commonwealth de Inglaterra como miembro del Parlamento Rump (1649-1653). Fue seleccionado para tomar el mando de la campaña inglesa en Irlanda en 1649-1650. Las fuerzas de Cromwell derrotaron a la coalición confederada y realista en Irlanda y ocuparon el país, poniendo fin a las guerras confederadas irlandesas . Durante este período, se aprobaron una serie de leyes penales contra los católicos romanos (una minoría significativa en Inglaterra y Escocia, pero la gran mayoría en Irlanda), y se confiscó una cantidad sustancial de sus tierras. Cromwell también dirigió una campaña contra el ejército escocés entre 1650 y 1651. El 20 de abril de 1653, Cromwell destituyó al Parlamento Rump por la fuerza, estableciendo una asamblea nominada de corta duración conocida como Parlamento de Barebone , antes de ser invitado por sus compañeros líderes para gobernar como Lord Protector de Inglaterra (que incluía Gales en ese momento), Escocia e Irlanda desde el 16 de diciembre de 1653. [4] Como gobernante, ejecutó una política exterior agresiva y eficaz. Sin embargo, la política de Cromwell de tolerancia religiosa para las denominaciones protestantes durante el Protectorado se extendió solo a "la peculiaridad de Dios", y no a aquellos considerados por él como herejes, como los cuáqueros , socinianos y ranters . [5]
Cromwell murió por causas naturales en 1658 y fue enterrado en la Abadía de Westminster . Fue sucedido por su hijo Richard , cuya debilidad condujo a un vacío de poder . El ex general de Oliver, George Monck , organizó un golpe de estado, lo que provocó que el Parlamento organizara el regreso a Londres del príncipe Carlos como rey Carlos II y el regreso al poder de los realistas en 1660. Posteriormente, el cadáver de Cromwell fue desenterrado, colgado con cadenas y decapitado . Cromwell es una de las figuras más controvertidas en la historia británica e irlandesa, considerada un dictador regicida por historiadores como David Sharp, [6] un dictador militar por Winston Churchill , [7] un revolucionario de clase por Leon Trotsky , [8] y un héroe de la libertad de John Milton , Thomas Carlyle y Samuel Rawson Gardiner . Su tolerancia de las sectas protestantes no se extendió a los católicos, y las medidas tomadas por él contra los católicos, particularmente en Irlanda, han sido caracterizadas por algunos como genocidas o casi genocidas, [9] y su historial es fuertemente criticado en Irlanda. [10] Fue seleccionado como uno de los diez británicos más grandes de todos los tiempos en una encuesta de la BBC de 2002. [11]
Primeros años
Cromwell nació en Huntingdon el 25 de abril de 1599 [12] de Robert Cromwell y su segunda esposa Elizabeth, hija de William Steward (enterrado en la catedral de Ely en 1593). [13] La herencia de la familia deriva del tatarabuelo de Oliver, Morgan ap William, un cervecero de Glamorgan que se estableció en Putney cerca de Londres y se casó con Katherine Cromwell (nacida en 1482), la hermana de Thomas Cromwell , quien se convertiría en el famoso jefe ministro de Enrique VIII. Se ha afirmado con seguridad que Thomas y el padre de su hermana, Walter, también eran de ascendencia irlandesa. [14] La familia Cromwell adquirió una gran riqueza como beneficiarios ocasionales de la administración de Thomas de la Disolución de los Monasterios . [15] Morgan ap William era hijo de William ap Yevan de Gales. La línea familiar continuó a través de Richard Williams (alias Cromwell) , (c. 1500-1544), Henry Williams (alias Cromwell) , (c. 1524 - 6 de enero de 1604), [nota 2] y luego al padre de Oliver, Robert Williams, alias Cromwell (c. 1560-1617), que se casó con Elizabeth Steward (c. 1564-1654), probablemente en 1591. Tuvieron diez hijos, pero Oliver, el quinto hijo, fue el único varón que sobrevivió a la infancia. [dieciséis]
El abuelo paterno de Cromwell, Sir Henry Williams, fue uno de los dos terratenientes más ricos de Huntingdonshire . El padre de Cromwell, Robert, tenía unos medios modestos, pero seguía siendo miembro de la nobleza terrateniente . Como hijo menor con muchos hermanos, Robert heredó solo una casa en Huntingdon y una pequeña cantidad de terreno. Esta tierra habría generado un ingreso de hasta 300 libras esterlinas al año, cerca del nivel más bajo del rango de ingresos de la nobleza. [17] El propio Cromwell dijo en 1654: "Yo era un caballero de nacimiento, que no vivía ni en una altura considerable ni en la oscuridad". [18]
Cromwell se bautizó el 29 de abril de 1599 en la iglesia de San Juan , [19] y asistió a la escuela secundaria Huntingdon . Luego pasó a estudiar en Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge , entonces una universidad recientemente fundada con un fuerte espíritu puritano. Se fue en junio de 1617 sin obtener un título, inmediatamente después de la muerte de su padre. [20] Los primeros biógrafos afirman que luego asistió a Lincoln's Inn , pero los archivos de la posada no conservan ningún registro de él. Antonia Fraser concluye que es probable que entrenara en uno de los London Inns of Court durante este tiempo. [21] Su abuelo, su padre y dos de sus tíos habían asistido a Lincoln's Inn, y Cromwell envió a su hijo Richard allí en 1647. [21]
Cromwell probablemente regresó a Huntingdon después de la muerte de su padre. Como su madre estaba viuda y sus siete hermanas solteras, lo hubieran necesitado en casa para ayudar a su familia. [22]
Según el sitio web de English Monarchs , Cromwell y el rey Carlos I eran primos muy lejanos. [23]
Matrimonio y familia
Cromwell se casó con Elizabeth Bourchier (1598-1665) el 22 de agosto de 1620 en St Giles-without-Cripplegate , Fore Street , Londres . [19] El padre de Elizabeth, Sir James Bourchier, era un comerciante de cuero de Londres que poseía extensas tierras en Essex y tenía fuertes conexiones con familias de la nobleza puritana allí. El matrimonio puso a Cromwell en contacto con Oliver St John y con los principales miembros de la comunidad de comerciantes de Londres, y detrás de ellos la influencia de los Condes de Warwick y Holanda . Un lugar en esta red influyente resultaría crucial para la carrera militar y política de Cromwell. La pareja tuvo nueve hijos: [24]
- Robert (1621-1639), murió mientras estaba en la escuela.
- Oliver (1622-1644), murió de fiebre tifoidea mientras se desempeñaba como oficial parlamentario.
- Bridget (1624-1662), casada (1) Henry Ireton , (2) Charles Fleetwood .
- Richard (1626-1712), el sucesor de su padre como Lord Protector, [25] se casó con Dorothy Maijor .
- Henry (1628-1674), más tarde Lord Diputado de Irlanda , se casó con Elizabeth Russell (hija de Sir Francis Russell ).
- Elizabeth (1629-1658), se casó con John Claypole .
- James (b. & D. 1632), murió en la infancia.
- Mary (1637-1713), se casó con Thomas Belasyse, primer conde Fauconberg
- Frances (1638-1720), casado (1) Robert Rich (1634-1658), hijo de Robert Rich, tercer conde de Warwick , (2) Sir John Russell, tercer baronet
Crisis y recuperación
Existe poca evidencia de la religión de Cromwell en esta etapa. Su carta de 1626 a Henry Downhall, un ministro arminiano , sugiere que Cromwell aún no había sido influenciado por el puritanismo radical. [26] Sin embargo, hay pruebas de que Cromwell atravesó un período de crisis personal a finales de la década de 1620 y principios de la de 1630. En 1628 fue elegido miembro del Parlamento de la Huntingdonsh capital del condado de Huntingdon . Más tarde ese año, buscó tratamiento para una variedad de dolencias físicas y emocionales, incluido el valde melancholicus (depresión), del médico londinense de origen suizo Théodore de Mayerne . En 1629, Cromwell se involucró en una disputa entre la nobleza de Huntingdon que involucraba un nuevo estatuto para la ciudad. Como resultado, Cromwell fue llamado ante el Consejo Privado en 1630. [27]
En 1631, Cromwell, probablemente como resultado de la disputa, vendió la mayoría de sus propiedades en Huntingdon y se mudó a una granja en la cercana St. Ives . Este movimiento, un paso significativo en la sociedad para la familia Cromwell, también tuvo un impacto emocional y espiritual significativo en Cromwell; una carta existente de 1638 de Cromwell a su prima, la esposa de Oliver St John, da un relato de su despertar espiritual en este momento. En la carta, Cromwell, describiéndose a sí mismo como el "principal de los pecadores", describe su llamado a estar entre "la congregación de los primogénitos". [26] El lenguaje de la carta, en particular la inclusión de numerosas citas bíblicas, representa la creencia de Cromwell de haber sido salvado de sus pecados anteriores por la misericordia de Dios, e indica sus creencias religiosamente independientes , la principal de las cuales es que la Reforma no había ido muy lejos. bastante, que gran parte de Inglaterra todavía vivía en pecado, y que las creencias y prácticas católicas debían ser completamente eliminadas de la iglesia. [26] Parece que en 1634 Cromwell intentó emigrar a lo que se convertiría en la Colonia de Connecticut en las Américas, pero el gobierno le impidió salir. [28]
Junto con su hermano Enrique, Cromwell había mantenido una pequeña explotación de pollos y ovejas, la venta de huevos y lana para mantenerse a sí mismo, su estilo de vida se asemeja a la de un terrateniente agricultor. En 1636 Cromwell heredó el control de varias propiedades en Ely de su tío por parte de su madre, y el trabajo de su tío como recolector de diezmos para la catedral de Ely. Como resultado, es probable que sus ingresos hayan aumentado a alrededor de 300 a 400 libras esterlinas por año; [29] a finales de la década de 1630, Cromwell había regresado a las filas de la nobleza reconocida. Se había convertido en un puritano comprometido y había establecido importantes vínculos familiares con las principales familias de Londres y Essex . [30]
Miembro del Parlamento: 1628–29 y 1640–1642
Cromwell se convirtió en miembro del Parlamento por Huntingdon en el Parlamento de 1628-1629, como cliente de la familia Montagu de Hinchingbrooke House . Dejó poca impresión: los registros del Parlamento muestran solo un discurso (contra el obispo arminiano Richard Neile ), que fue mal recibido. [31] Después de disolver este Parlamento, Carlos I gobernó sin un Parlamento durante los siguientes 11 años. Cuando Charles enfrentó la rebelión escocesa conocida como las Guerras de los Obispos , la escasez de fondos lo obligó a convocar un Parlamento nuevamente en 1640. Cromwell fue devuelto a este Parlamento como miembro de Cambridge , pero duró solo tres semanas y se hizo conocido como el Breve. Parlamento . Cromwell trasladó a su familia de Ely a Londres en 1640. [32]
Un segundo Parlamento fue convocado más tarde ese mismo año y se conoció como el Parlamento Largo . Cromwell volvió a ser miembro de Cambridge. Al igual que con el Parlamento de 1628–29, es probable que Cromwell deba su posición al patrocinio de otros, lo que podría explicar por qué en la primera semana del Parlamento estuvo a cargo de presentar una petición para la liberación de John Lilburne , quien se había convertido en una causa célebre puritana después de su arresto por importar tratados religiosos de los Países Bajos. Durante los dos primeros años del Parlamento Largo, Cromwell estuvo vinculado al grupo piadoso de aristócratas en la Cámara de los Lores y miembros de la Cámara de los Comunes con quienes había establecido vínculos familiares y religiosos en la década de 1630, como los Condes de Essex , Warwick y Bedford , Oliver St John y el vizconde Saye y Sele . [33] En esta etapa, el grupo tenía una agenda de reforma: el ejecutivo controlado por parlamentos regulares y la extensión moderada de la libertad de conciencia. Cromwell parece haber intervenido en algunas de las maniobras políticas de este grupo. En mayo de 1641, por ejemplo, fue Cromwell quien presentó la segunda lectura del Proyecto de Ley Anual de Parlamentos y luego participó en la redacción del Proyecto de Ley de Raíz y Rama para la abolición del episcopado . [34]
Comandante militar: 1642-1646
Comienza la Guerra Civil Inglesa
La falta de resolución de los problemas antes del Parlamento Largo llevó a un conflicto armado entre el Parlamento y Carlos I a finales de 1642, el comienzo de la Guerra Civil Inglesa . Antes de unirse a las fuerzas del Parlamento, la única experiencia militar de Cromwell fue en las bandas entrenadas, la milicia local del condado. Reclutó una tropa de caballería en Cambridgeshire después de bloquear un valioso envío de placas de plata de las universidades de Cambridge que estaba destinado al rey. Cromwell y su tropa luego cabalgaron, pero llegaron demasiado tarde para participar en la indecisa Batalla de Edgehill el 23 de octubre de 1642. La tropa fue reclutada para ser un regimiento completo en el invierno de 1642 y 1643, formando parte del Este. Asociación bajo el Conde de Manchester . Cromwell ganó experiencia en acciones exitosas en East Anglia en 1643, especialmente en la batalla de Gainsborough el 28 de julio. [35] Posteriormente fue nombrado gobernador de la Isla de Ely [36] y coronel de la Asociación Oriental. [30]
Marston Moor 1644
En el momento de la batalla de Marston Moor en julio de 1644, Cromwell había ascendido al rango de teniente general de caballos en el ejército de Manchester. El éxito de su caballería en romper las filas de la caballería realista y luego atacar a su infantería por la retaguardia en Marston Moor fue un factor importante en la victoria parlamentaria. Cromwell luchó a la cabeza de sus tropas en la batalla y resultó levemente herido en el cuello, alejándose brevemente para recibir tratamiento durante la batalla pero regresando para ayudar a forzar la victoria. [37] Después de que mataran al sobrino de Cromwell en Marston Moor, escribió una famosa carta a su cuñado . Marston Moor aseguró el norte de Inglaterra para los parlamentarios, pero no pudo poner fin a la resistencia realista. [38]
El resultado indeciso de la Segunda Batalla de Newbury en octubre significó que a fines de 1644 la guerra aún no mostraba signos de terminar. La experiencia de Cromwell en Newbury, donde Manchester había dejado que el ejército del rey se escapara de una maniobra de rodeo, condujo a una seria disputa con Manchester, a quien creía que estaba menos que entusiasta en su conducción de la guerra. Manchester acusó más tarde a Cromwell de reclutar hombres de "baja cuna" como oficiales en el ejército, a lo que él respondió: "Si eliges hombres piadosos y honestos para ser capitanes de caballo, los hombres honestos los seguirán ... Capitán de pelaje rojizo que sabe por lo que lucha y ama lo que sabe que lo que tú llamas caballero y no es otra cosa ". [39] En este momento, Cromwell también entró en disputa con el general de división Lawrence Crawford , un pactante escocés adjunto al ejército de Manchester, que se opuso al apoyo de Cromwell a los independientes y anabautistas poco ortodoxos. [40] También fue acusado de familismo por el presbiteriano escocés Samuel Rutherford en respuesta a su carta a la Cámara de los Comunes en 1645. [41]
Nuevo modelo de ejército
En parte como respuesta a la incapacidad de capitalizar su victoria en Marston Moor, el Parlamento aprobó la Ordenanza de abnegación a principios de 1645. Esto obligó a los miembros de la Cámara de los Comunes y los Lores , como Manchester , a elegir entre un cargo civil y un mando militar. . Todos ellos, excepto Cromwell, cuya comisión recibió prórrogas continuas y se le permitió permanecer en el parlamento, optaron por renunciar a sus posiciones militares. La Ordenanza también decretó que el ejército sea "remodelado" a nivel nacional, reemplazando las antiguas asociaciones de condado; Cromwell contribuyó significativamente a estas reformas militares. En abril de 1645, el New Model Army finalmente salió al campo, con Sir Thomas Fairfax al mando y Cromwell como teniente general de caballería y segundo al mando. [30]
Batalla de Naseby 1645
En la crítica Batalla de Naseby en junio de 1645, el Nuevo Ejército Modelo aplastó al ejército principal del Rey. Cromwell dirigió su ala con gran éxito en Naseby, derrotando nuevamente a la caballería realista. En la batalla de Langport el 10 de julio, Cromwell participó en la derrota del último ejército de campaña realista importante. Naseby y Langport acabaron efectivamente con las esperanzas de victoria del rey, y las campañas parlamentarias posteriores implicaron tomar las posiciones realistas fortificadas restantes en el oeste de Inglaterra. En octubre de 1645, Cromwell asedió y tomó la rica y formidable fortaleza católica Basing House , que luego fue acusada de matar a 100 de sus 300 hombres de guarnición realista después de su rendición. [42] Cromwell también participó en exitosos asedios en Bridgwater , Sherborne , Bristol, Devizes y Winchester , luego pasó la primera mitad de 1646 limpiando la resistencia en Devon y Cornualles . Carlos I se rindió a los escoceses el 5 de mayo de 1646, poniendo fin efectivamente a la Primera Guerra Civil Inglesa . Cromwell y Fairfax se rindieron formalmente en Oxford en junio de 1646. [30]
El estilo militar de Cromwell
Cromwell, a diferencia de Fairfax, no tenía entrenamiento formal en tácticas militares y siguió la práctica común de dividir su caballería en tres filas y presionar hacia adelante, confiando en el impacto en lugar de la potencia de fuego. Sus fortalezas eran una capacidad instintiva para dirigir y entrenar a sus hombres, y su autoridad moral . En una guerra librada principalmente por aficionados, estas fortalezas fueron significativas y es probable que hayan contribuido a la disciplina de su caballería. [43]
Cromwell introdujo formaciones de caballería de orden cerrado, con soldados que cabalgaban rodilla con rodilla; esto fue una innovación en Inglaterra en ese momento, y fue un factor importante en su éxito. Mantuvo a sus tropas juntas después de las escaramuzas en las que habían ganado superioridad, en lugar de permitirles perseguir a los oponentes fuera del campo de batalla. Esto facilitó más enfrentamientos en poco tiempo, lo que permitió una mayor intensidad y una reacción rápida a los desarrollos de la batalla. Este estilo de mando fue decisivo tanto en Marston Moor como en Naseby. [44]
Política: 1647-1649
En febrero de 1647, Cromwell sufrió una enfermedad que lo mantuvo fuera de la vida política durante más de un mes. Cuando se recuperó, los parlamentarios estaban divididos sobre la cuestión del rey. La mayoría en ambas Cámaras presionó por un acuerdo que pagaría al ejército escocés, disolvería gran parte del Nuevo Ejército Modelo y restauraría a Carlos I a cambio de un asentamiento presbiteriano de la Iglesia. Cromwell rechazó el modelo escocés de presbiterianismo, que amenazaba con reemplazar una jerarquía autoritaria por otra. El Nuevo Ejército Modelo, radicalizado por la falta de pago por parte del Parlamento de los salarios adeudados, presentó una petición contra estos cambios, pero los Comunes declararon ilegal la petición. En mayo de 1647, Cromwell fue enviado al cuartel general del ejército en Saffron Walden para negociar con ellos, pero no llegó a un acuerdo. [45]
En junio de 1647, una tropa de caballería al mando de Cornet George Joyce se apoderó del rey del encarcelamiento del Parlamento. Con el Rey ahora presente, Cromwell estaba ansioso por averiguar qué condiciones aceptaría el Rey si se restauraba su autoridad. El rey parecía estar dispuesto a comprometerse, por lo que Cromwell empleó a su yerno, Henry Ireton, para redactar propuestas para un acuerdo constitucional. Las propuestas se redactaron varias veces con diferentes cambios hasta que finalmente los " Jefes de Propuestas " complacieron a Cromwell en principio y permitieron más negociaciones. [46] Fue diseñado para controlar los poderes del ejecutivo , para establecer parlamentos elegidos regularmente y para restaurar un asentamiento episcopal no obligatorio . [47]
Muchos en el ejército, como los Levellers dirigidos por John Lilburne , pensaron que esto no era suficiente y exigieron la plena igualdad política para todos los hombres, lo que llevó a tensos debates en Putney durante el otoño de 1647 entre Fairfax, Cromwell e Ireton, por un lado. y niveladores como el coronel Rainsborough por el otro. Los debates de Putney finalmente se disolvieron sin llegar a una resolución. [48] [49]
Segunda Guerra Civil
El hecho de no llegar a un acuerdo político con el rey llevó finalmente al estallido de la Segunda Guerra Civil Inglesa en 1648, cuando el rey trató de recuperar el poder por la fuerza de las armas. Cromwell primero sofocó un levantamiento realista en el sur de Gales dirigido por Rowland Laugharne , recuperando el castillo de Chepstow el 25 de mayo y seis días después forzando la rendición de Tenby . El castillo de Carmarthen fue destruido por la quema. Sin embargo, el castillo de Pembroke , mucho más fuerte , cayó solo después de un asedio de ocho semanas. Cromwell trató con indulgencia a los ex soldados realistas, pero menos a los que habían sido anteriormente miembros del ejército parlamentario. John Poyer finalmente fue ejecutado en Londres después del sorteo. [50]
Luego, Cromwell marchó hacia el norte para enfrentarse a un ejército escocés pro- realista (los Engagers ) que había invadido Inglaterra. En Preston , Cromwell, al mando único por primera vez y con un ejército de 9.000, obtuvo una victoria decisiva contra un ejército dos veces mayor. [51]
Durante 1648, las cartas y discursos de Cromwell comenzaron a basarse en gran medida en imágenes bíblicas, muchas de ellas meditaciones sobre el significado de pasajes particulares. Por ejemplo, después de la batalla de Preston, el estudio de los Salmos 17 y 105 lo llevó a decirle al Parlamento que "los que son implacables y no dejarán preocupando la tierra pueden ser rápidamente destruidos fuera de la tierra". Una carta a Oliver St John en septiembre de 1648 lo instaba a leer Isaías 8, en el que el reino cae y solo los piadosos sobreviven. En cuatro ocasiones en cartas en 1648 se refirió a la historia de la derrota de Gedeón a los madianitas en Ain Harod. [52] Estas cartas sugieren que fue la fe de Cromwell, más que un compromiso con la política radical, junto con la decisión del Parlamento de entablar negociaciones con el Rey en el Tratado de Newport , lo que lo convenció de que Dios había hablado tanto contra el Rey como contra el Parlamento. como autoridades legales. Para Cromwell, el ejército era ahora el instrumento elegido por Dios. [53] El episodio muestra la firme creencia de Cromwell en el " providencialismo ", que Dios estaba dirigiendo activamente los asuntos del mundo, a través de las acciones del "pueblo elegido" (a quien Dios había "provisto" para tales propósitos). Cromwell creyó, durante las guerras civiles, que él era una de estas personas, e interpretó las victorias como indicaciones de la aprobación de Dios de sus acciones, y las derrotas como señales de que Dios lo estaba dirigiendo en otra dirección. [54]
Rey juzgado y ejecutado
En diciembre de 1648, en un episodio que se conoció como Pride's Purge , una tropa de soldados encabezada por el coronel Thomas Pride sacó a la fuerza del Parlamento Largo a todos aquellos que no apoyaban a los Grandes en el Nuevo Ejército Modelo y los Independientes. [55] Así debilitado, el cuerpo restante de diputados, conocido como el Parlamento Rump , acordó que Charles debería ser juzgado por traición. Cromwell todavía estaba en el norte de Inglaterra, lidiando con la resistencia realista, cuando ocurrieron estos eventos, pero luego regresó a Londres. El día después de Pride's Purge, se convirtió en un partidario decidido de quienes impulsaban el juicio y la ejecución del Rey, creyendo que matar a Charles era la única forma de poner fin a las guerras civiles. [30] Cromwell aprobó el discurso de Thomas Brook a la Cámara de los Comunes, que justificó el juicio y la ejecución del Rey sobre la base del Libro de Números, capítulo 35 y particularmente el versículo 33 ("La tierra no puede ser limpiada de la sangre que es derramado en él, sino por la sangre del que lo derramó. "). [56]
La sentencia de muerte de Charles finalmente fue firmada por 59 de los miembros del tribunal de primera instancia, incluido Cromwell (que fue el tercero en firmarla). [57] Aunque no fue sin precedentes, la ejecución del Rey, o " regicidio ", fue controvertida, si no por otra razón debido a la doctrina del derecho divino de los reyes . [58] Por lo tanto, incluso después de un juicio, fue difícil lograr que los hombres comunes lo aceptaran: "Ninguno de los oficiales encargados de supervisar la ejecución quería firmar la orden para la decapitación real, por lo que llevaron su disputa a Cromwell. ... Oliver tomó un bolígrafo y garabateó la orden, y le entregó el bolígrafo al segundo oficial, el coronel Hacker, quien se inclinó para firmarlo. La ejecución ahora puede continuar ". [59] Aunque Fairfax se negó visiblemente a firmar, [60] Carlos I fue ejecutado el 30 de enero de 1649. [30]
Establecimiento de la Commonwealth: 1649
After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the "Commonwealth of England". The "Rump Parliament" exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the "Rump" and was appointed a member of the council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original "Royal Independents" led by St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of civil war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish known as "Confederate Catholics". In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. In the latter part of the 1640s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in the "New Model Army". The "Leveller" or "Agitator" movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. These sentiments were expressed in the manifesto "Agreement of the People" in 1647. Cromwell and the rest of the "Grandees" disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should extend only to the landowners. In the "Putney Debates" of 1647, the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. There were rebellions and mutinies following the debates, and in 1649, the Bishopsgate mutiny resulted in the execution of Leveller Robert Lockyer by firing squad. The next month, the Banbury mutiny occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July.[61]
Campaña irlandesa: 1649-1650
Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649 to 1650. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the Royalist alliance, and Protestant Royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous".[62]
Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in continental Europe.[63] Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by Irish ("Gaels") and Old English in Ireland, and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland.[64]
Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the Battle of Rathmines), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the Siege of Drogheda in September 1649, Cromwell's troops killed nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests.[65] Cromwell wrote afterwards that:
I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret[66]
At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town.[67]
After the taking of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford, Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny put up a fierce defence but was eventually forced to surrender on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford, and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered.[68]
One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament.[69] At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II (son of Charles I) had landed in Scotland from exile in France and been proclaimed King by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat.[70]
The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow consisted mostly of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside, with English troops suffering from attacks by Irish toráidhe (guerilla fighters). The last Catholic-held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish Catholic troops capitulated in April of the following year in County Cavan.[68]
In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest of the island of Ireland, the public practice of Roman Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured.[71] All Catholic-owned land was confiscated under the Act for the Settlement of Ireland of 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers.[72] The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht.[73]
Debate sobre el efecto de Cromwell en Irlanda
The extent of Cromwell's brutality[74][75] in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms".[76] Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27 September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants".[77] In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands with so much innocent blood".[65] However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England.[78] Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril."[79]
The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War,[80][81] although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman.[82] However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller.[83] Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives."[84] Cromwell's orders—"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town"—followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter.[85] The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre.[86] Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, some historians[who?] argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople.[87] At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford Castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations and, in the confusion, some of Cromwell's troops began indiscriminate killing and looting.[88][89][90][91]
Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland.[92] Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law and his key adviser, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation. Total excess deaths for the entire period of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Ireland was estimated by Sir William Petty, the 17th Century economist, to be 600,000 out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000 in 1641.[93][94][95] More modern estimates put the figure closer to 200,000 out of a population of 2 million.[96]
The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the Bible text "God is love" pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill (writing 1957) described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations:
...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.[97]
A key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650.[98] In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass."[99] However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same."[99] Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do".[100]
In 1965 the Irish minister for lands stated that his policies were necessary to "undo the work of Cromwell"; circa 1997, Taoiseach Bertie Ahern demanded that a portrait of Cromwell be removed from a room in the Foreign Office before he began a meeting with Robin Cook.[101]
Campaña escocesa: 1650-1651
Scots proclaim Charles II as King
Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as King. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived".[102] He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."[103] The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary.[104]
Battle of Dunbar
His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner, and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.[105] The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people".[105]
Battle of Worcester
The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made an attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651, and his forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester. Charles II barely escaped capture and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until 1660.[106]
To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi-pronged coordinated attack on Worcester, his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning them. He switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and then back again. The editor of the Great Rebellion article of the Encyclopædia Britannica (eleventh edition) notes that Worcester was a battle of manoeuvre compared to the early Civil War Battle of Turnham Green, which the English parliamentary armies were unable to execute at the start of the war, and he suggests that it was a prototype for the Battle of Sedan (1870).[107]
Conclusion
In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under George Monck sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children.[108] Scotland was ruled from England during the Commonwealth and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-Royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there.[109] Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously.[110]
Cromwell's conquest left no significant legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was largely peaceful, apart from the Highlands. Moreover, there were no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State.[111]
Regreso a Inglaterra y disolución del Parlamento Rump: 1651-1653
Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of 1649 until 1651, and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their "common cause". Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government in April 1653 of 40 members drawn from the Rump and the army, and then abdicate; but the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government.[112] Cromwell was so angered by this that he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force on 20 April 1653, supported by about 40 musketeers. Several accounts exist of this incident; in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting".[113] At least two accounts agree that he snatched up the ceremonial mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away.[114] His troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace.[115]
Establecimiento del Parlamento de Barebone: 1653
After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God's providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time."[116] The Nominated Assembly, sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints, or more commonly and denigratingly called Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone, was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.[117]
El Protectorado: 1653-1658
After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake "the chief magistracy and the administration of government". Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.[118] However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the P being an abbreviation for Protector, which was similar to the style of monarchs who used an R to mean Rex or Regina, and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your Highness".[119] As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year.[120]
Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take.[121] Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but ... dross and dung in comparison of Christ".[122] The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!",[123] Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War.[124]
England's overseas possessions in this period included Newfoundland,[125] the New England Confederation, the Providence Plantation, the Virginia Colony, the Maryland Colony, and islands in the West Indies. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn, by his confirming the former Roman Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate.[126]
Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting".[127] However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. The First Protectorate Parliament had a property franchise of £200 per annum in real or personal property value set as the minimum value in which a male adult was to possess before he was eligible to vote for the representatives from the counties or shires in the House of Commons. The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by the aldermen and councilors of the boroughs.[128]
Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inward godliness throughout England.[129] During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a Royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by army major generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the Commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.[130] In late 1654, Cromwell launched the Western Design armada against the Spanish West Indies, and in May 1655 captured Jamaica.[131]
As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the Jewish community's involvement in the economics of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.[132] There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was the hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on Matthew 23:37–39 and Romans 11. At the Whitehall conference of December 1655 he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. William Prynne the Presbyterian, in contrast to Cromwell the Congregationalist, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy.[133][134][135]
On 23 March 1657, the Protectorate signed the Treaty of Paris with Louis XIV against Spain. Cromwell pledged to supply France with 6,000 troops and war ships. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, Mardyck and Dunkirk – a base for privateers and commerce raiders attacking English merchant shipping – were ceded to England.[136]
In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of King: "I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again".[137] The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho.[138] Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair, which was moved specially from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created three peerages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice: Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658.[139]
Muerte y ejecución póstuma
Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and kidney stone disease. In 1658, he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. The Venetian ambassador wrote regular dispatches to the Doge of Venice in which he included details of Cromwell's final illness, and he was suspicious of the rapidity of his death.[140] The decline may have been hastened by the death of his daughter Elizabeth Claypole in August. He died at age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester.[141] The most likely cause was septicaemia (blood poisoning) following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral at Westminster Abbey based on that of James I,[142] his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.[143]
Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Richard had no power base in Parliament or the Army and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck was able to march on London at the head of New Model Army regiments and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye, the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that Charles II could be invited back from exile in 1660 to be King under a restored monarchy.[144]
Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey on 30 January 1661, the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I, and was subjected to a posthumous execution, as were the remains of John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) His body was hanged in chains at Tyburn, London, and then thrown into a pit. His head was cut off and displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. Afterwards, it was owned by various people, including a documented sale in 1814 to Josiah Henry Wilkinson,[145][146] and it was publicly exhibited several times before being buried beneath the floor of the antechapel at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960.[143][147] The exact position was not publicly disclosed, but a plaque marks the approximate location.[148]
Many people began to question whether the body mutilated at Tyburn and the head seen on Westminster Hall were Cromwell's.[149] These doubts arose because it was assumed that Cromwell's body was reburied in several places between his death in September 1658 and the exhumation of January 1661, in order to protect it from vengeful royalists. The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, or Yorkshire.[150]
The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II's illegitimate descendants.[151] In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell's burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the RAF Chapel reading: "The burial place of Oliver Cromwell 1658–1661".[152]
Reputación política
During his lifetime, some tracts painted Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power. For example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered are parts of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, and both present him as a Machiavellian figure.[153] John Spittlehouse presented a more positive assessment in A Warning Piece Discharged, comparing him to Moses rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.[154] Poet John Milton called Cromwell "our chief of men" in his Sonnet XVI.[155]
Several biographies were published soon after Cromwell's death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which describes how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition.[156] An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declares that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man".[157] He argues that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy.[157]
During the early 18th century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. John Toland rewrote Edmund Ludlow's Memoirs in order to remove the Puritan elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, and it presents the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s.[158]
I hope to render the English name as great and formidable as ever the Roman was.[159]
— Cromwell
During the early 19th century, Cromwell began to be portrayed in a positive light by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment in the 1840s, publishing an annotated collection of his letters and speeches, and describing English Puritanism as "the last of all our Heroisms" while taking a negative view of his own era.[160] By the late 19th century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness. Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work".[161] Gardiner stressed Cromwell's dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell's religious conviction.[162] Cromwell's foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his "constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea".[163] Calvin Coolidge described Cromwell as a brilliant statesman who "dared to oppose the tyranny of the kings."[164]
During the first half of the 20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Nazi Germany and in Italy. Harvard historian Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example, devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, published between 1937 and 1947. Abbott argues that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.[165]
Late 20th-century historians re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the nation as a whole. He argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed less from its military origin or the participation of army officers in civil government than from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.[166] Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden, and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell's writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.[167]
Monumentos y honores póstumos
In 1776, one of the first ships commissioned to serve in the American Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War was named Oliver Cromwell.[168]
19th-century engineer Sir Richard Tangye was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia.[169] His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objects d'art, and a bizarre assemblage of "relics". This includes Cromwell's Bible, button, coffin plate, death mask, and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London, where it can still be seen.[170]
In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the Manchester Cathedral, a gift to the city by Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband.[171][172] It was the first large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England, and was a realistic likeness based on the painting by Peter Lely; it showed Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. It was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, and she allegedly consented on the condition that the statue be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the town hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s, the statue was relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell's troops.[173]
During the 1890s, Parliamentary plans turned controversial to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party[174] forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project; the statue was eventually erected but it had to be funded privately by Lord Rosebery.[175]
Cromwell controversy continued into the 20th century. Winston Churchill was First Lord of the Admiralty before World War I, and he twice suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion was vetoed by King George V because of his personal feelings and because he felt that it was unwise to give such a name to an expensive warship at a time of Irish political unrest, especially given the anger caused by the statue outside Parliament. Churchill was eventually told by First Sea Lord Admiral Battenberg that the King's decision must be treated as final.[176] The Cromwell Tank was a British medium-weight tank first used in 1944,[177] and a steam locomotive built by British Railways in 1951 was the BR Standard Class 7 70013 Oliver Cromwell.[178]
Other public statues of Cromwell are the Statue of Oliver Cromwell, St Ives in Cambridgeshire[179] and the Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Warrington in Cheshire.[180] An oval plaque at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, refers to the end of the travels of his head and reads:[148][181]
Near to
this place was buried
on 25 March 1960 the head of
OLIVER CROMWELL
Lord Protector of the Common-
wealth of England, Scotland &
Ireland, Fellow Commoner
of this College 1616-7
Ver también
- The Souldiers Pocket Bible – a booklet Cromwell issued to his army in 1643
- Robert Walker – various portraits of Cromwell by the artists Robert Walker, Peter Lely and Samuel Cooper
- Cromwell's Panegyrick – a contemporary satirical ballad
- Republicanism in the United Kingdom
- Oliver Cromwell (ship) – a corvette launched in 1776 by the Connecticut State Navy
- Cromwell (film) – Cromwell is a 1970 British historical drama film written and directed by Ken Hughes
Notas
- ^ Dates in this article are according to the Julian calendar in force in England during Cromwell's lifetime; however, years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March, which was the English New Year. The Gregorian calendar counterparts are: born 5 May 1599; died 13 September 1658 (see Old Style and New Style dates).
- ^ Henry VIII believed that the Welsh should adopt surnames in the English style rather than taking their fathers' names as Morgan ap William and his male ancestors had done. Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he adopt the surname of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. For several generations, the Williamses added the surname of Cromwell to their own, styling themselves "Williams alias Cromwell" in legal documents (Noble 1784, pp. 11–13)
Referencias
- ^ Dickens, Charles (1854). A Child's History of England volume 3. Bradbury and Evans. p. 239.
- ^ Morrill, John (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/6765. Retrieved 23 April 2017. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
- ^ "The survival of English nonconformity and the reputation of the English for tolerance is part of his abiding legacy," says David Sharp, (Sharp 2003, p. 68)
- ^ "Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)".
- ^ Worden, Blair (2012). God's Instruments: Political Conduct in the England of Oliver Cromwell. OUP. pps. 71-73. ISBN 9780199570492
- ^ Sharp 2003, p. 60.
- ^ Churchill 1956, p. 314.
- ^ Trotsky, Leon. "Two traditions: the seventeenth-century revolution and Chartism". marxists.org. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
- ^ Genocidal or near-genocidal: Brendan O'Leary and John McGarry, "Regulating nations and ethnic communities", in Breton Albert (ed.) (1995). Nationalism and Rationality, Cambridge University Press. p. 248.
- ^ Ó Siochrú, Micheál (2009). God's Executioner: Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21846-2.
- ^ "Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC. 20 October 2002. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ Plant, David. "Oliver Cromwell 1599–1658". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ Lauder-Frost, Gregory, F.S.A.Scot., "East Anglian Stewarts" in The Scottish Genealogist, Dec.2004, vol.LI, no.4., pp. 158–9. ISSN 0330-337X
- ^ "Cromwell, the auld sod, 'hailed from Ireland'". The Times. 10 October 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ Morill, John. Cromwell, Oliver in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online article, 17 September 2015. (Requires library access or subscription)
- ^ Carlyle, Thomas, ed. (1887). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches. 1. p. 17.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 31.
- ^ Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, (Roots 1989, p. 42).
- ^ a b British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638–1660
- ^ "Cromwell, Oliver (CRML616O)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
- ^ a b Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (1973), ISBN 0-297-76556-6, p. 24.
- ^ John Morrill, (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, ed., Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 24.
- ^ "Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector". English Monarchs. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
- ^ "Cromwell's family". The Cromwell Association. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9, p.4; Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell (Blackwell), ISBN 0-631-18356-6, p.23.
- ^ a b c Morrill, p. 34.
- ^ Morrill, pp. 24–33.
- ^ "A unique leader". BBC. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d e f "Oliver Cromwell". British Civil Wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Morrill, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1973
- ^ Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p. 57.
- ^ Adamson, p. 53.
- ^ David Plant. "1643: Civil War in Lincolnshire". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ "Fenland riots". www.elystandard.co.uk. 7 December 2006. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, pp. 120–129.
- ^ "The Battle of Marston Moor". British Civil Wars. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
- ^ Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations, vol I, p. 154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), ISBN 1-84022-222-0, p.107.
- ^ "Sermons of Rev Martin Camoux: Oliver Cromwell". Archived from the original on 16 May 2009.
- ^ A Survey of the Spirituall Antichrist Opening the Secrets of Familisme and Antinomianisme in the Antichristian Doctrine of John Saltmarsh and Will. del, the Present Preachers of the Army Now in England, and of Robert Town. 1648.
- ^ Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 (Oxford University Press), ISBN 0-19-280278-X, p.141
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as a soldier, in Morrill, pp.117–118.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-76556-6, pp. 154–161
- ^ "A lasting place in history". Saffron Walden Reporter. 10 May 2007. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Ashley, Maurice (1957). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell. London: Collier- Macmillan LTD. pp. 187–190.
- ^ Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3, ch. 2–5.
- ^ See The Levellers: The Putney Debates, Texts selected and annotated by Philip Baker, Introduction by Geoffrey Robertson QC. London and New York: Verso, 2007.
- ^ "Spartacus: Rowland Laugharne at Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk". Archived from the original on 25 October 2008.
- ^ Gardiner (1901), pp. 144–47; Gaunt (1997) 94–97.
- ^ Morrill and Baker (2008), p. 31.
- ^ Adamson, pp. 76–84.
- ^ Jendrysik, p. 79
- ^ Macaulay, p. 68
- ^ Coward 1991, p. 65
- ^ "Death Warrant of King Charles I". UK Parliament. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Hart, Ben. "Oliver Cromwell Destroys the "Divine Right of Kings"". Archived from the original on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Gentles, Ian (2011). Oliver Cromwell. Macmillan Distribution Ltd. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-333-71356-3.
- ^ "The Regicides". The Brish Civil wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ David Plant (14 December 2005). "The Levellers". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (Cork University Press), ISBN 1-85918-244-5, p.115.
- ^ Fraser, pp. 74–76.
- ^ Fraser, pp. 326–328.
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.98.
- ^ Cromwell, Oliver (1846). Thomas Carlyle (ed.). "Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations". William H. Colyer. p. 128. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
- ^ Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9 pp.344–46; and Austin Woolrych, Britain In Revolution (Oxford, 2002), p. 470
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.100.
- ^ Fraser, pp. 321–322; Lenihan 2000, p.113.
- ^ Fraser, p. 355.
- ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.314.
- ^ "Act for the Settlement of Ireland, 12 August 1652, Henry Scobell, ii. 197. See Commonwealth and Protectorate, iv. 82-5". the Constitution Society. Retrieved 14 February 2008.
- ^ Lenihan 2007, pp. 135–136
- ^ Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Penguin Books: London, p.108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..."
- ^ Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p.74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..."
- ^ Philip McKeiver, 2007, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
- ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, pp. 83, 90
- ^ Lenihan 2000, p. 1O22; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter-insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man-made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs".
- ^ Carlyle, Thomas (1897). "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches II: Letters from Ireland, 1649 and 1650". Chapman and Hall Ltd, London. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare".
- ^ The Thirty Years War (1618–48) 7 500 000: "R. J. Rummel: 11.5M total deaths in the war (half democides)"
- ^ Gardiner (1886), Vol. II, p. 345
- ^ J. C. Davis, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 108–10.
- ^ Abbott, Writings and Speeches, vol II, p. 124.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldier, p. 111; Gaunt, p. 117.
- ^ Lenihan 2000, p. 168.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 116.
- ^ Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, p. 151.
- ^ "Eugene Coyle. Review of Cromwell—An Honourable Enemy. History Ireland". Archived from the original on 21 February 2001.
- ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, pp. 83–93
- ^ Schama, Simon, "A History of Britain," 2000.
- ^ Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing:
- Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"
- Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.."
- David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing."
- Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the King and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"
- Morrill, John (December 2003). "Rewriting Cromwell—A Case of Deafening Silences". Canadian Journal of History. University of Toronto Press. 38 (3): 553–578. doi:10.3138/cjh.38.3.553. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell. Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that 'it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it'.
- Lutz, James M.; Lutz, Brenda J. (2004). Global Terrorism. London: Routledge. p. 193.
The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal.
- Mark Levene Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
- Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London:
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.
- ^ Faolain, Turlough (1983). Blood On The Harp. p. 191. ISBN 9780878752751. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
- ^ O' Connell, Daniel (1828). A collection of speeches spoken by ... on subjects connected with the catholic question. p. 317. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
- ^ Patrick, Brantlinger (15 April 2013). Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930. ISBN 9780801468674. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
- ^ Dregne, Lukas. "Just Warfare, or Genocide?: Oliver Cromwell and the Siege of Drogheda". University of Montana. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
- ^ Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of Revolution, Dodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you". The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distracted English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people throughout the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.
- ^ Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Harvard University Press, pp.196–205.
- ^ a b Abbott, p. 202.
- ^ Abbott, p. 205.
- ^ Cunningham, John (4 March 2012). "Conquest and Land in Ireland". Royal Historical Society, Boydell Press. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
- ^ Lenihan 2000, p. 115.
- ^ Gardiner (1901), p. 184.
- ^ Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.155.
- ^ a b Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.66.
- ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-76556-6, pp. 385–389.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition article "GREAT REBELLION" Sections "4. Battle of Edgehill" and "59. The Crowning Mercy
- ^ Williams, Mark; Forrest, Stephen Paul (2010). Constructing the Past: Writing Irish History, 1600–1800. Boydell & Brewer. p. 160. ISBN 9781843835738.
- ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.306.
- ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2003). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe, p. 281.
- ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.320.
- ^ Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-29213-1, ch.16–17.
- ^ Abbott, p. 643
- ^ Abbott, pp. 642–643.
- ^ "Charles Worsley". British Civil Wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Roots 1989, pp. 8–27.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822659-4, ch.5–10.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 155.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 156.
- ^ A History of Britain – The Stuarts. Ladybird. 1991. ISBN 0-7214-3370-7.
- ^ Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, p.172.
- ^ Quoted in Hirst, p. 127.
- ^ "Cromwell, At the Opening of Parliament Under the Protectorate (1654)". Strecorsoc.org. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ "First Anglo-Dutch War". British Civil Wars project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ Lieutenant Governors of Newfoundland and Labrador at geni.com. Retrieved 22 September 2019
- ^ Fischer, David Hackett (1991) [1989]. "The South of England to Virginia: Distressed Cavaliers and Indentured Servants, 1642–75". Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 219–220. ISBN 9780195069051.
- ^ Roots 1989, pp. 41–56.
- ^ Aylmer, G.E., Rebellion or Revolution? England 1640–1660, Oxford and New York, 1990 Oxford University Paperback, p.169.
- ^ Hirst, p. 173.
- ^ Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
- ^ Clinton Black, The Story of Jamaica from Prehistory to the Present (London: Collins, 1965), pp. 48–50
- ^ Hirst, p. 137.
- ^ Coulton, Barbara. "Cromwell and the 'readmission' of the Jews to England, 1656" (PDF). The Cromwell Association. Lancaster University. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ Carlyle, Thomas, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with Elucidations, London, Chapman and Hall Ltd, 1897, pp. 109–113 and 114–115
- ^ Morrill, John (editor), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, 1990, pp. 137–138, 190, and 211–213.
- ^ Manganiello, Stephen, The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland and Ireland, 1639–1660, Scarecrow Press, 2004, 613 p., ISBN 9780810851009, p. 539.
- ^ Roots 1989, p. 128.
- ^ Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8, pp.141–145.
- ^ Masson, p. 354
- ^ McMains 2015, p. 75.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 204.
- ^ Rutt 1828, pp. 516–530.
- ^ a b "Cromwell's head". Cambridge County Council. 2010. Archived from the original on 11 March 2010. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
- ^ "MONCK, George (1608–70), of Potheridge, Merton, Devon. – History of Parliament Online". Retrieved 30 July 2016.
- ^ Staff. "Roundhead on the Pike", Time magazine, 6 May 1957
- ^ Terri Schlichenmeyer (21 August 2007). "Missing body parts of famous people". CNN. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ Gaunt, p. 4.
- ^ a b Larson, Frances (August 2014). "Severance Package". Readings. Harper's Magazine. Harper's Magazine Foundation. 329 (1971): 22–5.
- ^ Pepys, Samuel. The Diary of Samuel Pepys: Diary entries from October 1664. Thursday 13 October 1664. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
When I told him of what I found writ in a French book of one Monsieur Sorbiere, that gives an account of his observations herein England; among other things he says, that it is reported that Cromwell did, in his life-time, transpose many of the bodies of the Kings of England from one grave to another, and that by that means it is not known certainly whether the head that is now set up upon a post be that of Cromwell, or of one of the Kings.
- ^ Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. p. 4.
- ^ "Westminster Abbey reveals Cromwell's original grave". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ pixeltocode.uk, PixelToCode. "Oliver Cromwell and Family". Westminster Abbey.
- ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp. 263–4.
- ^ Morrill, pp. 271–2.
- ^ "RPO – John Milton : Sonnet XVI: To the Lord General Cromwell". Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
- ^ Morrill, pp. 279–81.
- ^ a b Gaunt, p. 9.
- ^ Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), ISBN 0-14-100694-3, pp. 53–59
- ^ "The Life and Eccentricities of the late Dr. Monsey, F.R.S, physician to the Royal Hospital at Chelsea", printed by J.D. Dewick, Aldergate street, 1804, p. 108
- ^ Carlyle, Thomas (December 1843). Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (PDF).
- ^ Gardiner (1901), p. 315.
- ^ Worden, pp. 256–260.
- ^ Gardiner (1901), p. 318.
- ^ Coolidge, Calvin (1929). The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge. USA. p. 29. ISBN 978-1410216229.
- ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell". Historical Journal. 33 (3): 629–639. doi:10.1017/S0018246X0001356X.
- ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–31, ISSN 0018-2648.
- ^ Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) Oxforddnb.com; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell's religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman).
- ^ Hahn, Harold H. Ships of the American Revolution and their Models. Pp. 74–101. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2000.
- ^ "Death of Sir Richard Tangye" (PDF). The New York Times. 15 October 1906. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "War websites". Channel4. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "Greater Manchester Photographic Memories". Francis Frith. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ "Oliver Cromwell". Public Monument and Sculpture Association. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- ^ Moss, John. "Manchester during the Reformation, Oliver Cromwell & the English Civil Wars". Manchester2002-uk.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ "STATUE OF OLIVER CROMWELL". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. 25 April 1899. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ "The Cromwell Statue at Westminster – Icons of England". Icons.org.uk. Archived from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ Kenneth Rose, King George V, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984, p. 160-61. The King also vetoed the name HMS "Pitt", as sailors might give the ship a nickname based on its rhyming with a "vulgar and ill-conditioned word".
- ^ "Cromwell Mark I". On war. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ National Railway Museum (May 2004). "Oliver Cromwell on the move again!" (Press release). Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
- ^ Historic England, "Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Market Hill (1161588)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 5 February 2016
- ^ Historic England, "Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Bridge Street (1139417)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 18 February 2016
- ^ Comerford, Patrick (6 July 2009). "Is Cromwell's head buried in Sidney Sussex Chapel?". Patrick Comerford: my thoughts on Anglicanism, theology, spirituality, history, architecture, travel, poetry and beach walks. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
Sources
- Adamson, John (1990), "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Adamson, John (1987), "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", Historical Journal, 30 (3): 567–602, doi:10.1017/S0018246X00020896
- Ashley, Maurice & Morrill, John (1999). "Oliver Cromwell". Encyclopædia Britannica (online).
- BBC staff (3 October 2014), "The Execution of Charles I", BBC Radio 4—This Sceptred Isle—The Execution of Charles I., BBC Radio 4, retrieved 4 November 2007
- Carlyle, Thomas, ed. (1845), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations (1904 ed.) – "All five volumes (1872)" (PDF). (40.2 MB);
- Churchill, Winston (1956), A History of English Speaking Peoples, Dodd, Mead & Company, p. 314
- Coward, Barry (1991), Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-0582553859
- Coward, Barry (2003), The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714, Longman, ISBN 0-582-77251-6
- Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals (CXIII (450))". English Historical Review. The English Historical Review Ehr. CXIII. pp. 18–37. doi:10.1093/ehr/CXIII.450.18. ISSN 0013-8266. (subscription required)
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1886), History of the Great Civil War, 1642–1649, Longmans, Green, and Company
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901), Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9
- Gaunt, Peter (1996), Oliver Cromwell, Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-18356-6
- Hirst, Derek (1990), "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Jendrysik, mark (2007), Explaining the English Revolution: Hobbes and His Contemporaries, Lexington, ISBN 978-0739121818
- Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (2000), The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280278-X
- Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?", Historical Journal, 33 (4): 917–937, doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013819
- Lenihan, Padraig (2000), Confederate Catholics at War, Cork University Press, ISBN 1-85918-244-5
- Lenihan, Padraig (2007), Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727 (Longman History of Ireland), Routledge, ISBN 978-0582772175
- Macaulay, James (1891), Cromwell Anecdotes, London: Hodder
- McMains, H.F. (2015), The Death of Oliver Cromwell, University Press of Kentucky, p. 75, ISBN 978-0-8131-5910-2
- Masson, David (1877), The Life of John Milton: 1654–1660, 5 (7 volumes ed.), p. 354
- Morrill, John (1990), "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Morrill, John (1990), "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Morrill, John; Baker, Phillip (2008), "Oliver Cromwell, the Regicide and the Sons of Zeruiah", in Smith, David Lee (ed.), Cromwell and the Interregnum: The Essential Readings, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1405143141
- Noble, Mark (1784), Memoirs of the Protectorate-house of Cromwell: Deduced from an Early Period, and Continued Down to the Present Time,..., 2, Printed by Pearson and Rollason
- O'Siochru, Micheal (2008), God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, Faber and Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-24121-7
- Roots, Ivan (1989), Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Everyman Classics, ISBN 0-460-01254-1
- Rutt, John Towill, ed. (1828), "Cromwell's death and funeral order", Diary of Thomas Burton esq, April 1657 – February 1658, Institute of Historical Research, 2, pp. 516–530, retrieved 8 November 2011
- Sharp, David (2003), Oliver Cromwell, Heinemann, p. 60, ISBN 978-0-435-32756-9
- Woolrych, Austin (1982), Commonwealth to Protectorate, Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4
- Woolrych, Austin (1990), "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Woolrych, Austin (1987), Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates, Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822752-3
- Worden, Blair (1985), "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D.; Best, G. (eds.), History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8
- Worden, Blair (1977), The Rump Parliament, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29213-1
- Worden, Blair (2000), "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", Proceedings of the British Academy, 105: 131–170, ISSN 0068-1202
- Young, Peter; Holmes, Richard (2000), The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1-84022-222-0
Otras lecturas
Biographical
- Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Ashley, Maurice (1958). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell Macmillan. online
- Ashley, Maurice (1969). Cromwell excerpts from primary and secondary sources online
- Bennett, Martyn. Oliver Cromwell (2006), ISBN 0-415-31922-6
- Boyer, Richard E., ed. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith? (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. online
- Clifford, Alan (1999). Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate Charenton Reformed Publishing, ISBN 0-9526716-2-X. Religious study.
- Davis, J. C. (2001). Oliver Cromwell Hodder Arnold, ISBN 0-340-73118-4
- Firth, C.H. (1900). Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans online editionISBN 1-4021-4474-1; classic older biography
- Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector Phoenix Press, ISBN 0-7538-1331-9. Popular narrative. online
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, ISBN 1-4179-4961-9. Classic older biography. online
- Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-18356-6. Short biography.
- Hill, Christopher (1970). God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution Dial Press, ISBN 0-297-00043-8. online
- Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Kerlau, Yann (1989) "Cromwell", Perrin/France
- Mason, James and Angela Leonard (1998). Oliver Cromwell Longman, ISBN 0-582-29734-6
- McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4
- Morrill, John (May 2008) [2004]. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/6765. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
- Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4.
- Paul, Robert (1958). The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life Of Oliver Cromwell
- Smith, David (ed.) (2003). Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-22725-3
- Wedgwood, C.V. (1939). Oliver Cromwell Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-0656-5
- Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8
Military studies
- Durston, Christopher (2000). "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in History 2000 85(278): pp. 247–267, ISSN 0018-2648. Full text online at Ebsco.
- Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
- Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, ISBN 1-85367-120-7 online
- Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait of a Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77148-5
- Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280278-X
- Kitson, Frank (2004). Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, ISBN 0-297-84688-4
- Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, ISBN 1-85753-343-7
- McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4
- Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–231, doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1990.tb01515.x. Full text online at Wiley Online Library.
- Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1-84022-222-0
Surveys of era
- Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-4317-4
- Coward, Barry and Peter Gaunt. (2017). The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714, 5th edition, Longman, ISBN 113894954X. Survey of political history of the era.
- Davies, Godfrey (1959). The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-821704-8. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.
- Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649–1658 University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-02281-5
- Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629–1660 Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-59750-8
- Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4
- Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments, in his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change Macmillan.
- Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-63388-1
- Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4
- Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-927268-6
Primary sources
- Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937–1947). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words. Questia.com.
- Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. "Gasl.org" (PDF). (40.2 MB);
- Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.
- Morrill, John, et al. (eds.). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell: A New Critical Edition, 5 vols. (projected). A new edition of Cromwell's writings, currently in progress. ( "A New Critical Edition of the Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell". Archived from the original on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2014.)
Historiography
- Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell (2001). 243 pp; a biographical study that covers sources and historiography
- Gaunt, Peter. "The Reputation of Oliver Cromwell in the 19th century", Parliamentary History, Oct 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 3, pp 425–428
- Hardacre, Paul H. "Writings on Oliver Cromwell since 1929", in Elizabeth Chapin Furber, ed. Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939 (Harvard University Press, 1966), pp 141–59
- Lunger Knoppers, Laura. Constructing Cromwell: Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645–1661 (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.
- Mills, Jane, ed. Cromwell's Legacy (Manchester University Press, 2012) online review by Timothy Cooke
- Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences". Canadian Journal of History 2003 38(3): 553–578. ISSN 0008-4107 Fulltext: Ebsco
- Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X. Full text online at JSTOR. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.
- Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings of the British Academy (2000) 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202.
- Worden, Blair. Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity (2001), 387 pp.; ISBN 0-14-100694-3.
enlaces externos
- The Perfect Politician: Or, a Full View of the Life and Actions (Military and Civil) of O. Cromwell, 1660—A digitised copy by John Geraghty
- Well established informational website about Oliver Cromwell
- The Oliver Cromwell Project at the University of Cambridge
- Oliver Cromwell World History Database
- Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution—In Honor of Christopher Hill 1912–2003
- The Cromwell Association
- The Cromwell Museum in Huntingdon
- Chronology of Oliver Cromwell World History Database
- Biography at the British Civil Wars & Commonwealth website
- London Gazette report on the trial and execution of Charles I
- London Gazette report on the death of Oliver Cromwell
- Works by Oliver Cromwell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- "Archival material relating to Oliver Cromwell". UK National Archives.
- Works by or about Oliver Cromwell at Internet Archive
- Vallely, Paul. The Big Question: Was Cromwell a revolutionary hero or a genocidal war criminal?, The Independent 4 September 2008.
- The Cromwellian Catastrophe in Ireland: an Historiographical Analysis (an overview of writings/writers on the subject by Jameel Hampton pub. Gateway An Academic Journal on the Web: Spring 2003 PDF)
- An Interview with a conservator from the Library of Congress who conserved a document that bears the signature of Oliver Cromwell
- Cromwell (1970) at IMDb
- "Oliver Cromwell – autograph letters and historical documents 1646–1658","Oliver Cromwell, Collection. James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.[1]
Parliament of England | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded by Arthur Mainwaring John Goldsborough | Member of Parliament for Huntingdon 1628–1629 With: James Montagu | Vacant Parliament suspended until 1640 Title next held by Robert Bernard |
Vacant Parliament suspended since 1629 Title last held by Thomas Purchase | Member of Parliament for Cambridge 1640–1653 With: Thomas Meautys 1640 John Lowry 1640–1653 | Vacant Not represented in Barebones Parliament Title next held by Richard Timbs |
Military offices | ||
Preceded by Thomas Fairfax | Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of the Forces 1650–1653 | Vacant Cromwell elected Lord Protector Title next held by George Monck |
Political offices | ||
Council of State | Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658 | Succeeded by Richard Cromwell |
Academic offices | ||
Preceded by Earl of Pembroke | Chancellor of the University of Oxford 1650–1653 | Succeeded by Richard Cromwell |