El Islam en la India es una religión minoritaria, [6] con el 14,2% de la población del país o aproximadamente 172,2 millones de personas, [7] identificándose como adherentes al Islam en el censo de 2011 . [8] [9] Esto convierte a la India en el país con la mayor población musulmana fuera de los países de mayoría musulmana. La mayoría de los musulmanes indios pertenecen a lasecta sunita del Islam, mientras que los chiítas forman una minoría considerable.
Población total | |
---|---|
172,2 millones [1] (14,2%) (2011) | |
Regiones con poblaciones significativas | |
Uttar Pradesh | 38.400.000 [2] [3] [4] |
al oeste de Bengala | 24,600,000 [2] [3] [4] |
Bihar | 17,500,000 [2] [3] [4] |
Maharashtra | 12,900,000 [2] [3] [4] |
Assam | 10,600,000 [2] [3] [4] |
Kerala | 8.800.000 [2] [3] [4] |
Jammu y Cachemira | 8.500.000 [2] [3] [4] |
Karnataka | 7.800.000 [2] [3] [4] |
Rajasthan | 6.200.000 [2] [3] [4] |
Gujarat | 5.800.000 [2] [3] [4] |
Religiones | |
Islam (gran mayoría sunita y minoría significativa chiíta ) | |
Idiomas | |
Los musulmanes en la India existían en comunidades a lo largo de las rutas comerciales árabes costeras en la costa occidental de la India, particularmente en Gujarat , y Malabar tan pronto como la religión se originó y había ganado una aceptación temprana en la Península Arábiga , aunque la primera incursión por mar del nuevo musulmán Los estados sucesores del mundo árabe ocurrieron alrededor del 636 EC o 643 DC, durante el Califato Rashidun , mucho antes de que cualquier ejército árabe llegara a la frontera de la India por tierra. La mezquita Barwada en Ghogha , Gujarat construida antes del 623 EC, la Mezquita Cheraman Juma (629 EC) en Methala , Kerala y Palaiya Jumma Palli (o The Old Jumma Masjid - 628 - 630 EC) en Kilakarai , Tamil Nadu son tres de las primeras mezquitas en la India, que fueron construidos por comerciantes árabes marineros . [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] El Islam llegó al interior del subcontinente indio en el siglo VII cuando los árabes conquistaron Sindh y luego llegaron al norte de la India en el siglo XII a través de la conquista de los guríes y desde entonces se ha convertido en una parte del patrimonio religioso y cultural de la India . [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]
El Sultanato de Delhi y el Imperio Mughal han gobernado la mayor parte del sur de Asia y el Sultanato de Bengala , los sultanatos de Deccan y el Imperio Sur han desempeñado importantes papeles económicos y políticos. El apogeo del gobierno islámico en la India se marcó bajo la sharia y el reinado protoindustrializado [20] del emperador Aurangzeb , la economía más grande del mundo , con la compilación y el establecimiento de Fatawa Alamgiri . [21] [22] [23] La reintroducción de nuevas políticas islámicas por el rey de Mysore Tipu Sultan y el reino Arakkal con sede en Kannur [24] contribuyó a la cultura del sur de la India . [25] [26] El estado de Hyderabad gobernado por los Nizam sirvió como el último estado principesco autónomo de la India hasta su anexión por el Dominio de la India . A lo largo de los siglos, ha habido una integración significativa de las culturas hindú y musulmana en la India [27] [28] y los musulmanes han desempeñado un papel notable en la economía, la política y la cultura de la India. [29]
Historia
Orígenes
La gran mayoría de los musulmanes de la India pertenecen a grupos étnicos del sur de Asia . Sin embargo, se encontraron algunos musulmanes indios con niveles detectables, trazables, menores a algunos, de flujo genético desde el exterior, principalmente del Medio Oriente y Asia Central. [30] [31] [32] Sin embargo, se encuentran en niveles muy bajos. [32] Las fuentes indican que las castas entre los musulmanes se desarrollaron como resultado del concepto de Kafa'a. [33] [34] [35] Aquellos a quienes se refiere como Ashrafs (ver también Sharif ) se presume que tienen un estatus superior derivado de su ascendencia árabe extranjera , [36] [37] mientras que se supone que los Ajlafs son conversos de Hinduismo , y tienen un estatus más bajo.
Muchos de estos ulemas también creían que lo mejor era casarse dentro de una misma casta. La práctica del matrimonio endogámico en la propia casta se observa estrictamente en la India. [38] [39] En dos de los tres estudios genéticos a los que se hace referencia aquí, en los que se describe que se tomaron muestras de varias regiones de las comunidades musulmanas de la India, se encontró nuevamente que la población musulmana era abrumadoramente similar a la de los no musulmanes locales asociados , y algunos tienen niveles menores pero aún detectables de flujo de genes desde el exterior, principalmente desde Irán y Asia Central, en lugar de directamente desde la península arábiga. [31]
En 2005 se publicó una investigación sobre la comparación de los cromosomas Y de los musulmanes indios con otros grupos indios. [31] [32] En este estudio, se seleccionaron al azar 124 sunitas y 154 chiítas de Uttar Pradesh para su evaluación genética. Además de los musulmanes, también se seleccionaron para el análisis genético miembros de los grupos hindúes de castas superiores y medias. De 1021 muestras en este estudio, solo 17 muestras mostraron el haplogrupo E y todas eran chiitas. Sin embargo, el menor aumento de frecuencia coloca a estos chiítas, únicamente en lo que respecta a sus haplogrupos, más cerca de los iraquíes, turcos y palestinos. [31] [32]
Historia temprana del Islam en la India
Las relaciones comerciales han existido entre Arabia y el subcontinente indio desde la antigüedad. Incluso en la era preislámica , los comerciantes árabes solían visitar la costa de Konkan - Gujarat y la costa de Malabar , que los unía con los puertos del sudeste asiático . Los árabes recién islamizados fueron el primer contacto del Islam con la India. Los historiadores Elliot y Dowson dicen en su libro La historia de la India, contada por sus propios historiadores , que el primer barco con viajeros musulmanes fue visto en la costa de la India ya en el año 630 d.C. HG Rawlinson en su libro Historia antigua y medieval de la India [40] afirma que los primeros musulmanes árabes se asentaron en la costa india en la última parte del siglo VII d. C. ( Zainuddin Makhdoom II " Tuhafat Ul Mujahideen " es también un trabajo confiable.) [41] Este hecho es corroborado por J. Sturrock en sus Manuales del Distrito de Madrás [42] y por Haridas Bhattacharya en Cultural Heritage of India vol. IV . [43] Fue con el advenimiento del Islam que los árabes se convirtieron en una fuerza cultural prominente en el mundo. Los comerciantes y comerciantes árabes se convirtieron en portadores de la nueva religión y la propagaron dondequiera que fueran. [44]
Según la tradición popular, el Islam fue llevado a las islas Lakshadweep , situadas justo al oeste de la costa de Malabar , por Ubaidullah en 661 EC. Se cree que su tumba se encuentra en la isla de Andrott . [45] Se descubrieron algunas monedas omeyas (661–750 d. C.) en Kothamangalam, en la parte oriental del distrito de Ernakulam , Kerala . [46] Según la leyenda de Cheraman Perumals , la primera mezquita india fue construida en 624 dC en Kodungallur en la actual Kerala con el mandato del último gobernante (el Cheraman Perumal) de la dinastía Chera , que se convirtió al Islam durante el vida del Profeta Muhammad (c. 570–632). [47] [48] [49] [50] Según Qissat Shakarwati Farmad , las mezquitas de Kodungallur , Kollam , Madayi , Barkur , Mangalore , Kasaragod , Kannur , Dharmadam , Panthalayini y Chaliyam se construyeron durante la era de Malik Dinar. , y están entre los más antiguos Masjid s en el subcontinente indio . [51] Se cree que Malik Dinar murió en Thalangara en la ciudad de Kasaragod . [52]
Se cree que la primera mezquita india , Cheraman Juma Mosque , fue construida en 629 EC por Malik Deenar [53] aunque algunos historiadores dicen que la primera mezquita estuvo en Gujarat entre 610 EC y 623 EC. [54] En Malabar , los Mappilas pueden haber sido la primera comunidad en convertirse al Islam. [55] Se llevaron a cabo intensas actividades misioneras a lo largo de la costa y muchos otros nativos abrazaron el Islam. Según la leyenda, dos viajeros de la India, Moulai Abdullah (antes conocido como Baalam Nath) y Maulai Nuruddin (Rupnath), fueron a la corte del Imam Mustansir (427-487 AH) / (1036-1094 EC) y quedaron tan impresionados que se convirtieron al Islam y regresaron a predicar en la India en 467 AH / 1073 EC. Moulai Ahmed fue su compañero. Abadullah fue el primer Wali-ul-Hind (santo de la India). Se encontró con una pareja casada llamada Kaka Akela y Kaki Akela que se convirtieron en sus primeros conversos en la comunidad Taiyabi ( Bohra ).
Interacciones árabe-hindú
Hay mucha evidencia histórica que muestra que los árabes y los musulmanes interactuaron con los indios desde los primeros días del Islam o incluso antes de la llegada del Islam a las regiones árabes. Los comerciantes árabes transmitieron el sistema de numeración desarrollado por los indios al Medio Oriente y Europa.
Muchos libros en sánscrito se tradujeron al árabe ya en el siglo VIII. George Saliba, en su libro "La ciencia islámica y la creación del Renacimiento europeo", escribe que "algunos textos sánscritos importantes comenzaron a traducirse durante el reinado del segundo califa abasí al-Mansur (754-775), si no antes; algunos textos en lógica incluso antes de eso, y se ha aceptado generalmente que los textos persa y sánscrito, por pocos que fueran, fueron de hecho los primeros en ser traducidos ". [56]
Las relaciones comerciales entre Arabia e India se habían desarrollado desde tiempos inmemoriales, con, por ejemplo, la venta de dátiles y hierbas aromáticas por parte de comerciantes árabes que llegaban a las costas indias cada primavera con la llegada de la brisa del monzón . Los habitantes de la costa occidental de la India estaban tan familiarizados con la llegada anual de los comerciantes árabes como con las bandadas de pájaros monzónicos; eran un fenómeno tan antiguo como el propio monzón. Sin embargo, mientras que las aves del monzón volaron de regreso a África después de una estadía de pocos meses, no todos los comerciantes regresaron a sus hogares en el desierto; muchos se casaron con mujeres indias y se establecieron en la India. [57]
El advenimiento de Mahoma (569–632 d. C.) transformó a los árabes idólatras y tranquilos en una nación unificada por la fe y llena de celo por difundir el evangelio del Islam. Los marineros mercantes que traían dátiles año tras año ahora traían consigo una nueva fe. La nueva fe fue bien recibida por el sur de la India. A los musulmanes se les permitió construir mezquitas, casarse con mujeres indias y muy pronto surgió una comunidad indio-árabe. A principios del siglo IX, los misioneros musulmanes ganaron un notable converso en la persona del Rey de Malabar. [57]
Según Derryl N. Maclean, un vínculo entre Sindh y los primeros partidarios de Ali o proto-chiítas se remonta a Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, un compañero del profeta islámico Mahoma , que viajó a través de Sind a Makran en el año. 649AD y presentó un informe sobre el área al Califa. Apoyó a Ali y murió en la Batalla del camello junto a Sindhi Jats . [58] También fue poeta y han sobrevivido pocas coplas de su poema en alabanza a Ali ibn Abu Talib, como se informa en Chachnama: [59]
( Árabe :
ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدة
ان الرزيه فقد العلم والحكم
وأن أشرف من اودي الزمان به
أهل العفاف و أهل الجود والكريم [60]
"Oh Ali, debido a tu alianza (con el profeta) eres verdaderamente de alta cuna, y tu ejemplo es grande, y eres sabio y excelente, y tu advenimiento ha hecho de tu edad una era de generosidad, bondad y amor fraternal. ". [61]
Durante el reinado de Ali, muchos Jats cayeron bajo la influencia del Islam. [62] Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi y Sayfi ibn Fil 'al-Shaybani, ambos oficiales del ejército de Ali, atacaron a los bandidos sindhi y los persiguieron hasta Al-Qiqan (actual Quetta ) en el año 658. [63] Sayfi fue uno de los siete partidarios de Ali que fueron decapitados junto a Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi [64] en 660 DC, cerca de Damasco.
Historia política del Islam en la India
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Muhammad bin Qasim (672 EC) a la edad de 17 años fue el primer general musulmán en invadir el subcontinente indio, logrando llegar a Sindh . En la primera mitad del siglo VIII d. C., tuvo lugar una serie de batallas entre el califato omeya y los reinos indios; resultó en campañas omeyas en la India controladas y contenidas en Sindh. [65] [a] Alrededor del siglo X, el imperio nómada musulmán de Asia Central, los Ghaznavids , bajo Mahmud de Ghazni (971 - 1030 EC), fue el segundo invasor, mucho más feroz, utilizando caballería de caballos rápidos y reuniendo vastos ejércitos unidos por etnia y religión, invadió repetidamente las llanuras del noroeste de Asia meridional. Finalmente, bajo los ghurids , el ejército musulmán irrumpió en las llanuras del norte de la India, lo que condujo al establecimiento del sultanato islámico de Delhi en 1206 por los esclavos de la dinastía Ghurid. [66] El sultanato iba a controlar gran parte del norte de la India y realizar muchas incursiones en el sur de la India. Sin embargo, las disputas internas dieron como resultado el declive del sultanato y la ruptura de nuevos sultanatos musulmanes como el sultanato de Bengala en el este y los sultanatos de Deccan en el territorio del sur. [67] En 1339, Shah Mir se convirtió en el primer gobernante musulmán de Cachemira, inaugurando la dinastía Salatin-i-Kashmir o Shah Mir . [68]
Bajo el Sultanato de Delhi , hubo una síntesis de la civilización india con la de la civilización islámica , y la integración del subcontinente indio con un sistema mundial en crecimiento y redes internacionales más amplias que abarcan gran parte de Afro-Eurasia , lo que tuvo un impacto significativo en la cultura india. y sociedad. [69] El período de su gobierno incluyó las formas más tempranas de arquitectura indoislámica , [70] [71] aumento de las tasas de crecimiento en la población y la economía de la India , [72] y el surgimiento del idioma indostaní . [73] El Sultanato de Delhi también fue responsable de repeler las invasiones potencialmente devastadoras del Imperio Mongol a la India en los siglos XIII y XIV. [74] El período coincidió con un mayor uso de la tecnología mecánica en el subcontinente indio. Desde el siglo XIII en adelante, India comenzó a adoptar ampliamente tecnologías mecánicas del mundo islámico , incluidas ruedas elevadoras de agua con engranajes y poleas , máquinas con levas y manivelas , [75] tecnología de fabricación de papel [76] y la rueca . [77]
A principios del siglo XVI, el norte de la India, entonces bajo gobernantes principalmente musulmanes, [78] cayó nuevamente ante la movilidad superior y la potencia de fuego de una nueva generación de guerreros de Asia Central. [79] El Imperio Mughal resultante no acabó con las sociedades locales que llegó a gobernar, sino que las equilibró y pacificó a través de nuevas prácticas administrativas [80] y élites gobernantes diversas e inclusivas, [81] que condujeron a una evolución más sistemática, centralizada y regla uniforme. [82] Evitando los lazos tribales y la identidad islámica, especialmente bajo Akbar , los mogoles unieron sus reinos lejanos a través de la lealtad, expresada a través de una cultura perianizada, a un emperador que tenía un estatus casi divino. [81] Las políticas económicas del estado de Mughal, que derivan la mayor parte de los ingresos de la agricultura [83] y ordenan que los impuestos se paguen en la moneda de plata bien regulada, [84] hicieron que los campesinos y artesanos entraran en mercados más grandes. [82] La relativa paz mantenida por el imperio durante gran parte del siglo XVII fue un factor en la expansión económica de la India, [82] que resultó en un mayor patrocinio de la pintura , las formas literarias, los textiles y la arquitectura . [85] El Imperio Mughal fue la economía más grande del mundo en el siglo XVII, más grande que la China Qing y Europa Occidental , con la India Mughal produciendo aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la producción económica e industrial del mundo. [86] [87]
En el siglo XVIII, el poder de Mughal se había vuelto severamente limitado. A mediados del siglo XVIII, los Marathas habían derrotado a los ejércitos mogoles e invadido varias provincias mogoles desde el Punjab hasta Bengala . [88] En ese momento, las potencias económicas dominantes en el subcontinente indio eran Bengala Subah bajo los Nawabs de Bengala y el Reino de Mysore del sur de India bajo Hyder Ali y Tipu Sultan , antes de que el primero fuera devastado por las invasiones maratha de Bengala , [ 89] [90] conduciendo a que la economía del Reino de Mysore supere a Bengala. [91] La Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales conquistó Bengala en 1757 y luego Mysore a finales del siglo XVIII . El último emperador mogol, Bahadur Shah II , tenía autoridad solo sobre la ciudad de Vieja Delhi ( Shahjahanabad ), antes de ser exiliado a Birmania por el Raj británico después de la rebelión india de 1857 .
Papel en el movimiento independentista indio
La contribución de los revolucionarios, poetas y escritores musulmanes está documentada en la historia de la lucha de la India por la independencia. Titumir levantó una revuelta contra el Raj británico . Abul Kalam Azad , Hakim Ajmal Khan y Rafi Ahmed Kidwai son otros musulmanes que participaron en este esfuerzo. Ashfaqulla Khan de Shahjahanpur conspiró para saquear el tesoro británico en Kakori ( Lucknow ) (Ver conspiración de Kakori ). Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (conocido popularmente como "Frontier Gandhi") fue un destacado nacionalista que pasó 45 de sus 95 años de vida en la cárcel; Barakatullah de Bhopal fue uno de los fundadores del Partido Ghadar , que creó una red de organizaciones anti-británicas; Syed Rahmat Shah, del Partido Ghadar, trabajó como revolucionario clandestino en Francia y fue ahorcado por su participación en el fallido motín de Ghadar en 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui de Faizabad (UP) planeó el motín indio en Malaya y Birmania , junto con Syed Mujtaba Hussain de Jaunpur , y fue ahorcado en 1917; Vakkom Abdul Khadir de Kerala participó en la lucha " Salir de la India " en 1942 y fue ahorcado; Umar Subhani, un industrial y millonario de Bombay, proporcionó a Mahatma Gandhi los gastos del Congreso y finalmente murió por la causa de la independencia. Entre las mujeres musulmanas, Hazrat Mahal , Asghari Begum y Bi Amma contribuyeron en la lucha por la independencia de los británicos.
Otros musulmanes famosos que lucharon por la independencia contra el dominio británico fueron Abul Kalam Azad , Mahmud al-Hasan de Darul Uloom Deoband , quien estuvo implicado en el famoso Movimiento Silk Letter para derrocar a los británicos a través de una lucha armada, Husain Ahmad Madani , ex Shaikhul Hadith de Darul Ulum Deoband , Ubaidullah sindhi , Hakim Ajmal Khan , Hasrat Mohani , Syed Mahmud, Ahmadullah Shah , profesor Maulavi Barkatullah , Zakir Husain , Saifuddin Kitchlew , Vakkom Abdul Khadir , Manzoor Abdul Wahab, Bahadur Shah Zafar , Hakeem Nusrat Husain, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan , Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai , coronel Shahnawaz, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari , Rafi Ahmed Kidwai , Fajrudin Ali Ahmed , Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, VM Obaidullah, SR Rahim, Badruddin Tyabji , Abid Hasan y Moulvi Abdul Hamid. [92] [93]
Hasta 1920, Muhammad Ali Jinnah , más tarde fundador de Pakistán , fue miembro del Congreso Nacional Indio y formó parte de la lucha por la independencia. Muhammad Iqbal , poeta y filósofo, fue un firme defensor de la unidad hindú-musulmana y una India indivisa, quizás hasta 1930. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy también participó activamente en el Congreso Nacional Indio en Bengala, durante su carrera política temprana. Mohammad Ali Jouhar y Shaukat Ali lucharon por la emancipación de los musulmanes en el contexto general de la India y lucharon por la independencia junto a Mahatma Gandhi y Abdul Bari de Firangi Mahal. Hasta la década de 1930, los musulmanes de la India llevaron a cabo su política en general junto con sus compatriotas, en el contexto general de una India indivisa.
Partición de la India
No encuentro ningún paralelo en la historia para un cuerpo de conversos y sus descendientes que afirman ser una nación separada de los padres.
- Mahatma Gandhi , oponiéndose a la división de la India sobre la base de la religión en 1944. [94]
La partición de la India fue la partición de la India británica sobre la base de la demografía religiosa . Esto llevó a la creación de los dominios de Pakistán (que luego se dividió en la República Islámica de Pakistán y la República Popular de Bangladesh ) y la India (más tarde República de la India ). La Ley de Independencia de la India de 1947 había decidido el 15 de agosto de 1947 como fecha señalada para la partición. Sin embargo, Pakistán celebra su día de la creación el 14 de agosto.
La partición de la India se estableció en la Ley y resultó en la disolución del Imperio Indio Británico y el fin del Raj británico . Resultó en una lucha entre los estados recién constituidos de India y Pakistán y desplazó hasta 12,5 millones de personas con estimaciones de pérdida de vidas que varían de varios cientos de miles a un millón (la mayoría de las estimaciones del número de personas que cruzaron las fronteras entre India y Pakistán). Pakistán en 1947 oscilan entre 10 y 12 millones). [95] La naturaleza violenta de la partición creó una atmósfera de hostilidad mutua y sospecha entre India y Pakistán que plaga su relación hasta el día de hoy.
La partición incluyó la división geográfica de la provincia de Bengala en Bengala Oriental , que pasó a formar parte de Pakistán (desde 1956, Pakistán Oriental ). Bengala Occidental pasó a formar parte de la India, y una partición similar de la provincia de Punjab se convirtió en Punjab Occidental (más tarde Punjab paquistaní e Islamabad Capital Territory ) y Punjab Oriental (más tarde Punjab indio , así como Haryana e Himachal Pradesh ). El acuerdo de partición también incluyó la división de los activos del gobierno indio, incluido el Servicio Civil indio , el Ejército indio , la Marina Real de la India , los ferrocarriles indios y la tesorería central, y otros servicios administrativos.
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Los dos países autónomos de India y Pakistán comenzaron a existir legalmente al filo de la medianoche del 14 al 15 de agosto de 1947. Las ceremonias para la transferencia del poder se llevaron a cabo un día antes en Karachi , en ese momento la capital del nuevo estado. de Pakistán, para que el último virrey británico , Lord Mountbatten de Birmania, pudiera asistir tanto a la ceremonia en Karachi como a la ceremonia en Delhi . Así, el Día de la Independencia de Pakistán se celebra el 14 de agosto y el de la India el 15 de agosto.
Después de la Partición de la India en 1947, dos tercios de los musulmanes residían en Pakistán (tanto al este como al oeste de Pakistán), pero un tercio residía en la India. [96] Según el censo de 1951 de personas desplazadas, 7.226.000 musulmanes fueron a Pakistán (tanto del este como del oeste) desde la India, mientras que 7.249.000 hindúes y sijs se trasladaron a la India desde Pakistán (tanto del oeste como del este). [97] Algunos críticos alegan que la prisa británica en el proceso de partición aumentó la violencia que siguió. [98] Debido a que la independencia fue declarada antes de la Partición real, los nuevos gobiernos de India y Pakistán debían mantener el orden público. No se contemplaron grandes movimientos de población; el plan pedía salvaguardas para las minorías en ambos lados de la nueva frontera. Fue una tarea en la que ambos estados fallaron. Hubo un colapso total de la ley y el orden; muchos murieron en disturbios, masacres o simplemente por las dificultades de su huida hacia un lugar seguro. Lo que siguió fue uno de los mayores movimientos de población de la historia registrada. Según Richard Symonds: En la estimación más baja, medio millón de personas murieron y doce millones se quedaron sin hogar. [99]
Sin embargo, muchos argumentan que los británicos se vieron obligados a acelerar la Partición por los acontecimientos sobre el terreno. [100] Una vez en el cargo, Mountbatten rápidamente se dio cuenta de que si Gran Bretaña debía evitar involucrarse en una guerra civil, lo que parecía cada vez más probable, no había alternativa a la partición y una salida apresurada de la India. [100] La ley y el orden se habían roto muchas veces antes de la Partición con mucho derramamiento de sangre en ambos lados. Una guerra civil masiva se avecinaba cuando Mountbatten se convirtió en virrey. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Gran Bretaña tenía recursos limitados, [100] quizás insuficientes para la tarea de mantener el orden. Otro punto de vista es que, si bien Mountbatten pudo haber sido demasiado apresurado, no le quedaban opciones reales y logró lo mejor que pudo en circunstancias difíciles. [101] El historiador Lawrence James está de acuerdo en que en 1947 Mountbatten no tuvo otra opción que cortar y ejecutar. La alternativa parecía ser la participación en una guerra civil potencialmente sangrienta de la que sería difícil salir. [102]
Demografía
Con alrededor de 204 millones de musulmanes (estimación de 2019), la población musulmana de la India es aproximadamente la tercera más grande del mundo [103] [104] y la mayor población de minorías musulmanas del mundo. [105] India alberga al 10,9% de la población musulmana del mundo. [106]
Poblaciones musulmanas (5 países principales) Est. 2020 [103] [107]
País | Población musulmana | Porcentaje de la población musulmana total |
---|---|---|
![]() | 229.000.000 | 12,7% |
![]() | 208,800,000 | 11,1% |
![]() | 207.000.000 | 10,9% |
![]() | 153,700,000 | 9,20% |
![]() | 99.000.000 | 5,3% |
Los musulmanes representan la mayoría de la población local en Lakshadweep (96,2%) y Jammu y Cachemira (68,3%). La mayor concentración, alrededor del 47% de todos los musulmanes de la India, vive en los tres estados de Uttar Pradesh , Bengala Occidental y Bihar . También se encuentran altas concentraciones de musulmanes en los estados de Andhra Pradesh , Assam , Delhi , Gujarat , Jharkhand , Karnataka , Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra , Manipur , Rajasthan , Tamil Nadu , Telangana , Tripura y Uttarakhand . [108]
Población por estados
![](http://wikiimg.tojsiabtv.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png/399px-Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png)
![](http://wikiimg.tojsiabtv.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png/435px-District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png)
A partir de 2015[actualizar], Los musulmanes constituyen la mayoría de la población en el único estado indio de Jammu y Cachemira y en un territorio de la Unión Lakshadweep . [109] En 110 distritos concentrados en minorías, al menos una quinta parte de la población es musulmana. [110]
Tasa de crecimiento de la poblacion
Muslim population growth per Census
Year | Total population | Muslim population | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
1951 | 361,088,090 | 35,856,047 | 9.9% |
1961 | 439,234,771 | 46,998,120 | 10.7% |
1971 | 548,159,652 | 61,448,696 | 11.2% |
1981* | 683,329,097 | 77,557,852 | 11.4% |
1991** | 846,427,039 | 102,586,957 | 12.1% |
2001 | 1,028,737,436 | 138,159,437 | 13.4% |
2011 | 1,210,726,932 | 172,245,158 | 14.2% |
1981 Census: * Parts of Assam were not included in the 1981 Census Data due to violence in some districts.
1991 Census: ** Jammu and Kashmir was not included in the 1991 Census Data due to militant activity in the state.
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1951 | 35,856,047 | — |
1961 | 46,998,120 | +31.1% |
1971 | 61,448,696 | +30.7% |
1981 | 77,557,852 | +26.2% |
1991 | 102,586,957 | +32.3% |
2001 | 138,159,437 | +34.7% |
2011 | 172,245,158 | +24.7% |
Source: Census of India |
Muslims in India have a much higher total fertility rate (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.[111] Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 10% in 1951 to 14% by 2013. The Muslim population growth rate from 1991–01 was higher by more than 10% of the total growth compared to that of Hindus.[112] However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.[113] The Population Growth rate is also attributable to the fact that majority of Muslim populations are concentrated in the states that are lagging behind in social reforms and services which have shown higher birth rates than other states. However, the Sachar Committee Report shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.[114] The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.[115]
Social and economic reasons behind population growth
Demographers have put forward several factors behind high birthrates among Muslims in India.[116] According to sociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic conditions rather than religious determinism is the main reason for higher Muslim birthrates. Indian Muslims are poorer and less educated compared to their Hindu counterparts.[117] Noted Indian sociologist, B.K. Prasad, argues that since India's Muslim population is more urban compared to their Hindu counterparts, infant mortality rates among Muslims is about 12% lower than those among Hindus.[118]
However, other sociologists point out that religious factors can explain high Muslim birthrates. Surveys[by whom?] indicate that Muslims in India have been relatively less willing to adopt family planning measures and that Muslim women have a larger fertility period since they get married at a much younger age compared to Hindu women.[119] On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.[120] A study conducted by K.C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.[121] According to Paul Kurtz, Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women.[122][123] The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India.[124] The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims.
Denominaciones
There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the Sunni branch of Islam while a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the Shia branch.[125] There are also tiny minorities of Ahmadiyya and Quranists across the country. Many Indian Muslim communities, both Sunni and Shia, are also considered to be Sufis.
Sunni
Indian Sunnis largely follow the Hanafi school of Islamic law.
The majority of Indian Sunnis follow the Barelvi movement which was founded in 1904 by Ahmed Razi Khan of Bareilly in defense of traditional Islam as understood and practised in South Asia and in reaction to the revivalist attempts of the Deobandi movement.[126][127] In the 19th century the Deobandi, a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam was established in India. It is named after Deoband a small town northeast of Delhi, where the original madrasa or seminary of the movement was founded. From its early days this movement has been influenced by Wahhabism.[128][129][130] A minority of Indian Muslims also follow the Ahl-i Hadith movement.
Shia
Shia Muslims are a large minority among India's Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population.[125] However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources like Times of India and Daily News and Analysis reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000[131][132] to 50,000,000[133] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.[134] However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million with Sayyids comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.[135] According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after Iran.[136][137][138][139][140][141][142]
Bohra
Bohra Shia was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century. This community's belief system originates in Yemen, evolved from the Fatimid were persecuted due to their adherence to Fatimid Shia Islam – leading the shift of Dawoodi Bohra to India. After occultation of their 21st Fatimid Imam Tayyib, they follow Dai as representative of Imam which are continued till date.
Dā'ī Zoeb appointed Maulai Yaqoob (after the death of Maulai Abdullah), who was the second Walī al-Hind of the Fatimid dawat. Moulai Yaqoob was the first person of Indian origin to receive this honour under the Dā'ī. He was the son of Moulai Bharmal, minister of Hindu Solanki King Jayasimha Siddharaja (Anhalwara, Patan). With Minister Moulai Tarmal, they had honoured the Fatimid dawat along with their fellow citizens on the call of Moulai Abdullah. Syedi Fakhruddin, son of Moulai Tarmal, was sent to western Rajasthan, India, and Moulai Nuruddin went to the Deccan (death: Jumadi al-Ula 11 at Don Gaum, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India).
One Dai succeeded another until the 23rd Dai in Yemen. In India also Wali-ul-Hind were appointed by them one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Moulai Qasim Khan bin Hasan (11th and last Wali-ul-Hind, d. 950 AH, Ahmedabad).
Due to persecution by the local Zaydi Shi'a ruler in Yemen, the 24th Dai, Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman (d. 1567 CE), moved the whole administration of the Dawat (mission) to India. The 25th Dai Jalal Shamshuddin (d. 1567 CE) was first dai to die in India. His mausoleum is in Ahmedabad, India. The Dawat subsequently moved from Ahmedabad to Jamnagar[143] Mandvi, Burhanpur, Surat and finally to Mumbai and continues there to the present day, currently headed by 53rd Dai.
Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".[144][145][146]
Khojas
The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted to Islam in South Asia. In India, most Khojas live in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and the city of Hyderabad. Many Khojas have also migrated and settled over the centuries in East Africa, Europe and North America. The Khoja were by then adherents of Nizari Ismailism branch of Shi'ism. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the aftermath of the Aga Khan case a significant minority separated and adopted Twelver Shi'ism or Sunni Islam, while the majority remained Nizārī Ismā'īlī.[147]
Sufis
Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed, Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusrow, Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, Waris Ali Shah, Ata Hussain Fani Chishti trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent member of the Naqshbandi Sufi advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.[148]
Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. He claimed to be the promised messiah and mahdi awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, the Punjab and Sindh.[149] Ahmadis claim the Ahmadiyya movement to embody the latter day revival of Islam and the movement has also been seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian and Arya Samaj missionary activity that was widespread in 19th century India. After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, his successors directed the Ahmadiyya Community from Qadian which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the creation of Pakistan. The movement has grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme and has expanded to over 200 countries as of 2014 but has received a largely negative response from mainstream Muslims who see it as heretical, due mainly to Ghulam Ahmad's claim to be a prophet within Islam.[150]
Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in 2011 Census of India apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.[151][152][153][154] India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.[155] Most of them live in Rajasthan, Odisha, Haryana, Bihar, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and a few in Punjab in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).[156][157] There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,[157] but they are not allowed to sit on the All India Muslim Personal Law Board, a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.[158] Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1 million in India.[159]
Quranists
Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority of hadith, known as Quranists, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the Ahle Hadith movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists include Chiragh Ali, Aslam Jairajpuri, Khwaja Ahmad-ud-Din Amritsari, and Abdullah Chakralawi.[160]
Islamic traditions in India
Sufism is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complementary with the legalistic path of the sharia had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142–1236), who settled in Ajmer and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishti Order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in regional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.
Intra-Muslim relations
Shia–Sunni relations
The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.[161]
Sociedad
Religious administration
The religious administration of each state is headed by the Mufti of the State under the supervision of the Grand Mufti of India, the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader of Muslims in India. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.[162][163][164][165]
Muslim institutes
There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in India.
Modern universities and institutes
- Al-Ameen Educational Society
- Aliah University
- Aligarh Muslim University
- Jamia Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya
- Ma'dinu Ssaquafathil Islamiyya
- B. S. Abdur Rahman University
- Darul Huda Islamic University
- Darul Uloom Deoband
- Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama
- Farook College, Kozhikode
- Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
- Integral University
- Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli
- Hamdard University, Delhi
- Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
- M.S.S. Wakf Board College, Madurai (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board)
- Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College, Pulikkal, Malappuram
- Maulana Azad National Urdu University Hyderabad
- Maulana Azad College of Arts and Science, Aurangabad
- Muslim Educational Association of Southern India
- Muslim Educational Society, Kerala
- National College of Engineering, Tirunelveli
- Osmania University, Hyderabad
- Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College, Tirurangadi
- Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, Kollam
- Karim City College, Jamshedpur
Traditional Islamic universities
- Al Jamea tus Saifiyah, Bohra
- Al Jamiatul Ashrafia, Barelvi
- Jamia Darussalam, Oomerabad
- Al-Jame-atul-Islamia, Uttar Pradesh
- Jamia Nizamia, Hyderabad
- Manzar-e-Islam, Bareilly
- Raza Academy
- Sunni Cultural Center, Karanthur, Kerala
Leadership and organisations
![](http://wikiimg.tojsiabtv.com/wikipedia/en/8/81/Protest_in_U.P_against_Caricature_of_Prophet_of_Islam.jpg)
- The Ajmer Sharif Dargah and Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat at Bareilly Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.[166]
- Indian Shia Muslims form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25–31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005 to 2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157 million. Sources like The Times of India and DNA reported Indian Shia population during that period between 40,000,000[131][132] to 50,000,000[133] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.
- The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the Darul Uloom Deoband, an influential religious seminary in the district of Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh. The Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom.[167]
- The Jamaat-e-Islami Hind, founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.[168]
Cultura
Indo-Islamic art and architecture
The Taj Mahal in Agra is one of India's most iconic monuments.
A rebuilt structure of the old Cheraman Juma Mosque, Kerala, which is often considered as the first Masjid of India
Asafi Imambargah, also known as Bara Imambara at Lucknow
The Humayun's Tomb in Delhi
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia.
Bahauddin Makbara, mausoleum of the Wazir of Junagadh, Gujarat
400-year-old Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad. (Photo: 1885)
The Asafi Mosque within the Asafi Imambargah Complex at Lucknow
The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow
Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh
Charminar, the most famous of the monuments of Hyderabad
Red Fort, Delhi
Jama Masjid, Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India
Architecture of India took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century CE. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles. Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque built in 1193 CE was the first mosque to be built in the Indian subcontinent; its adjoining "Tower of Victory", the Qutb Minar also started around 1192 CE, which marked the victory of Muhammad of Ghor and his general Qutb al-Din Aibak, from Ghazni, Afghanistan, over local Rajput kings, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Delhi.
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.
Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.
Mosques
There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including the Muslim world.[169] The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the minbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.
Tombs and Mausoleum
The tomb or maqbara could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.
Styles of Islamic architecture in India
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191 to 1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Ahmedabad, Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal architecture style (1526 to 1707 CE).[170]
Derecho, política y gobierno
Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and waqf properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,[171] which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.[172][173] Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of common law. The Supreme Court of India has ruled that Sharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.[174]
Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."[175] It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, waqf, wills and inheritance.[172] The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law for Sunnis; Shia Muslims are independent of Sunni law for those areas where Shia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.
The Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion. Article 44 of the constitution recommends a uniform civil code. However, attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under a common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. The All India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of "Muslim Personal Law", i.e. Shariat Application Act in India. The Sachar Committee was asked to report about the condition of Muslims in India in 2005. Almost all the recommendations of the Sachar Committee have been implemented.[176][177]
The following laws/acts of Indian legislation are applicable to Muslims in India (except in the state of Goa) regarding matters of marriage, succession, inheritance, child adoption etc.
- Muslim Personal Law Sharia Application Act, 1937
- The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
- Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986
Note: the above laws are not applicable in the state of Goa. The Goa civil code, also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of the Indian state of Goa. In India, as a whole, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. Goa is an exception to that rule, in that a single secular code/law governs all Goans, irrespective of religion, ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. The above laws are also not applicable to Muslims throughout India who had civil marriages under the Special Marriage Act, 1954.
Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in India. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending that polygamy be made illegal in the Muslim Personal Law of India.[178]
The Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2016 was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).[179][180][181]
India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,[182][183][184] there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under the Bharatiya Janata Party and Modi ministry, affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.[185]
Active Muslim political parties
- All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM), led by Asaduddin Owaisi active in states of Telangana, Maharashtra, Bihar and Karnataka.[186]
- Indian Union Muslim League (IUML), led by E. Ahamed active in Kerala.[187]
- All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF), led by Badruddin Ajmal active in Assam state.[188]
- Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference (JKPC), founded by Abdul Ghani Lone and Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari.[189][190] Led by Sajjad Lone.[191] It is active in Jammu and Kashmir.
- National Conference (NC) main party of Jammu and Kashmir.
- Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) main party of Jammu and Kashmir.
- Apni Party (JKAP) a newly formed party of Jammu and Kashmir
- Peace Party of India of Mohamed Ayub
Ghettoisation of Muslim areas
Ghettoisation among Indian Muslims began in the mid-1970s when the first communal riots occurred. This was heightened after the 1989 Bhagalpur violence in Bihar and became a trend after the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. Soon several major cities developed ghettos, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.[192] This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the 2002 Gujarat riots, several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.[193][194][195][196] This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and many cities of Gujarat where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.
In places like Gujarat, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the Juhapura area of Ahmadabad has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.[197]
An increase in ghetto living has also shown a strengthening of stereotyping due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. Secularism in India is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.[198][199][200]
Muslims in government
India has seen three Muslim presidents and many chief ministers of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the centre and at the state level.
Haj subsidy
The government of India subsidises the cost of the airfare for Hajj pilgrims. All pilgrims travel on Air India. In compliance with Supreme Court of India and Allahabad High Court directions, the Government of India has proposed that, starting from 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person will be decreased and by 2017 will be ended completely.[201][202] Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the Rajya Sabha and general secretary of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic Sharia, since the Quran declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.[203] Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.[204]
Out of the 12 Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, Mohammad Hidayatullah, Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India on various occasions since independence. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice-President of India and the Chief Justice of India.[205][206]
The former Vice-President of India, Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid and former Director (Head) of the Intelligence Bureau, Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. S. Y. Quraishi served as the Chief Election Commissioner of India.[207] He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung and Asaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah was Cabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[208] Salman Haidar was the Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[209][210] Influential Muslim politicians in India include Sheikh Abdullah, Farooq Abdullah and his son Omar Abdullah (former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir), Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Mehbooba Mufti, Sikander Bakht, A. R. Antulay, Ahmed Patel, C. H. Mohammed Koya, A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury, Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi, Salman Khurshid, Saifuddin Soz, E. Ahamed, Ghulam Nabi Azad, Syed Shahnawaz Hussain, Asaduddin Owaisi, Azam Khan and Badruddin Ajmal, Najma Heptulla.
Conflicto y controversia
Conversion controversy
Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:[211]
- The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian Plateau or Arabs.[212][page needed]
- Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes[211][212]
- Conversion was a result of the actions of Sunni Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart.[211]
- Conversion came from Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Hindu caste strictures.[212]
- A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart.[211]
- As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilisation and global polity at large.[212]
Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the partition and communalism in India.[211]
Historians such as Will Durant described Islamic invasions of India as "The bloodiest story in history.[213][214] Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects".[215] Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari,[35] where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes.[216] Others argue that, during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, Indian-origin religions experienced persecution from various Muslim conquerors[217] who massacred Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, attacked temples and monasteries, and forced conversions on the battlefield.[218]
Disputers of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today.
Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Battuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Persia and Anatolia were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India – II) however points to Muhammad bin Tughluq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.[219]
Numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors.[220] Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,[221] but notes this was not unusual in medieval India where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.[222][223][224] He also notes there were many instances of the Delhi Sultanate, which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under the Mughal Empire.[225]
K. S. Lal, in his book Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, claimed that between 1000 and 1500 the Indian population decreased by 30 million,[226] but stated his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality.[227][228][229] His work has come under criticism by historians such as Simon Digby (SOAS, University of London) and Irfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times.[230][231] Different population estimates by economics historians Angus Maddison and Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.[232][233] The Indian population estimates from other economic historians including Colin Clark, John D. Durand and Colin McEvedy also show there was a population increase in India between 1000 and 1500.[234][235]
Relations non-Muslim communities
Muslim–Hindu conflict
- Before 1947
The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with the Umayyad Caliphate's invasion of Sindh in 711. The persecution of Hindus during the Islamic expansion in India during the medieval period was characterised by destruction of temples, often illustrated by historians by the repeated destruction of the Hindu Temple at Somnath[237][238] and the anti-Hindu practices of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.[239] Although there were instances of conflict between the two groups, a number of Hindus worshipped and continue to worship at the tombs of Muslim Sufi Saints.[240]
During the Noakhali riots in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.[241][242]
- From 1947 to 1991
The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These include the 1969 Gujarat riots, the 1970 Bhiwandi riots, the 1983 Nellie massacre, and the 1989 Bhagalpur violence. These conflicts stem in part from the ideologies of Hindu nationalism and Islamic extremism. Since independence, India has always maintained a constitutional commitment to secularism.
- Since 1992
The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period was compromised greatly by the razing of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. The demolition took place in 1992 and was perpetrated by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party and organisations like Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bajrang Dal, Vishva Hindu Parishad and Shiv Sena. This was followed by tit for tat violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country, giving rise to the Bombay riots and the 1993 Bombay bombings.
In the 1998 Prankote massacre, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.[243]
Kashmir (1990s)
During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native Kashmiri Hindus were forced into an exodus from Kashmir, a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.[244][245] Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.[246] Approximately 300,000–350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s.[247] Many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps of Jammu.[248]
Gujarat (2002)
One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the Gujarat riots in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.[249] There were also allegations made of state involvement.[250][251] The riots were in retaliation to the Godhra train burning in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the Babri Masjid, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.[252] In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.[253]
In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the National Council of Educational Research and Training after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to The Guardian, the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a dark age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".[255] In one textbook, it was purported that the Taj Mahal, the Qutb Minar and the Red Fort – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".[256]
West Bengal (2010)
In the 2010 Deganga riots, rioting began on 6 September 2010, when an Islamist mob resorted to arson and violence on the Hindu neighborhoods of Deganga, Kartikpur and Beliaghata under the Deganga police station area. The violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. The district police, Rapid Action Force, Central Reserve Police Force and Border Security Force all failed to stop the mob violence and the Army was finally deployed.[257][258][259][260] The Army staged a flag march on the Taki Road, while Islamist violence continued unabated in the interior villages off the Taki Road, till Wednesday in spite of the Army's presence and promulgation of prohibitory orders under section 144 of the CrPC.
Assam (2012)
At least 77 people died[261] and 400,000 people were displaced in the 2012 Assam violence between indigenous Bodos and East Bengal rooted Muslims.[262]
Delhi (2020)
The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,[263][264] were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist agenda.[265][266]
Muslim–Sikh conflict
Sikhism emerged in the Punjab during the Mughal period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 when Guru Arjan, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son took his spot as Guru Hargobind, who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in present Sri Hargobindpur in Gurdaspur[267] After this point the Sikhs were forced to organise themselves militarily for their protection. Later in the 16th century, Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executed by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation of Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.[268] At this point Aurangzeb had instituted forceful conversions on the basis of charging citizens with crimes then sparing them from punishments (up to death) if they converted. This led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions in Aurangzeb's empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After this Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise, who was Bahadur Shah Zafar. For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were in Akbar's time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen by Dulla Bhatti, Mian Mir, Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah, Bulleh Shah.
In 1699, the Khalsa was founded by Guru Gobind Singh, the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperor Jahandar Shah after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam.[269] The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of the Sikh Empire, resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1849.
Massive population exchanges took place during the Partition of India in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly-formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[270]
Tens of thousands of Muslims are living with a disguised identity as Sikhs since the confessional cleansing during the Partition of India.[271]
Muslim–Christian conflict
In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians has also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India with the demise of the Mughal empire beginning in the 18th century, Christians were persecuted in some Muslim-ruled princely states in India.
- Anti-Christian persecution by Tipu Sultan in the 17th century
Perhaps the most infamous acts of anti-Christian persecution by Muslims were committed by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, against the Mangalorean Catholics. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Srirangapatna, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[272]
Muslim–Buddhist conflict
In 1989 there was a social boycott by the Buddhists of the Muslims of Leh district. The boycott remained in force till 1992. Relations between the Buddhists and Muslims in Leh improved after the lifting of the boycott, although suspicions remained.[273]
Caste system among Indian Muslims
Although Islam does not recognize any castes, the caste system among South Asian Muslims refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in South Asia.[274]
Stratification
In some parts of South Asia, the Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs.[275][276] Ashrafs claim to be derived from their foreign ancestry.[36][37] They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.[277][37]
Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Sayyid] be given a higher social status than the others.[278] His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.[278] His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over Sharia law whenever they were in conflict.[278] Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]".[278] He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.[35] Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste.[278]
In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the arzal caste among Muslims,[279] who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables.[280][281] The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.[280][281][282] They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil.[283]
Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to qaums.[284] Studies of Bengali Muslims in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status.[37] Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.
Some of the upper and middle caste Muslim communities include Syed, Shaikh, Shaikhzada, Khanzada, Pathan, Mughal, and Malik.[285] Genetic data has also supported this stratification.[286] In three genetic studies representing the whole of South Asian Muslims, it was found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated with minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian Peninsula.[31]
The Sachar Committee's report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.
Interaction and mobility
Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.[287] They have good interactions with the other communities. They participate in marriages and funerals and other religious and social events in other communities. Some of them also had inter-caste marriages since centuries but mostly they preferred to marry in the same caste.
In Bihar state of India, cases had been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.[285]
Criticism
Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.[35]
While some scholars theorize that Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus,[35][287] Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar argued otherwise, arguing the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".[280][281] He was critical of Ashraf antipathy towards the Ajlaf and Arzal and attempts to palliate sectarian divisions. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century.[280][281]
Musulmanes destacados en la India
India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world. Out of the 12 Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, 4 Muslims: Mohammad Hidayatullah, Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice-President of India and the Chief Justice of India.[205][206]
The former Vice-President of India, Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid are Muslims. Dr. S. Y. Quraishi and Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi both served as the Chief Election Commissioner of India .[207] Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung and Asaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah was Cabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.[208] Salman Haidar was Indian Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.[209][210] Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in the Indian Police Service, with several attaining the rank of Director general of police and serving as commanders of both state and Central Armed Police Forces. In 2013, IPS officer Syed Asif Ibrahim became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers of Indian states (other than Jammu and Kashmir):
- Barkatullah Khan (Rajasthan: 1971–73)
- Abdul Ghafoor (Bihar: 1973–75)
- C. H. Mohammed Koya (Kerala: 1979)
- Anwara Taimur (Assam: 1980–81)
- A. R. Antulay (Maharashtra: 1980–82)
- Mohammed Alimuddin (Manipur: 1973–74)
- M. O. H. Farook was a three-time CM of the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include Yusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar),[288] Shah Rukh Khan,[289] Aamir Khan,[290] Saif Ali Khan,[291][292] Madhubala,[293] Nawazuddin Siddiqui,[294] Naseeruddin Shah, Johnny Walker, Shabana Azmi,[295] Waheeda Rehman,[296] Amjad Khan, Parveen Babi, Feroz Khan, Meena Kumari, Prem Nazir, Mammootty, Nargis, Irrfan Khan, Farida Jalal, Arshad Warsi, Mehmood, Zeenat Aman, Farooq Sheikh and Tabu.
Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include Mehboob Khan, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Kamal Amrohi, K. Asif and the Abbas–Mustan duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. M. F. Husain is one of India's best known contemporary artists. Academy Awards winners Resul Pookutty and A. R. Rahman, Naushad, Salim–Sulaiman and Nadeem Akhtar of the Nadeem–Shravan duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. Abrar Alvi penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include Shakeel Badayuni, Sahir Ludhianvi and Majrooh Sultanpuri. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include Mohammed Rafi, Anu Malik, Lucky Ali, Talat Mahmood and Shamshad Begum. Another famous personality is the tabla maestro Zakir Hussian.
Sania Mirza, from Hyderabad, is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. Prominent Muslim names in Indian cricket (the most popular sport of India) include Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi and Mohammad Azharuddin, who captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other famous Muslim cricketers in India are Mushtaq Ali, Syed Kirmani, Arshad Ayub, Mohammad Kaif, Munaf Patel, Zaheer Khan, Irfan Pathan, Yusuf Pathan and Wasim Jaffer.
India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such as Wipro, Wockhardt, Himalaya Health Care, Hamdard Laboratories, Cipla and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named by Forbes magazine, Yusuf Hamied and Azim Premji, are from India.
Though Muslims are under-represented in the Indian Armed Forces, as compared to Hindus and Sikhs,[298] several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal I. H. Latif was Deputy Chief of the Air Staff (India) during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and later served as Chief of the Air staff of the Indian Air Force from 1973 to 1976.[299][300] Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank of air marshal and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979–1980.[301] Indian Army's Abdul Hamid was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the Param Vir Chakra, for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the Battle of Asal Uttar in 1965.[302][303] Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded Maha Vir Chakra for their actions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947.[304] High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include:
- Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93),[305]
- Lieutenant General Sami Khan (Commandant of the National Defence Academy: 1985–86, GoC-in-C, Central Command: 1988–89)
- Lieutenant General Pattiarimmal Mohamed Hariz (GOC-in-C, Southern Command: 2016–17),[306]
- Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi (Deputy Chief of Air Staff: 1997–99, Senior Air Staff Officer, Training Command 1999–2001)[307]
- Lieutenant General Syed Ata Hasnain (GOC XV Corps: 2010–2012, Military Secretary: 2012–13)
- Major General Afsir Karim
- Major General SM Hasnain
- Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.[308]
Abdul Kalam, one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th President of India.[309] His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the Missile Man of India[310] and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as People's President. Syed Zahoor Qasim, former Director of the National Institute of Oceanography, led India's first scientific expedition to Antarctica and played a crucial role in the establishment of Dakshin Gangotri. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.[311] Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of Deccan College of Medical Sciences and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.[312] In the field of Yunani medicine, one can name Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hakim Abdul Hameed and Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman. Salim Ali, was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India".
In the list of most influential Muslims list by Georgetown University, there were 21 Indians (in 2017) like Maulana Mahmood Madani, Akhtar Raza Khan, Zakir Abdul Karim Naik, Wahiduddin Khan, Abul Qasim Nomani Syed Muhammad Ameen Mian Qaudri, Amir Khan and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar. Mahmood Madani, leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia.[313] Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list.
In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead a Jumu'ah prayer service in India.[314]
Ver también
- Islamic art
- Indo-Islamic architecture
- List of scientists in medieval Islamic world
- List of Muslim Nobel laureates
- List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
- List of Islamic educational institutions
- Islam in South Asia
- Bihari Muslims
- Gujarati Muslims
- Hyderabadi Muslims
- Tamil Muslim
- Mappila
- Hindu–Islamic relations
- Muslim nationalism in South Asia
- Destruction of Kashmiri Shias
- NCERT textbook controversies
- History of Islam
Nota
- ^ "India" in this page refers to the territory of present-day India.
Referencias
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enlaces externos
- Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.