En teoría de la probabilidad , un normales (o gaussiana o Gauss o Laplace-Gauss ) de distribución es un tipo de distribución de probabilidad continua para un valor real- variable aleatoria . La forma general de su función de densidad de probabilidad es
Función de densidad de probabilidad La curva roja es la distribución normal estándar. | |||
Función de distribución acumulativa | |||
Notación | |||
---|---|---|---|
Parámetros | = media ( ubicación ) = varianza ( escala al cuadrado ) | ||
Apoyo | |||
CDF | |||
Cuantil | |||
Significar | |||
Mediana | |||
Modo | |||
Diferencia | |||
ENOJADO | |||
Oblicuidad | |||
Ex. curtosis | |||
Entropía | |||
MGF | |||
CF | |||
Información de Fisher |
| ||
Divergencia de Kullback-Leibler |
El parámetro es la media o expectativa de la distribución (y también su mediana y moda ), mientras que el parámetroes su desviación estándar . [1] La varianza de la distribución es. [2] Se dice que una variable aleatoria con una distribución gaussiana tiene una distribución normal y se denomina desviación normal .
Las distribuciones normales son importantes en estadística y a menudo se utilizan en las ciencias naturales y sociales para representar variables aleatorias de valor real cuyas distribuciones no se conocen. [3] [4] Su importancia se debe en parte al teorema del límite central . Establece que, bajo algunas condiciones, el promedio de muchas muestras (observaciones) de una variable aleatoria con media finita y varianza es en sí misma una variable aleatoria, cuya distribución converge a una distribución normal a medida que aumenta el número de muestras. Por lo tanto, las cantidades físicas que se espera sean la suma de muchos procesos independientes, como los errores de medición , a menudo tienen distribuciones que son casi normales. [5]
Además, las distribuciones gaussianas tienen algunas propiedades únicas que son valiosas en los estudios analíticos. Por ejemplo, cualquier combinación lineal de una colección fija de desviaciones normales es una desviación normal. Muchos resultados y métodos, como la propagación de la incertidumbre y el ajuste de parámetros por mínimos cuadrados , pueden derivarse analíticamente de forma explícita cuando las variables relevantes se distribuyen normalmente.
Una distribución normal a veces se denomina informalmente curva de campana . [6] Sin embargo, muchas otras distribuciones tienen forma de campana (como las distribuciones de Cauchy , t de Student y logística ).
Definiciones
Distribución normal estándar
El caso más simple de una distribución normal se conoce como distribución normal estándar o distribución normal unitaria . Este es un caso especial cuando y , y se describe mediante esta función de densidad de probabilidad : [1]
Aquí, el factor asegura que el área total bajo la curva es igual a uno. [nota 1] El factoren el exponente asegura que la distribución tenga una unidad de varianza (es decir, que la varianza sea igual a uno) y, por lo tanto, también una unidad de desviación estándar. Esta función es simétrica alrededor, donde alcanza su máximo valor y tiene puntos de inflexión en y .
Los autores difieren en cuanto a qué distribución normal debería denominarse "estándar". Carl Friedrich Gauss , por ejemplo, definió la normal estándar con una varianza de. Es decir:
Por otro lado, Stephen Stigler [7] va incluso más allá, definiendo la normal estándar como una varianza de:
Distribución normal general
Toda distribución normal es una versión de la distribución normal estándar, cuyo dominio ha sido estirado por un factor (la desviación estándar) y luego traducida por (el valor medio):
La densidad de probabilidad se debe escalar por de modo que la integral sigue siendo 1.
Si es una desviación normal estándar , entonces tendrá una distribución normal con valor esperado y desviación estándar . Esto equivale a decir que la distribución normal "estándar" se puede escalar / estirar por un factor de y cambiado por para producir una distribución normal diferente, llamada . Por el contrario, si es una desviación normal con parámetros y , luego esto La distribución se puede reescalar y cambiar a través de la fórmula. para convertirlo a la distribución normal "estándar". Esta variante también se denomina forma estandarizada de.
Notación
La densidad de probabilidad de la distribución gaussiana estándar (distribución normal estándar, con media cero y varianza unitaria) a menudo se denota con la letra griega ( phi ). [8] La forma alternativa de la letra griega phi,, también se utiliza con bastante frecuencia. [1]
La distribución normal a menudo se denomina o . [1] [9] Por lo tanto, cuando una variable aleatoria se distribuye normalmente con media y desviación estándar , uno puede escribir
Parametrizaciones alternativas
Algunos autores abogan por utilizar la precisión como parámetro que define el ancho de la distribución, en lugar de la desviación o la varianza . La precisión se define normalmente como el recíproco de la varianza,. [10] La fórmula para la distribución se convierte en
Se afirma que esta elección tiene ventajas en los cálculos numéricos cuando es muy cercano a cero, y simplifica fórmulas en algunos contextos, como en la inferencia bayesiana de variables con distribución normal multivariante .
Alternativamente, el recíproco de la desviación estándar podría definirse como la precisión , en cuyo caso la expresión de la distribución normal se convierte en
Según Stigler, esta formulación es ventajosa debido a una fórmula mucho más simple y fácil de recordar, y fórmulas aproximadas simples para los cuantiles de la distribución.
Las distribuciones normales forman una familia exponencial con parámetros naturales y y estadísticas naturales x y x 2 . Los parámetros de doble expectativa para la distribución normal son η 1 = μ y η 2 = μ 2 + σ 2 .
Función de distribución acumulativa
La función de distribución acumulada (CDF) de la distribución normal estándar, generalmente denotada con la letra griega mayúscula( phi ), [1] es la integral
La función de error relacionada da la probabilidad de una variable aleatoria, con distribución normal de media 0 y varianza 1/2 dentro del rango . Es decir: [1]
Estas integrales no se pueden expresar en términos de funciones elementales y, a menudo, se dice que son funciones especiales . Sin embargo, se conocen muchas aproximaciones numéricas; ver más abajo para más.
Las dos funciones están estrechamente relacionadas, a saber
Para una distribución normal genérica con densidad , significar y desviación , la función de distribución acumulativa es
El complemento del CDF normal estándar, , a menudo se denomina función Q , especialmente en textos de ingeniería. [11] [12] Da la probabilidad de que el valor de una variable aleatoria normal estándar excederá : . Otras definiciones del-función, todas las cuales son simples transformaciones de , también se utilizan ocasionalmente. [13]
La gráfica del CDF normal estándartiene simetría rotacional doble alrededor del punto (0,1 / 2); es decir,. Su antiderivada (integral indefinida) se puede expresar de la siguiente manera:
El CDF de la distribución normal estándar se puede expandir mediante la integración por partes en una serie:
dónde denota el factorial doble .
También se puede derivar una expansión asintótica de la CDF para x grande usando la integración por partes. Para obtener más información, consulte Función de error # Expansión asintótica . [14]
Se puede encontrar una aproximación rápida a la CDF de la distribución normal estándar utilizando una aproximación en serie de Taylor:
Desviación estándar y cobertura
Aproximadamente el 68% de los valores extraídos de una distribución normal están dentro de una desviación estándar σ de la media; aproximadamente el 95% de los valores se encuentran dentro de dos desviaciones estándar; y aproximadamente el 99,7% están dentro de tres desviaciones estándar. [6] Este hecho se conoce como la regla 68-95-99.7 (empírica) o la regla 3-sigma .
Más precisamente, la probabilidad de que una desviación normal se encuentre en el rango entre y es dado por
A 12 cifras significativas, los valores para son: [15]
OEIS | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0,682 689 492 137 | 0,317 310 507 863 |
| OEIS : A178647 | ||
2 | 0.954 499 736 104 | 0,045 500 263 896 |
| OEIS : A110894 | ||
3 | 0.997 300 203 937 | 0.002 699 796 063 |
| OEIS : A270712 | ||
4 | 0.999 936 657 516 | 0,000 063 342 484 |
| |||
5 | 0,999 999 426 697 | 0,000 000 573 303 |
| |||
6 | 0,999 999 998 027 | 0.000 000 001 973 |
|
Para grande , se puede usar la aproximación .
Función cuantil
La función cuantil de una distribución es la inversa de la función de distribución acumulativa. La función cuantil de la distribución normal estándar se llama función probit y se puede expresar en términos de la función de error inverso :
Para una variable aleatoria normal con media y varianza , la función cuantil es
El cuantil de la distribución normal estándar se denota comúnmente como . Estos valores se utilizan en pruebas de hipótesis , construcción de intervalos de confianza y gráficos QQ . Una variable aleatoria normal excederá con probabilidad , y quedará fuera del intervalo con probabilidad . En particular, el cuantiles 1,96 ; por lo tanto, una variable aleatoria normal estará fuera del intervalo en solo el 5% de los casos.
La siguiente tabla da el cuantil tal que estará en el rango con una probabilidad especificada . Estos valores son útiles para determinar el intervalo de tolerancia para promedios muestrales y otros estimadores estadísticos con distribuciones normales (o asintóticamente normales) :. [16] [17] NOTA: la siguiente tabla muestra, no como se define arriba.
0,80 | 1.281 551 565 545 | 0,999 | 3.290 526 731 492 | |
0,90 | 1.644 853 626 951 | 0,9999 | 3.890 591 886 413 | |
0,95 | 1.959 963 984 540 | 0,99999 | 4.417 173 413 469 | |
0,98 | 2.326 347 874 041 | 0,999999 | 4.891 638 475 699 | |
0,99 | 2.575 829 303 549 | 0,9999999 | 5.326 723 886 384 | |
0,995 | 2.807 033 768 344 | 0,99999999 | 5.730 728 868 236 | |
0,998 | 3.090 232 306 168 | 0,999999999 | 6.109 410 204 869 |
Para pequeños , la función cuantil tiene la útil expansión asintótica
Propiedades
La distribución normal es la única distribución cuyos acumulados más allá de los dos primeros (es decir, distintos de la media y la varianza ) son cero. También es la distribución continua con la máxima entropía para una media y varianza especificadas. [18] [19] Geary ha demostrado, asumiendo que la media y la varianza son finitas, que la distribución normal es la única distribución donde la media y la varianza calculadas a partir de un conjunto de valores independientes son independientes entre sí. [20] [21]
La distribución normal es una subclase de las distribuciones elípticas . La distribución normal es simétrica con respecto a su media y no es cero en toda la línea real. Como tal, puede que no sea un modelo adecuado para variables que son intrínsecamente positivas o muy sesgadas, como el peso de una persona o el precio de una acción . Estas variables pueden describirse mejor mediante otras distribuciones, como la distribución logarítmica normal o la distribución de Pareto .
El valor de la distribución normal es prácticamente cero cuando el valor se encuentra a más de unas pocas desviaciones estándar de la media (por ejemplo, una extensión de tres desviaciones estándar cubre todo menos el 0,27% de la distribución total). Por lo tanto, puede que no sea un modelo apropiado cuando se espera una fracción significativa de valores atípicos ( valores que se encuentran a muchas desviaciones estándar de la media) y los mínimos cuadrados y otros métodos de inferencia estadística que son óptimos para variables distribuidas normalmente a menudo se vuelven muy poco confiables cuando se aplican. a tales datos. En esos casos, se debe suponer una distribución más espesa y se deben aplicar los métodos de inferencia estadística robustos y apropiados .
La distribución gaussiana pertenece a la familia de distribuciones estables que son los atractores de sumas de distribuciones independientes distribuidas de manera idéntica, ya sea que la media o la varianza sean finitas o no. Excepto por el gaussiano, que es un caso límite, todas las distribuciones estables tienen colas pesadas y varianza infinita. Es una de las pocas distribuciones que son estables y que tienen funciones de densidad de probabilidad que se pueden expresar analíticamente, siendo las otras la distribución de Cauchy y la distribución de Lévy .
Simetrías y derivadas
La distribución normal con densidad (significar y desviación estándar ) tiene las siguientes propiedades:
- Es simétrico alrededor del punto. que es al mismo tiempo la moda , la mediana y la media de la distribución. [22]
- Es unimodal : su primera derivada es positiva para negativo para y cero solo en
- El área debajo de la curva y sobre el -eje es la unidad (es decir, igual a uno).
- Su primera derivada es
- Su densidad tiene dos puntos de inflexión (donde la segunda derivada de es cero y cambia de signo), ubicado a una desviación estándar de la media, es decir, en y [22]
- Su densidad es logarítmica-cóncava . [22]
- Su densidad es infinitamente diferenciable , de hecho supersuave de orden 2. [23]
Además, la densidad de la distribución normal estándar (es decir y ) también tiene las siguientes propiedades:
- Su primera derivada es
- Su segunda derivada es
- De manera más general, su n- ésima derivada es dónde es el n- ésimo polinomio de Hermite (probabilista) . [24]
- La probabilidad de que una variable distribuida normalmente con conocido y está en un conjunto particular, se puede calcular utilizando el hecho de que la fracción tiene una distribución normal estándar.
Momentos
Los momentos simples y absolutos de una variable. son los valores esperados de y , respectivamente. Si el valor esperado de es cero, estos parámetros se denominan momentos centrales . Por lo general, solo nos interesan los momentos con orden de números enteros.
Si tiene una distribución normal, estos momentos existen y son finitos para cualquier cuya parte real es mayor que -1. Para cualquier número entero no negativo, los momentos centrales simples son: [25]
Aquí denota el factorial doble , es decir, el producto de todos los números de a 1 que tienen la misma paridad que
Los momentos absolutos centrales coinciden con momentos simples para todos los órdenes pares, pero son distintos de cero para los órdenes impares. Para cualquier número entero no negativo
La última fórmula es válida también para cualquier número no entero Cuando la media los momentos simples y absolutos se pueden expresar en términos de funciones hipergeométricas confluentes y [ cita requerida ]
Estas expresiones siguen siendo válidas incluso si no es un número entero. Ver también polinomios de Hermite generalizados .
Pedido | Momento no central | Momento central |
---|---|---|
1 | ||
2 | ||
3 | ||
4 | ||
5 | ||
6 | ||
7 | ||
8 |
La expectativa de condicionado al evento de que yace en un intervalo es dado por
dónde y respectivamente son la densidad y la función de distribución acumulativa de . Paraesto se conoce como la relación de molinos inversa . Tenga en cuenta que arriba, la densidad de se usa en lugar de la densidad normal estándar como en la relación de Mills inversa, por lo que aquí tenemos en vez de .
Transformada de Fourier y función característica
La transformada de Fourier de densidad normal con media y desviación estándar es [26]
dónde es la unidad imaginaria . Si la media, el primer factor es 1, y la transformada de Fourier es, además de un factor constante, una densidad normal en el dominio de la frecuencia , con media 0 y desviación estándar. En particular, la distribución normal estándares una función propia de la transformada de Fourier.
En la teoría de la probabilidad, la transformada de Fourier de la distribución de probabilidad de una variable aleatoria de valor real está estrechamente relacionado con la función característica de esa variable, que se define como el valor esperado de, en función de la variable real (el parámetro de frecuencia de la transformada de Fourier). Esta definición puede extenderse analíticamente a una variable de valor complejo.. [27] La relación entre ambos es:
Funciones generadoras de momentos y acumulados
La función generadora de momentos de una variable aleatoria real. es el valor esperado de , en función del parámetro real . Para una distribución normal con densidad, significar y desviación , la función generadora de momento existe y es igual a
La función generadora acumulativa es el logaritmo de la función generadora de momentos, a saber
Dado que este es un polinomio cuadrático en , solo los dos primeros acumulados son distintos de cero, es decir, la media y la varianza .
Stein operador y clase
Dentro del método de Stein, el operador de Stein y la clase de una variable aleatoria están y la clase de todas las funciones absolutamente continuas .
Límite de variación cero
En el limite cuando tiende a cero, la densidad de probabilidad eventualmente tiende a cero en cualquier , pero crece sin límite si , mientras que su integral permanece igual a 1. Por lo tanto, la distribución normal no se puede definir como una función ordinaria cuando.
Sin embargo, se puede definir la distribución normal con varianza cero como una función generalizada ; específicamente, como la "función delta" de Dirac traducido por el medio , es decir Su CDF es entonces la función de paso de Heaviside traducida por la media, a saber
Entropía máxima
De todas las distribuciones de probabilidad sobre los reales con una media especificada y varianza , la distribución normal es el que tiene la máxima entropía . [28] Sies una variable aleatoria continua con densidad de probabilidad , entonces la entropía de se define como [29] [30] [31]
dónde se entiende que es cero siempre que . Esta función se puede maximizar, sujeto a las limitaciones de que la distribución esté correctamente normalizada y tenga una varianza específica, mediante el uso de cálculo variacional . Se define una función con dos multiplicadores de Lagrange :
dónde es, por ahora, considerada como una función de densidad con media y desviación estándar .
En la máxima entropía, una pequeña variación acerca de producirá una variación acerca de que es igual a 0:
Dado que esto debe ser válido para cualquier pequeña , el término entre paréntesis debe ser cero y resolver para rinde:
Usando las ecuaciones de restricción para resolver y produce la densidad de la distribución normal:
La entropía de una distribución normal es igual a
Otras propiedades
- Si la función característica de alguna variable aleatoria es de la forma , dónde es un polinomio , entonces el teorema de Marcinkiewicz (llamado así por Józef Marcinkiewicz ) afirma que puede ser como mucho un polinomio cuadrático, y por lo tanto es una variable aleatoria normal. [32] La consecuencia de este resultado es que la distribución normal es la única distribución con un número finito (dos) de acumulados distintos de cero .
- Si y son conjuntamente normales y no correlacionados , entonces son independientes . El requisito de que y debe ser conjuntamente normal es esencial; sin ella la propiedad no se sostiene. [33] [34] [prueba] Para las variables aleatorias no normales, la falta de correlación no implica independencia.
- La divergencia de Kullback-Leibler de una distribución normal de otro viene dado por: [35]
La distancia de Hellinger entre las mismas distribuciones es igual a
- La matriz de información de Fisher para una distribución normal es diagonal y toma la forma
- El conjugado antes de la media de una distribución normal es otra distribución normal. [36] Específicamente, si son iid y el prior es , luego la distribución posterior para el estimador de estarán
- La familia de distribuciones normales no solo forma una familia exponencial (EF), sino que de hecho forma una familia exponencial natural (NEF) con función de varianza cuadrática ( NEF-QVF ). Muchas propiedades de distribuciones normales se generalizan a propiedades de distribuciones NEF-QVF, distribuciones NEF o distribuciones EF en general. Las distribuciones NEF-QVF comprenden 6 familias, incluidas las distribuciones de Poisson, Gamma, binomiales y binomiales negativas, mientras que muchas de las familias comunes estudiadas en probabilidad y estadística son NEF o EF.
- En geometría de la información , la familia de distribuciones normales forma una variedad estadística con curvatura constante . La misma familia es plana con respecto a las (± 1) conexiones ∇ y ∇. [37]
Distribuciones relacionadas
Teorema del límite central
El teorema del límite central establece que bajo ciertas condiciones (bastante comunes), la suma de muchas variables aleatorias tendrá una distribución aproximadamente normal. Más específicamente, dondeson variables aleatorias independientes e idénticamente distribuidas con la misma distribución arbitraria, media cero y varianza y es su media escalada por
Entonces como aumenta, la distribución de probabilidad de tenderá a la distribución normal con media cero y varianza .
El teorema se puede extender a variables que no son independientes y / o no están distribuidos de manera idéntica si se imponen ciertas restricciones sobre el grado de dependencia y los momentos de las distribuciones.
Muchos estadísticos de prueba , puntajes y estimadores que se encuentran en la práctica contienen sumas de ciertas variables aleatorias, e incluso más estimadores pueden representarse como sumas de variables aleatorias mediante el uso de funciones de influencia . El teorema del límite central implica que esos parámetros estadísticos tendrán distribuciones asintóticamente normales.
El teorema del límite central también implica que ciertas distribuciones pueden aproximarse mediante la distribución normal, por ejemplo:
- La distribución binomial es aproximadamente normal con media y varianza para grande y para no demasiado cerca de 0 o 1.
- La distribución de Poisson con parámetro es aproximadamente normal con media y varianza , para grandes valores de . [38]
- La distribución chi-cuadrado es aproximadamente normal con media y varianza , para grande .
- La distribución t de Student es aproximadamente normal con media 0 y varianza 1 cuando es largo.
Si estas aproximaciones son suficientemente precisas depende del propósito para el que se necesitan y de la tasa de convergencia a la distribución normal. Suele darse el caso de que tales aproximaciones sean menos precisas en las colas de la distribución.
Un límite superior general para el error de aproximación en el teorema del límite central viene dado por el teorema de Berry-Esseen , las mejoras de la aproximación están dadas por las expansiones de Edgeworth .
Este teorema también se puede utilizar para justificar el modelado de la suma de muchas fuentes de ruido uniforme como ruido gaussiano. Ver AWGN .
Operaciones y funciones de variables normales
La densidad de probabilidad , la distribución acumulada y la distribución acumulada inversa de cualquier función de una o más variables normales independientes o correlacionadas se pueden calcular con el método numérico de trazado de rayos [39] ( código Matlab ). En las siguientes secciones veremos algunos casos especiales.
Operaciones en una sola variable normal
Si X se distribuye normalmente con media μ y varianza σ 2 , entonces
- , para cualquier número real y , también se distribuye normalmente, con media y desviación estándar . Es decir, la familia de distribuciones normales se cierra bajo transformaciones lineales.
- La exponencial de X se distribuye log-normalmente : e X ~ ln ( N ( μ , σ 2 )) .
- El valor absoluto de X ha plegado la distribución normal : | X | ~ N f ( μ , σ 2 ) . Si μ = 0, esto se conoce como distribución media normal .
- El valor absoluto de los residuos normalizados, | X - μ | / σ , tiene distribución chi con un grado de libertad: | X - μ | / σ ~.
- El cuadrado de X / σ tiene la distribución chi-cuadrado no central con un grado de libertad: X 2 / σ 2 ~( μ 2 / σ 2 ) . Si μ = 0, la distribución se llama simplemente chi-cuadrado .
- La probabilidad logarítmica de una variable normal es simplemente el logaritmo de su función de densidad de probabilidad :
Dado que este es un cuadrado escalado y desplazado de una variable normal estándar, se distribuye como una variable chi-cuadrado escalada y desplazada .
- La distribución de la variable X restringida a un intervalo [ a , b ] se denomina distribución normal truncada .
- ( X - μ ) −2 tiene una distribución de Lévy con ubicación 0 y escala σ −2 .
Operaciones sobre dos variables normales independientes
- Si y son dos variables aleatorias normales independientes , con medias, y desviaciones estándar , , luego su suma también se distribuirá normalmente, [prueba] con media y varianza .
- En particular, si y son desviaciones normales independientes con media cero y varianza , luego y también son independientes y tienen una distribución normal, con media y varianza cero . Este es un caso especial de la identidad de polarización . [40]
- Si , son dos desviaciones normales independientes con media y desviación , y , son números reales arbitrarios, entonces la variable
también se distribuye normalmente con media y desviación . De ello se deduce que la distribución normal es estable (con exponente).
Operaciones sobre dos variables normales estándar independientes
Si y son dos variables aleatorias normales estándar independientes con media 0 y varianza 1, entonces
- Su suma y diferencia se distribuye normalmente con media cero y varianza dos: .
- Su producto sigue la distribución del producto [41] con función de densidad dónde es la función de Bessel modificada del segundo tipo . Esta distribución es simétrica alrededor de cero, ilimitada en, y tiene la función característica .
- Su relación sigue la distribución estándar de Cauchy :.
- Su norma euclidiana tiene la distribución de Rayleigh .
Operaciones sobre múltiples variables normales independientes
- Cualquier combinación lineal de desviaciones normales independientes es una desviación normal.
- Si son variables aleatorias normales estándar independientes, entonces la suma de sus cuadrados tiene la distribución chi-cuadrado con grados de libertad
- Si son variables aleatorias independientes distribuidas normalmente con medias y variaciones , entonces su media muestral es independiente de la desviación estándar muestral , [42] que se puede demostrar usando el teorema de Basu o el teorema de Cochran . [43] La razón de estas dos cantidades tendrá la distribución t de Student con grados de libertad:
- Si , son variables aleatorias normales estándar independientes, entonces la razón de sus sumas de cuadrados normalizados tendrá la distribución F con ( n , m ) grados de libertad: [44]
- Una forma cuadrática de un vector normal, es decir, una función cuadráticade múltiples variables normales independientes o correlacionadas, es una variable chi-cuadrado generalizada .
Operaciones sobre la función de densidad
La distribución normal dividida se define más directamente en términos de unir secciones escaladas de las funciones de densidad de diferentes distribuciones normales y reescalar la densidad para integrarla en una. La distribución normal truncada resulta de cambiar la escala de una sección de una función de densidad única.
Divisibilidad infinita y teorema de Cramér
Para cualquier entero positivo , cualquier distribución normal con media y varianza es la distribución de la suma de desvíos normales independientes, cada uno con media y varianza . Esta propiedad se llama divisibilidad infinita . [45]
Por el contrario, si y son variables aleatorias independientes y su suma tiene una distribución normal, entonces ambos y deben ser desviaciones normales. [46]
Este resultado se conoce como teorema de descomposición de Cramér , y equivale a decir que la convolución de dos distribuciones es normal si y solo si ambas son normales. El teorema de Cramér implica que una combinación lineal de variables independientes no gaussianas nunca tendrá una distribución exactamente normal, aunque puede acercarse a ella de manera arbitraria. [32]
Teorema de bernstein
El teorema de Bernstein establece que si y son independientes y y también son independientes, entonces tanto X como Y deben tener necesariamente distribuciones normales. [47] [48]
De manera más general, si are independent random variables, then two distinct linear combinations and will be independent if and only if all are normal and , where denotes the variance of .[47]
Extensions
The notion of normal distribution, being one of the most important distributions in probability theory, has been extended far beyond the standard framework of the univariate (that is one-dimensional) case (Case 1). All these extensions are also called normal or Gaussian laws, so a certain ambiguity in names exists.
- The multivariate normal distribution describes the Gaussian law in the k-dimensional Euclidean space. A vector X ∈ Rk is multivariate-normally distributed if any linear combination of its components ∑k
j=1aj Xj has a (univariate) normal distribution. The variance of X is a k×k symmetric positive-definite matrix V. The multivariate normal distribution is a special case of the elliptical distributions. As such, its iso-density loci in the k = 2 case are ellipses and in the case of arbitrary k are ellipsoids. - Rectified Gaussian distribution a rectified version of normal distribution with all the negative elements reset to 0
- Complex normal distribution deals with the complex normal vectors. A complex vector X ∈ Ck is said to be normal if both its real and imaginary components jointly possess a 2k-dimensional multivariate normal distribution. The variance-covariance structure of X is described by two matrices: the variance matrix Γ, and the relation matrix C.
- Matrix normal distribution describes the case of normally distributed matrices.
- Gaussian processes are the normally distributed stochastic processes. These can be viewed as elements of some infinite-dimensional Hilbert space H, and thus are the analogues of multivariate normal vectors for the case k = ∞. A random element h ∈ H is said to be normal if for any constant a ∈ H the scalar product (a, h) has a (univariate) normal distribution. The variance structure of such Gaussian random element can be described in terms of the linear covariance operator K: H → H. Several Gaussian processes became popular enough to have their own names:
- Brownian motion,
- Brownian bridge,
- Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process.
- Gaussian q-distribution is an abstract mathematical construction that represents a "q-analogue" of the normal distribution.
- the q-Gaussian is an analogue of the Gaussian distribution, in the sense that it maximises the Tsallis entropy, and is one type of Tsallis distribution. Note that this distribution is different from the Gaussian q-distribution above.
A random variable X has a two-piece normal distribution if it has a distribution
where μ is the mean and σ1 and σ2 are the standard deviations of the distribution to the left and right of the mean respectively.
The mean, variance and third central moment of this distribution have been determined[49]
where E(X), V(X) and T(X) are the mean, variance, and third central moment respectively.
One of the main practical uses of the Gaussian law is to model the empirical distributions of many different random variables encountered in practice. In such case a possible extension would be a richer family of distributions, having more than two parameters and therefore being able to fit the empirical distribution more accurately. The examples of such extensions are:
- Pearson distribution — a four-parameter family of probability distributions that extend the normal law to include different skewness and kurtosis values.
- The generalized normal distribution, also known as the exponential power distribution, allows for distribution tails with thicker or thinner asymptotic behaviors.
Inferencia estadística
Estimation of parameters
It is often the case that we do not know the parameters of the normal distribution, but instead want to estimate them. That is, having a sample from a normal population we would like to learn the approximate values of parameters and . The standard approach to this problem is the maximum likelihood method, which requires maximization of the log-likelihood function:
Taking derivatives with respect to and and solving the resulting system of first order conditions yields the maximum likelihood estimates:
Sample mean
Estimator is called the sample mean, since it is the arithmetic mean of all observations. The statistic is complete and sufficient for , and therefore by the Lehmann–Scheffé theorem, is the uniformly minimum variance unbiased (UMVU) estimator.[50] In finite samples it is distributed normally:
The variance of this estimator is equal to the μμ-element of the inverse Fisher information matrix . This implies that the estimator is finite-sample efficient. Of practical importance is the fact that the standard error of is proportional to , that is, if one wishes to decrease the standard error by a factor of 10, one must increase the number of points in the sample by a factor of 100. This fact is widely used in determining sample sizes for opinion polls and the number of trials in Monte Carlo simulations.
From the standpoint of the asymptotic theory, is consistent, that is, it converges in probability to as . The estimator is also asymptotically normal, which is a simple corollary of the fact that it is normal in finite samples:
Sample variance
The estimator is called the sample variance, since it is the variance of the sample (). In practice, another estimator is often used instead of the . This other estimator is denoted , and is also called the sample variance, which represents a certain ambiguity in terminology; its square root is called the sample standard deviation. The estimator differs from by having (n − 1) instead of n in the denominator (the so-called Bessel's correction):
The difference between and becomes negligibly small for large n's. In finite samples however, the motivation behind the use of is that it is an unbiased estimator of the underlying parameter , whereas is biased. Also, by the Lehmann–Scheffé theorem the estimator is uniformly minimum variance unbiased (UMVU),[50] which makes it the "best" estimator among all unbiased ones. However it can be shown that the biased estimator is "better" than the in terms of the mean squared error (MSE) criterion. In finite samples both and have scaled chi-squared distribution with (n − 1) degrees of freedom:
The first of these expressions shows that the variance of is equal to , which is slightly greater than the σσ-element of the inverse Fisher information matrix . Thus, is not an efficient estimator for , and moreover, since is UMVU, we can conclude that the finite-sample efficient estimator for does not exist.
Applying the asymptotic theory, both estimators and are consistent, that is they converge in probability to as the sample size . The two estimators are also both asymptotically normal:
In particular, both estimators are asymptotically efficient for .
Confidence intervals
By Cochran's theorem, for normal distributions the sample mean and the sample variance s2 are independent, which means there can be no gain in considering their joint distribution. There is also a converse theorem: if in a sample the sample mean and sample variance are independent, then the sample must have come from the normal distribution. The independence between and s can be employed to construct the so-called t-statistic:
This quantity t has the Student's t-distribution with (n − 1) degrees of freedom, and it is an ancillary statistic (independent of the value of the parameters). Inverting the distribution of this t-statistics will allow us to construct the confidence interval for μ;[51] similarly, inverting the χ2 distribution of the statistic s2 will give us the confidence interval for σ2:[52]
where tk,p and χ 2
k,p are the pth quantiles of the t- and χ2-distributions respectively. These confidence intervals are of the confidence level 1 − α, meaning that the true values μ and σ2 fall outside of these intervals with probability (or significance level) α. In practice people usually take α = 5%, resulting in the 95% confidence intervals. The approximate formulas in the display above were derived from the asymptotic distributions of and s2. The approximate formulas become valid for large values of n, and are more convenient for the manual calculation since the standard normal quantiles zα/2 do not depend on n. In particular, the most popular value of α = 5%, results in |z0.025| = 1.96.
Normality tests
Normality tests assess the likelihood that the given data set {x1, ..., xn} comes from a normal distribution. Typically the null hypothesis H0 is that the observations are distributed normally with unspecified mean μ and variance σ2, versus the alternative Ha that the distribution is arbitrary. Many tests (over 40) have been devised for this problem, the more prominent of them are outlined below:
Diagnostic plots are more intuitively appealing but subjective at the same time, as they rely on informal human judgement to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
- Q-Q plot, also known as normal probability plot or rankit plot— is a plot of the sorted values from the data set against the expected values of the corresponding quantiles from the standard normal distribution. That is, it's a plot of point of the form (Φ−1(pk), x(k)), where plotting points pk are equal to pk = (k − α)/(n + 1 − 2α) and α is an adjustment constant, which can be anything between 0 and 1. If the null hypothesis is true, the plotted points should approximately lie on a straight line.
- P-P plot— similar to the Q-Q plot, but used much less frequently. This method consists of plotting the points (Φ(z(k)), pk), where . For normally distributed data this plot should lie on a 45° line between (0, 0) and (1, 1).
Goodness-of-fit tests:
Moment-based tests:
- D'Agostino's K-squared test
- Jarque–Bera test
- Shapiro-Wilk test: This is based on the fact that the line in the Q-Q plot has the slope of σ. The test compares the least squares estimate of that slope with the value of the sample variance, and rejects the null hypothesis if these two quantities differ significantly.
Tests based on the empirical distribution function:
- Anderson–Darling test
- Lilliefors test (an adaptation of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test)
Bayesian analysis of the normal distribution
Bayesian analysis of normally distributed data is complicated by the many different possibilities that may be considered:
- Either the mean, or the variance, or neither, may be considered a fixed quantity.
- When the variance is unknown, analysis may be done directly in terms of the variance, or in terms of the precision, the reciprocal of the variance. The reason for expressing the formulas in terms of precision is that the analysis of most cases is simplified.
- Both univariate and multivariate cases need to be considered.
- Either conjugate or improper prior distributions may be placed on the unknown variables.
- An additional set of cases occurs in Bayesian linear regression, where in the basic model the data is assumed to be normally distributed, and normal priors are placed on the regression coefficients. The resulting analysis is similar to the basic cases of independent identically distributed data.
The formulas for the non-linear-regression cases are summarized in the conjugate prior article.
Sum of two quadratics
Scalar form
The following auxiliary formula is useful for simplifying the posterior update equations, which otherwise become fairly tedious.
This equation rewrites the sum of two quadratics in x by expanding the squares, grouping the terms in x, and completing the square. Note the following about the complex constant factors attached to some of the terms:
- The factor has the form of a weighted average of y and z.
- This shows that this factor can be thought of as resulting from a situation where the reciprocals of quantities a and b add directly, so to combine a and b themselves, it's necessary to reciprocate, add, and reciprocate the result again to get back into the original units. This is exactly the sort of operation performed by the harmonic mean, so it is not surprising that is one-half the harmonic mean of a and b.
Vector form
A similar formula can be written for the sum of two vector quadratics: If x, y, z are vectors of length k, and A and B are symmetric, invertible matrices of size , then
where
Note that the form x′ A x is called a quadratic form and is a scalar:
In other words, it sums up all possible combinations of products of pairs of elements from x, with a separate coefficient for each. In addition, since , only the sum matters for any off-diagonal elements of A, and there is no loss of generality in assuming that A is symmetric. Furthermore, if A is symmetric, then the form
Sum of differences from the mean
Another useful formula is as follows:
where
With known variance
For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with known variance σ2, the conjugate prior distribution is also normally distributed.
This can be shown more easily by rewriting the variance as the precision, i.e. using τ = 1/σ2. Then if and we proceed as follows.
First, the likelihood function is (using the formula above for the sum of differences from the mean):
Then, we proceed as follows:
In the above derivation, we used the formula above for the sum of two quadratics and eliminated all constant factors not involving μ. The result is the kernel of a normal distribution, with mean and precision , i.e.
This can be written as a set of Bayesian update equations for the posterior parameters in terms of the prior parameters:
That is, to combine n data points with total precision of nτ (or equivalently, total variance of n/σ2) and mean of values , derive a new total precision simply by adding the total precision of the data to the prior total precision, and form a new mean through a precision-weighted average, i.e. a weighted average of the data mean and the prior mean, each weighted by the associated total precision. This makes logical sense if the precision is thought of as indicating the certainty of the observations: In the distribution of the posterior mean, each of the input components is weighted by its certainty, and the certainty of this distribution is the sum of the individual certainties. (For the intuition of this, compare the expression "the whole is (or is not) greater than the sum of its parts". In addition, consider that the knowledge of the posterior comes from a combination of the knowledge of the prior and likelihood, so it makes sense that we are more certain of it than of either of its components.)
The above formula reveals why it is more convenient to do Bayesian analysis of conjugate priors for the normal distribution in terms of the precision. The posterior precision is simply the sum of the prior and likelihood precisions, and the posterior mean is computed through a precision-weighted average, as described above. The same formulas can be written in terms of variance by reciprocating all the precisions, yielding the more ugly formulas
With known mean
For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with known mean μ, the conjugate prior of the variance has an inverse gamma distribution or a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution. The two are equivalent except for having different parameterizations. Although the inverse gamma is more commonly used, we use the scaled inverse chi-squared for the sake of convenience. The prior for σ2 is as follows:
The likelihood function from above, written in terms of the variance, is:
where
Then:
The above is also a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution where
or equivalently
Reparameterizing in terms of an inverse gamma distribution, the result is:
With unknown mean and unknown variance
For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with unknown mean μ and unknown variance σ2, a combined (multivariate) conjugate prior is placed over the mean and variance, consisting of a normal-inverse-gamma distribution. Logically, this originates as follows:
- From the analysis of the case with unknown mean but known variance, we see that the update equations involve sufficient statistics computed from the data consisting of the mean of the data points and the total variance of the data points, computed in turn from the known variance divided by the number of data points.
- From the analysis of the case with unknown variance but known mean, we see that the update equations involve sufficient statistics over the data consisting of the number of data points and sum of squared deviations.
- Keep in mind that the posterior update values serve as the prior distribution when further data is handled. Thus, we should logically think of our priors in terms of the sufficient statistics just described, with the same semantics kept in mind as much as possible.
- To handle the case where both mean and variance are unknown, we could place independent priors over the mean and variance, with fixed estimates of the average mean, total variance, number of data points used to compute the variance prior, and sum of squared deviations. Note however that in reality, the total variance of the mean depends on the unknown variance, and the sum of squared deviations that goes into the variance prior (appears to) depend on the unknown mean. In practice, the latter dependence is relatively unimportant: Shifting the actual mean shifts the generated points by an equal amount, and on average the squared deviations will remain the same. This is not the case, however, with the total variance of the mean: As the unknown variance increases, the total variance of the mean will increase proportionately, and we would like to capture this dependence.
- This suggests that we create a conditional prior of the mean on the unknown variance, with a hyperparameter specifying the mean of the pseudo-observations associated with the prior, and another parameter specifying the number of pseudo-observations. This number serves as a scaling parameter on the variance, making it possible to control the overall variance of the mean relative to the actual variance parameter. The prior for the variance also has two hyperparameters, one specifying the sum of squared deviations of the pseudo-observations associated with the prior, and another specifying once again the number of pseudo-observations. Note that each of the priors has a hyperparameter specifying the number of pseudo-observations, and in each case this controls the relative variance of that prior. These are given as two separate hyperparameters so that the variance (aka the confidence) of the two priors can be controlled separately.
- This leads immediately to the normal-inverse-gamma distribution, which is the product of the two distributions just defined, with conjugate priors used (an inverse gamma distribution over the variance, and a normal distribution over the mean, conditional on the variance) and with the same four parameters just defined.
The priors are normally defined as follows:
The update equations can be derived, and look as follows:
The respective numbers of pseudo-observations add the number of actual observations to them. The new mean hyperparameter is once again a weighted average, this time weighted by the relative numbers of observations. Finally, the update for is similar to the case with known mean, but in this case the sum of squared deviations is taken with respect to the observed data mean rather than the true mean, and as a result a new "interaction term" needs to be added to take care of the additional error source stemming from the deviation between prior and data mean.
The prior distributions are
Therefore, the joint prior is
The likelihood function from the section above with known variance is:
Writing it in terms of variance rather than precision, we get:
where
Therefore, the posterior is (dropping the hyperparameters as conditioning factors):
In other words, the posterior distribution has the form of a product of a normal distribution over p(μ | σ2) times an inverse gamma distribution over p(σ2), with parameters that are the same as the update equations above.
Ocurrencia y aplicaciones
The occurrence of normal distribution in practical problems can be loosely classified into four categories:
- Exactly normal distributions;
- Approximately normal laws, for example when such approximation is justified by the central limit theorem; and
- Distributions modeled as normal – the normal distribution being the distribution with maximum entropy for a given mean and variance.
- Regression problems – the normal distribution being found after systematic effects have been modeled sufficiently well.
Exact normality
Certain quantities in physics are distributed normally, as was first demonstrated by James Clerk Maxwell. Examples of such quantities are:
- Probability density function of a ground state in a quantum harmonic oscillator.
- The position of a particle that experiences diffusion. If initially the particle is located at a specific point (that is its probability distribution is the Dirac delta function), then after time t its location is described by a normal distribution with variance t, which satisfies the diffusion equation . If the initial location is given by a certain density function , then the density at time t is the convolution of g and the normal PDF.
Approximate normality
Approximately normal distributions occur in many situations, as explained by the central limit theorem. When the outcome is produced by many small effects acting additively and independently, its distribution will be close to normal. The normal approximation will not be valid if the effects act multiplicatively (instead of additively), or if there is a single external influence that has a considerably larger magnitude than the rest of the effects.
- In counting problems, where the central limit theorem includes a discrete-to-continuum approximation and where infinitely divisible and decomposable distributions are involved, such as
- Binomial random variables, associated with binary response variables;
- Poisson random variables, associated with rare events;
- Thermal radiation has a Bose–Einstein distribution on very short time scales, and a normal distribution on longer timescales due to the central limit theorem.
Assumed normality
I can only recognize the occurrence of the normal curve – the Laplacian curve of errors – as a very abnormal phenomenon. It is roughly approximated to in certain distributions; for this reason, and on account for its beautiful simplicity, we may, perhaps, use it as a first approximation, particularly in theoretical investigations.
— Pearson (1901)
There are statistical methods to empirically test that assumption, see the above Normality tests section.
- In biology, the logarithm of various variables tend to have a normal distribution, that is, they tend to have a log-normal distribution (after separation on male/female subpopulations), with examples including:
- Measures of size of living tissue (length, height, skin area, weight);[53]
- The length of inert appendages (hair, claws, nails, teeth) of biological specimens, in the direction of growth; presumably the thickness of tree bark also falls under this category;
- Certain physiological measurements, such as blood pressure of adult humans.
- In finance, in particular the Black–Scholes model, changes in the logarithm of exchange rates, price indices, and stock market indices are assumed normal (these variables behave like compound interest, not like simple interest, and so are multiplicative). Some mathematicians such as Benoit Mandelbrot have argued that log-Levy distributions, which possesses heavy tails would be a more appropriate model, in particular for the analysis for stock market crashes. The use of the assumption of normal distribution occurring in financial models has also been criticized by Nassim Nicholas Taleb in his works.
- Measurement errors in physical experiments are often modeled by a normal distribution. This use of a normal distribution does not imply that one is assuming the measurement errors are normally distributed, rather using the normal distribution produces the most conservative predictions possible given only knowledge about the mean and variance of the errors.[54]
- In standardized testing, results can be made to have a normal distribution by either selecting the number and difficulty of questions (as in the IQ test) or transforming the raw test scores into "output" scores by fitting them to the normal distribution. For example, the SAT's traditional range of 200–800 is based on a normal distribution with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100.
- Many scores are derived from the normal distribution, including percentile ranks ("percentiles" or "quantiles"), normal curve equivalents, stanines, z-scores, and T-scores. Additionally, some behavioral statistical procedures assume that scores are normally distributed; for example, t-tests and ANOVAs. Bell curve grading assigns relative grades based on a normal distribution of scores.
- In hydrology the distribution of long duration river discharge or rainfall, e.g. monthly and yearly totals, is often thought to be practically normal according to the central limit theorem.[55] The blue picture, made with CumFreq, illustrates an example of fitting the normal distribution to ranked October rainfalls showing the 90% confidence belt based on the binomial distribution. The rainfall data are represented by plotting positions as part of the cumulative frequency analysis.
Methodological problems and peer review
John Ioannidis argues that using normally distributed standard deviations as standards for validating research findings leave falsifiable predictions about phenomena that are not normally distributed untested. This includes, for example, phenomena that only appear when all necessary conditions are present and one cannot be a substitute for another in an addition-like way and phenomena that are not randomly distributed. Ioannidis argues that standard deviation-centered validation gives a false appearance of validity to hypotheses and theories where some but not all falsifiable predictions are normally distributed since the portion of falsifiable predictions that there is evidence against may and in some cases are in the non-normally distributed parts of the range of faslsifiable predictions, as well as baselessly dismissing hypotheses for which none of the falsifiable predictions are normally distributed as if were they unfalsifiable when in fact they do make falsifiable predictions. It is argued by Ioannidis that many cases of mutually exclusive theories being accepted as "validated" by research journals are caused by failure of the journals to take in empirical falsifications of non-normally distributed predictions, and not because mutually exclusive theories are true which they cannot be although two mutually exclusive theories can both be wrong and a third one correct.[56]
Métodos computacionales
Generating values from normal distribution
In computer simulations, especially in applications of the Monte-Carlo method, it is often desirable to generate values that are normally distributed. The algorithms listed below all generate the standard normal deviates, since a N(μ, σ2
) can be generated as X = μ + σZ, where Z is standard normal. All these algorithms rely on the availability of a random number generator U capable of producing uniform random variates.
- The most straightforward method is based on the probability integral transform property: if U is distributed uniformly on (0,1), then Φ−1(U) will have the standard normal distribution. The drawback of this method is that it relies on calculation of the probit function Φ−1, which cannot be done analytically. Some approximate methods are described in Hart (1968) and in the erf article. Wichura gives a fast algorithm for computing this function to 16 decimal places,[57] which is used by R to compute random variates of the normal distribution.
- An easy to program approximate approach, that relies on the central limit theorem, is as follows: generate 12 uniform U(0,1) deviates, add them all up, and subtract 6 – the resulting random variable will have approximately standard normal distribution. In truth, the distribution will be Irwin–Hall, which is a 12-section eleventh-order polynomial approximation to the normal distribution. This random deviate will have a limited range of (−6, 6).[58]
- The Box–Muller method uses two independent random numbers U and V distributed uniformly on (0,1). Then the two random variables X and Y
- will both have the standard normal distribution, and will be independent. This formulation arises because for a bivariate normal random vector ( X, Y) the squared norm X2 + Y2 will have the chi-squared distribution with two degrees of freedom, which is an easily generated exponential random variable corresponding to the quantity −2ln( U) in these equations; and the angle is distributed uniformly around the circle, chosen by the random variable V.
- The Marsaglia polar method is a modification of the Box–Muller method which does not require computation of the sine and cosine functions. In this method, U and V are drawn from the uniform (−1,1) distribution, and then S = U2 + V2 is computed. If S is greater or equal to 1, then the method starts over, otherwise the two quantities
- are returned. Again, X and Y are independent, standard normal random variables.
- The Ratio method[59] is a rejection method. The algorithm proceeds as follows:
- Generate two independent uniform deviates U and V;
- Compute X = √8/e (V − 0.5)/U;
- Optional: if X2 ≤ 5 − 4e1/4U then accept X and terminate algorithm;
- Optional: if X2 ≥ 4e−1.35/U + 1.4 then reject X and start over from step 1;
- If X2 ≤ −4 lnU then accept X, otherwise start over the algorithm.
- The two optional steps allow the evaluation of the logarithm in the last step to be avoided in most cases. These steps can be greatly improved [60] so that the logarithm is rarely evaluated.
- The ziggurat algorithm[61] is faster than the Box–Muller transform and still exact. In about 97% of all cases it uses only two random numbers, one random integer and one random uniform, one multiplication and an if-test. Only in 3% of the cases, where the combination of those two falls outside the "core of the ziggurat" (a kind of rejection sampling using logarithms), do exponentials and more uniform random numbers have to be employed.
- Integer arithmetic can be used to sample from the standard normal distribution.[62] This method is exact in the sense that it satisfies the conditions of ideal approximation;[63] i.e., it is equivalent to sampling a real number from the standard normal distribution and rounding this to the nearest representable floating point number.
- There is also some investigation[64] into the connection between the fast Hadamard transform and the normal distribution, since the transform employs just addition and subtraction and by the central limit theorem random numbers from almost any distribution will be transformed into the normal distribution. In this regard a series of Hadamard transforms can be combined with random permutations to turn arbitrary data sets into a normally distributed data.
Numerical approximations for the normal CDF and normal quantile function
The standard normal CDF is widely used in scientific and statistical computing.
The values Φ(x) may be approximated very accurately by a variety of methods, such as numerical integration, Taylor series, asymptotic series and continued fractions. Different approximations are used depending on the desired level of accuracy.
- Zelen & Severo (1964) give the approximation for Φ(x) for x > 0 with the absolute error |ε(x)| < 7.5·10−8 (algorithm 26.2.17):
- Hart (1968) lists some dozens of approximations – by means of rational functions, with or without exponentials – for the erfc() function. His algorithms vary in the degree of complexity and the resulting precision, with maximum absolute precision of 24 digits. An algorithm by West (2009) combines Hart's algorithm 5666 with a continued fraction approximation in the tail to provide a fast computation algorithm with a 16-digit precision.
- Cody (1969) after recalling Hart68 solution is not suited for erf, gives a solution for both erf and erfc, with maximal relative error bound, via Rational Chebyshev Approximation.
- Marsaglia (2004) suggested a simple algorithm[note 2] based on the Taylor series expansion
- The GNU Scientific Library calculates values of the standard normal CDF using Hart's algorithms and approximations with Chebyshev polynomials.
Shore (1982) introduced simple approximations that may be incorporated in stochastic optimization models of engineering and operations research, like reliability engineering and inventory analysis. Denoting p=Φ(z), the simplest approximation for the quantile function is:
This approximation delivers for z a maximum absolute error of 0.026 (for 0.5 ≤ p ≤ 0.9999, corresponding to 0 ≤ z ≤ 3.725). For p < 1/2 replace p by 1 − p and change sign. Another approximation, somewhat less accurate, is the single-parameter approximation:
The latter had served to derive a simple approximation for the loss integral of the normal distribution, defined by
This approximation is particularly accurate for the right far-tail (maximum error of 10−3 for z≥1.4). Highly accurate approximations for the CDF, based on Response Modeling Methodology (RMM, Shore, 2011, 2012), are shown in Shore (2005).
Some more approximations can be found at: Error function#Approximation with elementary functions. In particular, small relative error on the whole domain for the CDF and the quantile function as well, is achieved via an explicitly invertible formula by Sergei Winitzki in 2008.
Historia
Development
Some authors[65][66] attribute the credit for the discovery of the normal distribution to de Moivre, who in 1738[note 3] published in the second edition of his "The Doctrine of Chances" the study of the coefficients in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n. De Moivre proved that the middle term in this expansion has the approximate magnitude of , and that "If m or ½n be a Quantity infinitely great, then the Logarithm of the Ratio, which a Term distant from the middle by the Interval ℓ, has to the middle Term, is ."[67] Although this theorem can be interpreted as the first obscure expression for the normal probability law, Stigler points out that de Moivre himself did not interpret his results as anything more than the approximate rule for the binomial coefficients, and in particular de Moivre lacked the concept of the probability density function.[68]
In 1823 Gauss published his monograph "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae" where among other things he introduces several important statistical concepts, such as the method of least squares, the method of maximum likelihood, and the normal distribution. Gauss used M, M′, M′′, ... to denote the measurements of some unknown quantity V, and sought the "most probable" estimator of that quantity: the one that maximizes the probability φ(M − V) · φ(M′ − V) · φ(M′′ − V) · ... of obtaining the observed experimental results. In his notation φΔ is the probability law of the measurement errors of magnitude Δ. Not knowing what the function φ is, Gauss requires that his method should reduce to the well-known answer: the arithmetic mean of the measured values.[note 4] Starting from these principles, Gauss demonstrates that the only law that rationalizes the choice of arithmetic mean as an estimator of the location parameter, is the normal law of errors:[69]
where h is "the measure of the precision of the observations". Using this normal law as a generic model for errors in the experiments, Gauss formulates what is now known as the non-linear weighted least squares (NWLS) method.[70]
Although Gauss was the first to suggest the normal distribution law, Laplace made significant contributions.[note 5] It was Laplace who first posed the problem of aggregating several observations in 1774,[71] although his own solution led to the Laplacian distribution. It was Laplace who first calculated the value of the integral ∫ e−t2 dt = √π in 1782, providing the normalization constant for the normal distribution.[72] Finally, it was Laplace who in 1810 proved and presented to the Academy the fundamental central limit theorem, which emphasized the theoretical importance of the normal distribution.[73]
It is of interest to note that in 1809 an Irish mathematician Adrain published two derivations of the normal probability law, simultaneously and independently from Gauss.[74] His works remained largely unnoticed by the scientific community, until in 1871 they were "rediscovered" by Abbe.[75]
In the middle of the 19th century Maxwell demonstrated that the normal distribution is not just a convenient mathematical tool, but may also occur in natural phenomena:[76] "The number of particles whose velocity, resolved in a certain direction, lies between x and x + dx is
Naming
Since its introduction, the normal distribution has been known by many different names: the law of error, the law of facility of errors, Laplace's second law, Gaussian law, etc. Gauss himself apparently coined the term with reference to the "normal equations" involved in its applications, with normal having its technical meaning of orthogonal rather than "usual".[77] However, by the end of the 19th century some authors[note 6] had started using the name normal distribution, where the word "normal" was used as an adjective – the term now being seen as a reflection of the fact that this distribution was seen as typical, common – and thus "normal". Peirce (one of those authors) once defined "normal" thus: "...the 'normal' is not the average (or any other kind of mean) of what actually occurs, but of what would, in the long run, occur under certain circumstances."[78] Around the turn of the 20th century Pearson popularized the term normal as a designation for this distribution.[79]
Many years ago I called the Laplace–Gaussian curve the normal curve, which name, while it avoids an international question of priority, has the disadvantage of leading people to believe that all other distributions of frequency are in one sense or another 'abnormal'.
— Pearson (1920)
Also, it was Pearson who first wrote the distribution in terms of the standard deviation σ as in modern notation. Soon after this, in year 1915, Fisher added the location parameter to the formula for normal distribution, expressing it in the way it is written nowadays:
The term "standard normal", which denotes the normal distribution with zero mean and unit variance came into general use around the 1950s, appearing in the popular textbooks by P.G. Hoel (1947) "Introduction to mathematical statistics" and A.M. Mood (1950) "Introduction to the theory of statistics".[80]
Ver también
- Bates distribution — similar to the Irwin–Hall distribution, but rescaled back into the 0 to 1 range
- Behrens–Fisher problem — the long-standing problem of testing whether two normal samples with different variances have same means;
- Bhattacharyya distance – method used to separate mixtures of normal distributions
- Erdős–Kac theorem—on the occurrence of the normal distribution in number theory
- Gaussian blur—convolution, which uses the normal distribution as a kernel
- Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent
- Reciprocal normal distribution
- Ratio normal distribution
- Standard normal table
- Stein's lemma
- Sub-Gaussian distribution
- Sum of normally distributed random variables
- Tweedie distribution — The normal distribution is a member of the family of Tweedie exponential dispersion models
- Wrapped normal distribution — the Normal distribution applied to a circular domain
- Z-test— using the normal distribution
Notas
- ^ For the proof see Gaussian integral.
- ^ For example, this algorithm is given in the article Bc programming language.
- ^ De Moivre first published his findings in 1733, in a pamphlet "Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem Expansi" that was designated for private circulation only. But it was not until the year 1738 that he made his results publicly available. The original pamphlet was reprinted several times, see for example Walker (1985).
- ^ "It has been customary certainly to regard as an axiom the hypothesis that if any quantity has been determined by several direct observations, made under the same circumstances and with equal care, the arithmetical mean of the observed values affords the most probable value, if not rigorously, yet very nearly at least, so that it is always most safe to adhere to it." — Gauss (1809, section 177)
- ^ "My custom of terming the curve the Gauss–Laplacian or normal curve saves us from proportioning the merit of discovery between the two great astronomer mathematicians." quote from Pearson (1905, p. 189)
- ^ Besides those specifically referenced here, such use is encountered in the works of Peirce, Galton (Galton (1889, chapter V)) and Lexis (Lexis (1878), Rohrbasser & Véron (2003)) c. 1875.[citation needed]
Referencias
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f "List of Probability and Statistics Symbols". Math Vault. April 26, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
- ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Normal Distribution". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
- ^ Normal Distribution, Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology
- ^ Casella & Berger (2001, p. 102)
- ^ Lyon, A. (2014). Why are Normal Distributions Normal?, The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.
- ^ a b "Normal Distribution". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
- ^ Stigler (1982)
- ^ Halperin, Hartley & Hoel (1965, item 7)
- ^ McPherson (1990, p. 110)
- ^ Bernardo & Smith (2000, p. 121)
- ^ Scott, Clayton; Nowak, Robert (August 7, 2003). "The Q-function". Connexions.
- ^ Barak, Ohad (April 6, 2006). "Q Function and Error Function" (PDF). Tel Aviv University. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2009.
- ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Normal Distribution Function". MathWorld.
- ^ Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene Ann, eds. (1983) [June 1964]. "Chapter 26, eqn 26.2.12". Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. Applied Mathematics Series. 55 (Ninth reprint with additional corrections of tenth original printing with corrections (December 1972); first ed.). Washington D.C.; New York: United States Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards; Dover Publications. p. 932. ISBN 978-0-486-61272-0. LCCN 64-60036. MR 0167642. LCCN 65-12253.
- ^ "Wolfram|Alpha: Computational Knowledge Engine". Wolframalpha.com. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
- ^ "Wolfram|Alpha: Computational Knowledge Engine". Wolframalpha.com.
- ^ "Wolfram|Alpha: Computational Knowledge Engine". Wolframalpha.com. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
- ^ Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley and Sons. p. 254.
- ^ Park, Sung Y.; Bera, Anil K. (2009). "Maximum Entropy Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity Model" (PDF). Journal of Econometrics. 150 (2): 219–230. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.511.9750. doi:10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.12.014. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2016. Retrieved June 2, 2011.
- ^ Geary RC(1936) The distribution of the "Student's" ratio for the non-normal samples". Supplement to the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 3 (2): 178–184
- ^ Lukacs, Eugene (March 1942). "A Characterization of the Normal Distribution". Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 13 (1): 91–93. doi:10.1214/AOMS/1177731647. ISSN 0003-4851. JSTOR 2236166. MR 0006626. Zbl 0060.28509. Wikidata Q55897617.
- ^ a b c Patel & Read (1996, [2.1.4])
- ^ Fan (1991, p. 1258)
- ^ Patel & Read (1996, [2.1.8])
- ^ Papoulis, Athanasios. Probability, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes (4th ed.). p. 148.
- ^ Bryc (1995, p. 23)
- ^ Bryc (1995, p. 24)
- ^ Cover & Thomas (2006, p. 254)
- ^ Williams, David (2001). Weighing the odds : a course in probability and statistics (Reprinted. ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 197–199. ISBN 978-0-521-00618-7.
- ^ Smith, José M. Bernardo; Adrian F. M. (2000). Bayesian theory (Reprint ed.). Chichester [u.a.]: Wiley. pp. 209, 366. ISBN 978-0-471-49464-5.
- ^ O'Hagan, A. (1994) Kendall's Advanced Theory of statistics, Vol 2B, Bayesian Inference, Edward Arnold. ISBN 0-340-52922-9 (Section 5.40)
- ^ a b Bryc (1995, p. 35)
- ^ UIUC, Lecture 21. The Multivariate Normal Distribution, 21.6:"Individually Gaussian Versus Jointly Gaussian".
- ^ Edward L. Melnick and Aaron Tenenbein, "Misspecifications of the Normal Distribution", The American Statistician, volume 36, number 4 November 1982, pages 372–373
- ^ "Kullback Leibler (KL) Distance of Two Normal (Gaussian) Probability Distributions". Allisons.org. December 5, 2007. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
- ^ Jordan, Michael I. (February 8, 2010). "Stat260: Bayesian Modeling and Inference: The Conjugate Prior for the Normal Distribution" (PDF).
- ^ Amari & Nagaoka (2000)
- ^ "Normal Approximation to Poisson Distribution". Stat.ucla.edu. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
- ^ a b Das, Abhranil (2020). "A method to integrate and classify normal distributions". arXiv:2012.14331 [stat.ML].
- ^ Bryc (1995, p. 27)
- ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Normal Product Distribution". MathWorld. wolfram.com.
- ^ Lukacs, Eugene (1942). "A Characterization of the Normal Distribution". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 13 (1): 91–3. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177731647. ISSN 0003-4851. JSTOR 2236166.
- ^ Basu, D.; Laha, R. G. (1954). "On Some Characterizations of the Normal Distribution". Sankhyā. 13 (4): 359–62. ISSN 0036-4452. JSTOR 25048183.
- ^ Lehmann, E. L. (1997). Testing Statistical Hypotheses (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-387-94919-2.
- ^ Patel & Read (1996, [2.3.6])
- ^ Galambos & Simonelli (2004, Theorem 3.5)
- ^ a b Lukacs & King (1954)
- ^ Quine, M.P. (1993). "On three characterisations of the normal distribution". Probability and Mathematical Statistics. 14 (2): 257–263.
- ^ John, S (1982). "The three parameter two-piece normal family of distributions and its fitting". Communications in Statistics - Theory and Methods. 11 (8): 879–885. doi:10.1080/03610928208828279.
- ^ a b Krishnamoorthy (2006, p. 127)
- ^ Krishnamoorthy (2006, p. 130)
- ^ Krishnamoorthy (2006, p. 133)
- ^ Huxley (1932)
- ^ Jaynes, Edwin T. (2003). Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. Cambridge University Press. pp. 592–593. ISBN 9780521592710.
- ^ Oosterbaan, Roland J. (1994). "Chapter 6: Frequency and Regression Analysis of Hydrologic Data" (PDF). In Ritzema, Henk P. (ed.). Drainage Principles and Applications, Publication 16 (second revised ed.). Wageningen, The Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI). pp. 175–224. ISBN 978-90-70754-33-4.
- ^ Why Most Published Research Findings Are False, John P. A. Ioannidis, 2005
- ^ Wichura, Michael J. (1988). "Algorithm AS241: The Percentage Points of the Normal Distribution". Applied Statistics. 37 (3): 477–84. doi:10.2307/2347330. JSTOR 2347330.
- ^ Johnson, Kotz & Balakrishnan (1995, Equation (26.48))
- ^ Kinderman & Monahan (1977)
- ^ Leva (1992)
- ^ Marsaglia & Tsang (2000)
- ^ Karney (2016)
- ^ Monahan (1985, section 2)
- ^ Wallace (1996)
- ^ Johnson, Kotz & Balakrishnan (1994, p. 85)
- ^ Le Cam & Lo Yang (2000, p. 74)
- ^ De Moivre, Abraham (1733), Corollary I – see Walker (1985, p. 77)
- ^ Stigler (1986, p. 76)
- ^ Gauss (1809, section 177)
- ^ Gauss (1809, section 179)
- ^ Laplace (1774, Problem III)
- ^ Pearson (1905, p. 189)
- ^ Stigler (1986, p. 144)
- ^ Stigler (1978, p. 243)
- ^ Stigler (1978, p. 244)
- ^ Maxwell (1860, p. 23)
- ^ Jaynes, Edwin J.; Probability Theory: The Logic of Science, Ch 7
- ^ Peirce, Charles S. (c. 1909 MS), Collected Papers v. 6, paragraph 327
- ^ Kruskal & Stigler (1997)
- ^ "Earliest uses... (entry STANDARD NORMAL CURVE)".
Sources
- Aldrich, John; Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics".
- Aldrich, John; Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics". In particular, the entries for "bell-shaped and bell curve", "normal (distribution)", "Gaussian", and "Error, law of error, theory of errors, etc.".
- Amari, Shun-ichi; Nagaoka, Hiroshi (2000). Methods of Information Geometry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8218-0531-2.
- Bernardo, José M.; Smith, Adrian F. M. (2000). Bayesian Theory. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-49464-5.
- Bryc, Wlodzimierz (1995). The Normal Distribution: Characterizations with Applications. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-97990-8.
- Casella, George; Berger, Roger L. (2001). Statistical Inference (2nd ed.). Duxbury. ISBN 978-0-534-24312-8.
- Cody, William J. (1969). "Rational Chebyshev Approximations for the Error Function". Mathematics of Computation. 23 (107): 631–638. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1969-0247736-4.
- Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley and Sons.
- de Moivre, Abraham (1738). The Doctrine of Chances. ISBN 978-0-8218-2103-9.
- Fan, Jianqing (1991). "On the optimal rates of convergence for nonparametric deconvolution problems". The Annals of Statistics. 19 (3): 1257–1272. doi:10.1214/aos/1176348248. JSTOR 2241949.
- Galton, Francis (1889). Natural Inheritance (PDF). London, UK: Richard Clay and Sons.
- Galambos, Janos; Simonelli, Italo (2004). Products of Random Variables: Applications to Problems of Physics and to Arithmetical Functions. Marcel Dekker, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8247-5402-0.
- Gauss, Carolo Friderico (1809). Theoria motvs corporvm coelestivm in sectionibvs conicis Solem ambientivm [Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections] (in Latin). English translation.
- Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man (first ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-01489-1.
- Halperin, Max; Hartley, Herman O.; Hoel, Paul G. (1965). "Recommended Standards for Statistical Symbols and Notation. COPSS Committee on Symbols and Notation". The American Statistician. 19 (3): 12–14. doi:10.2307/2681417. JSTOR 2681417.
- Hart, John F.; et al. (1968). Computer Approximations. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88275-642-4.
- "Normal Distribution", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
- Herrnstein, Richard J.; Murray, Charles (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-914673-6.
- Huxley, Julian S. (1932). Problems of Relative Growth. London. ISBN 978-0-486-61114-3. OCLC 476909537.
- Johnson, Norman L.; Kotz, Samuel; Balakrishnan, Narayanaswamy (1994). Continuous Univariate Distributions, Volume 1. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-58495-7.
- Johnson, Norman L.; Kotz, Samuel; Balakrishnan, Narayanaswamy (1995). Continuous Univariate Distributions, Volume 2. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-58494-0.
- Karney, C. F. F. (2016). "Sampling exactly from the normal distribution". ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software. 42 (1): 3:1–14. arXiv:1303.6257. doi:10.1145/2710016. S2CID 14252035.
- Kinderman, Albert J.; Monahan, John F. (1977). "Computer Generation of Random Variables Using the Ratio of Uniform Deviates". ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software. 3 (3): 257–260. doi:10.1145/355744.355750. S2CID 12884505.
- Krishnamoorthy, Kalimuthu (2006). Handbook of Statistical Distributions with Applications. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-635-8.
- Kruskal, William H.; Stigler, Stephen M. (1997). Spencer, Bruce D. (ed.). Normative Terminology: 'Normal' in Statistics and Elsewhere. Statistics and Public Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852341-3.
- Laplace, Pierre-Simon de (1774). "Mémoire sur la probabilité des causes par les événements". Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de Paris (Savants étrangers), Tome 6: 621–656. Translated by Stephen M. Stigler in Statistical Science 1 (3), 1986: JSTOR 2245476.
- Laplace, Pierre-Simon (1812). Théorie analytique des probabilités [Analytical theory of probabilities].
- Le Cam, Lucien; Lo Yang, Grace (2000). Asymptotics in Statistics: Some Basic Concepts (second ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-95036-5.
- Leva, Joseph L. (1992). "A fast normal random number generator" (PDF). ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software. 18 (4): 449–453. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.544.5806. doi:10.1145/138351.138364. S2CID 15802663. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2010.
- Lexis, Wilhelm (1878). "Sur la durée normale de la vie humaine et sur la théorie de la stabilité des rapports statistiques". Annales de Démographie Internationale. Paris. II: 447–462.
- Lukacs, Eugene; King, Edgar P. (1954). "A Property of Normal Distribution". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 25 (2): 389–394. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728796. JSTOR 2236741.
- McPherson, Glen (1990). Statistics in Scientific Investigation: Its Basis, Application and Interpretation. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-97137-7.
- Marsaglia, George; Tsang, Wai Wan (2000). "The Ziggurat Method for Generating Random Variables". Journal of Statistical Software. 5 (8). doi:10.18637/jss.v005.i08.
- Marsaglia, George (2004). "Evaluating the Normal Distribution". Journal of Statistical Software. 11 (4). doi:10.18637/jss.v011.i04.
- Maxwell, James Clerk (1860). "V. Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases. — Part I: On the motions and collisions of perfectly elastic spheres". Philosophical Magazine. Series 4. 19 (124): 19–32. doi:10.1080/14786446008642818.
- Monahan, J. F. (1985). "Accuracy in random number generation". Mathematics of Computation. 45 (172): 559–568. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1985-0804945-X.
- Patel, Jagdish K.; Read, Campbell B. (1996). Handbook of the Normal Distribution (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-9342-5.
- Pearson, Karl (1901). "On Lines and Planes of Closest Fit to Systems of Points in Space" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 6. 2 (11): 559–572. doi:10.1080/14786440109462720.
- Pearson, Karl (1905). "'Das Fehlergesetz und seine Verallgemeinerungen durch Fechner und Pearson'. A rejoinder". Biometrika. 4 (1): 169–212. doi:10.2307/2331536. JSTOR 2331536.
- Pearson, Karl (1920). "Notes on the History of Correlation". Biometrika. 13 (1): 25–45. doi:10.1093/biomet/13.1.25. JSTOR 2331722.
- Rohrbasser, Jean-Marc; Véron, Jacques (2003). "Wilhelm Lexis: The Normal Length of Life as an Expression of the "Nature of Things"". Population. 58 (3): 303–322. doi:10.3917/pope.303.0303.
- Shore, H (1982). "Simple Approximations for the Inverse Cumulative Function, the Density Function and the Loss Integral of the Normal Distribution". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C (Applied Statistics). 31 (2): 108–114. doi:10.2307/2347972. JSTOR 2347972.
- Shore, H (2005). "Accurate RMM-Based Approximations for the CDF of the Normal Distribution". Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods. 34 (3): 507–513. doi:10.1081/sta-200052102. S2CID 122148043.
- Shore, H (2011). "Response Modeling Methodology". WIREs Comput Stat. 3 (4): 357–372. doi:10.1002/wics.151.
- Shore, H (2012). "Estimating Response Modeling Methodology Models". WIREs Comput Stat. 4 (3): 323–333. doi:10.1002/wics.1199.
- Stigler, Stephen M. (1978). "Mathematical Statistics in the Early States". The Annals of Statistics. 6 (2): 239–265. doi:10.1214/aos/1176344123. JSTOR 2958876.
- Stigler, Stephen M. (1982). "A Modest Proposal: A New Standard for the Normal". The American Statistician. 36 (2): 137–138. doi:10.2307/2684031. JSTOR 2684031.
- Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-40340-6.
- Stigler, Stephen M. (1999). Statistics on the Table. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-83601-3.
- Walker, Helen M. (1985). "De Moivre on the Law of Normal Probability" (PDF). In Smith, David Eugene (ed.). A Source Book in Mathematics. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-64690-9.
- Wallace, C. S. (1996). "Fast pseudo-random generators for normal and exponential variates". ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software. 22 (1): 119–127. doi:10.1145/225545.225554. S2CID 18514848.
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Normal Distribution". MathWorld.
- West, Graeme (2009). "Better Approximations to Cumulative Normal Functions" (PDF). Wilmott Magazine: 70–76.
- Zelen, Marvin; Severo, Norman C. (1964). Probability Functions (chapter 26). Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables, by Abramowitz, M.; and Stegun, I. A.: National Bureau of Standards. New York, NY: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-61272-0.
enlaces externos
- "Normal distribution", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
- Normal distribution calculator, More powerful calculator