Portal: buceo submarino

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Buceo submarino

Buzo en uno de los telégrafos del motor en los restos del SS Steuben

Definición del tema

El buceo submarino se puede describir como todo lo siguiente:

Una actividad humana- Secuencia de acciones intencional, intencionada, consciente y subjetivamente significativa. El buceo subacuático se practica como parte de una ocupación, o para recreación, donde el practicante se sumerge debajo de la superficie del agua u otro líquido por un período que puede variar entre segundos al orden de un día a la vez, ya sea expuesto al ambiente. presión o aislado por un traje resistente a la presión, para interactuar con el entorno submarino por placer, deporte competitivo o como un medio para llegar a un lugar de trabajo con fines de lucro o en la búsqueda de conocimientos, y no puede utilizar ningún equipo en absoluto, o una amplia gama de equipos que pueden incluir aparatos de respiración, ropa de protección ambiental, ayudas para la visión, comunicación, propulsión, maniobrabilidad, flotabilidad y equipos de seguridad, y herramientas para la tarea en cuestión.

Alcance del portal

El alcance de este portal incluye la tecnología que respalda las actividades de buceo, los aspectos fisiológicos y médicos del buceo, las habilidades y procedimientos del buceo y el entrenamiento y registro de buceadores, actividades subacuáticas que dependen en cierto grado del buceo, económicas, comerciales y de seguridad. y aspectos legales del buceo, información biográfica sobre buzos notables, inventores y fabricantes de equipos relacionados con el buceo e investigadores sobre aspectos del buceo.

Introducción al buceo submarino

Buceadores con suministro de superficie montando un escenario hacia el lugar de trabajo bajo el agua

El buceo submarino , como actividad humana, es la práctica de descender por debajo de la superficie del agua para interactuar con el medio ambiente. La inmersión en agua y la exposición a alta presión ambiental tienen efectos fisiológicos que limitan la profundidad y la duración posibles en elbuceo a presión ambiental . Los seres humanos no están fisiológica y anatómicamente bien adaptados a las condiciones ambientales del buceo, y se han desarrollado varios equipos para ampliar la profundidad y duración de las inmersiones humanas y permitir que se realicen diferentes tipos de trabajo.

En el buceo a presión ambiental, el buceador está directamente expuesto a la presión del agua circundante. El buceador a presión ambiental puede bucear en apnea o usar un aparato de respiración para bucear o bucear desde la superficie , y la técnica de buceo de saturación reduce el riesgo de enfermedad por descompresión (EDC) después de buceos profundos de larga duración. Se pueden usar trajes de buceo atmosférico (ADS) para aislar al buceador de la alta presión ambiental. Los sumergibles con tripulación pueden extender el rango de profundidad, y las máquinas robóticas o controladas remotamente pueden reducir el riesgo para los humanos.

El entorno expone al buceador a una amplia gama de peligros, y aunque los riesgos se controlan en gran medida mediante las habilidades de buceo , la formación , los tipos de equipo y los gases respiratorios adecuados.Si se usa según el modo, la profundidad y el propósito del buceo, sigue siendo una actividad relativamente peligrosa. El buceo profesional generalmente está regulado por la legislación de seguridad y salud ocupacional, mientras que el buceo recreativo puede no estar regulado por completo. Las actividades de buceo están restringidas a profundidades máximas de unos 40 metros (130 pies) para el buceo recreativo, 530 metros (1.740 pies) para el buceo de saturación comercial y 610 metros (2.000 pies) con trajes atmosféricos. El buceo también está restringido a condiciones que no son excesivamente peligrosas, aunque el nivel de riesgo aceptable puede variar.

El buceo recreativo (a veces llamado buceo deportivo o subacuático) es una actividad de ocio popular. El buceo técnico es una forma de buceo recreativo en condiciones especialmente desafiantes. El buceo profesional ( buceo comercial, buceo con fines de investigación o con fines de lucro) implica trabajar bajo el agua. El buceo de seguridad pública es el trabajo subacuático realizado por las fuerzas del orden, el rescate de incendios y los equipos de buceo de búsqueda y recuperación bajo el agua . El buceo militar incluye el buceo de combate, el buceo en remoción y la cría de barcos . El buceo en aguas profundas es buceo submarino, generalmente con equipo suministrado desde la superficie, y a menudo se refiere al uso detraje de buceo estándar con el tradicional casco de cobre. El buceo con casco es cualquier forma de buceo con casco , incluido el casco de cobre estándar y otras formas de cascos de demanda ligeros y de flujo libre . La historia del buceo en apnea se remonta al menos a la época clásica, y hay evidencia de caza y recolección prehistóricas de mariscos que pueden haber involucrado la natación bajo el agua. Los avances técnicos que permiten el suministro de gas respirable a un buceador bajo el agua a presión ambiental son recientes, y los sistemas de respiración autónomos se desarrollaron a un ritmo acelerado después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial . ( Artículo completo ... )

Cómo utilizar este portal

Hay varias formas de buscar contenido en Wikipedia.
Si tiene una cadena de búsqueda útil, una búsqueda de Google es bastante efectiva.
La búsqueda en Wikipedia lo llevará directamente al artículo si conoce el nombre exacto o si Wikipedia tiene una redirección al artículo. También sugerirá otros artículos en Wikipedia que pueden ser relevantes para sus criterios de búsqueda.
El cuadro de navegación en la parte inferior de las páginas que son relevantes para el proyecto proporciona enlaces a los artículos enumerados. (No disponible actualmente para dispositivos móviles).
Si desea una lista de artículos del proyecto por los que pueda navegar, en busca de inspiración o un título de artículo reconocible, existen varias otras rutas:
- El esquema del buceo submarino es una lista jerárquica de todos los artículos, pero es posible que no siempre esté actualizada.
- El índice de buceo subacuático es una lista alfabética de los artículos (tampoco siempre está actualizada). Tiene subíndices para algunos de los grupos de artículos asociados, como:
  - Índice de sitios de buceo recreativo
  - Índice de buceadores submarinos
- El Glosario de terminología de buceo submarino es una lista alfabética de términos comúnmente utilizados en el buceo y sus significados en este contexto. Una referencia rápida útil. Una definición a menudo contendrá un enlace a un artículo principal detallado o una sección de un artículo sobre el término. Si no puede encontrar un término y está razonablemente seguro de que es un término de buceo de uso general en inglés, deje una nota en la página de discusión.
Categoría: Buceo submarino y las subcategorías asociadas también deben enumerar todos los artículos, probablemente en una estructura jerárquica diferente a la utilizada para el cuadro de navegación y la lista de esquemas. A veces, el sistema de categorías puede ser más apropiado para encontrar información. También es útil para el mantenimiento de Wikipedia y realizar un seguimiento de la conectividad de los artículos.
Si tiene tiempo ilimitado y no tiene un objetivo especial, puede bajar por la madriguera del conejo. Lea el artículo de la raíz del tema Buceo submarino y haga clic en cualquier enlace que parezca interesante. Lea hasta que encuentre otro enlace interesante y haga clic en él; de lo contrario, haga clic en la flecha de su navegador para regresar y continuar. Deténgase cuando la realidad se entrometa o se aburra, se canse, tenga sed o estalle un incendio.
Ninguno de estos sistemas es perfecto o completo. Si encuentra un error u omisión, háganoslo saber o corríjalo si sabe cómo hacerlo. Este es un proyecto de colaboración colectiva: puedes ser uno más entre la multitud.

Actualizar con nuevas selecciones a continuación (purgar)

Modos de buceo

Índice de modos de buceo

Buzo recreativo

El buceo es un modo de buceo submarino en el que el buceador utiliza un aparato de respiración subacuático autónomo (scuba), que es completamente independiente del suministro de superficie, para respirar bajo el agua . Los buzos llevan su propia fuente de gas para respirar , generalmente aire comprimido , lo que les permite una mayor independencia y libertad de movimiento que los buzos de superficie , y una mayor resistencia bajo el agua que los buzos que retienen la respiración . Aunque el uso de aire comprimido es común, una mezcla de aire y oxígeno llamada aire enriquecido o nitroxse ha vuelto popular debido a su beneficio de reducción de la ingesta de nitrógeno durante inmersiones largas o repetitivas. Se puede usar gas respiratorio diluido con helio para reducir la narcosis por nitrógeno .

Los sistemas de buceo de circuito abierto descargan el gas respirable al medio ambiente a medida que se exhala y consisten en uno o más cilindros de buceo que contienen gas respirable a alta presión que se suministra al buceador a través de un regulador de buceo . Pueden incluir cilindros adicionales para extensión de rango, gas de descompresión o gas de respiración de emergencia. De circuito cerrado o circuito semi-cerrado rebreatherLos sistemas de buceo permiten el reciclaje de los gases exhalados. El volumen de gas utilizado se reduce en comparación con el de circuito abierto, por lo que se puede utilizar un cilindro o cilindros más pequeños para una duración de inmersión equivalente. Los rebreathers extienden el tiempo de permanencia bajo el agua en comparación con el circuito abierto para el mismo consumo de gas; producen menos burbujas y menos ruido que los buzos de circuito abierto, lo que los hace atractivos para los buzos militares encubiertos para evitar la detección, los buzos científicos para evitar molestar a los animales marinos y los buzos de medios para evitar la interferencia de burbujas.

El buceo se puede realizar de forma recreativa o profesional.en una serie de aplicaciones, incluidas funciones científicas, militares y de seguridad pública, pero la mayoría del buceo comercial utiliza equipo de buceo suministrado desde la superficie cuando es posible. Los buzos que participan en operaciones encubiertas de las fuerzas armadas pueden denominarse hombres rana , buzos de combate o nadadores de ataque.

Un buceador se mueve principalmente bajo el agua usando aletas unidas a los pies, pero la propulsión externa puede ser proporcionada por un vehículo de propulsión de buzo o un trineo tirado de la superficie. Otro equipo necesario para el buceo incluye una máscara para mejorar la visión bajo el agua, protección contra la exposición (es decir, un traje de neopreno o traje seco), equipo para controlar la flotabilidad.y equipo relacionado con las circunstancias específicas y el propósito de la inmersión. Algunos buceadores usan un esnórquel cuando nadan en la superficie. Los buceadores están capacitados en los procedimientos y habilidades apropiados para su nivel de certificación por instructores de buceo afiliados a las organizaciones de certificación de buzos que emiten estas certificaciones. Estos incluyen procedimientos operativos estándar para usar el equipo y hacer frente a los peligros generales del entorno subacuático, y procedimientos de emergencia para la autoayuda y la asistencia de un buzo equipado de manera similar que experimente problemas. Un nivel mínimo de condición física y salud.es requerido por la mayoría de las organizaciones de capacitación, pero un mayor nivel de aptitud física puede ser apropiado para algunas aplicaciones. ( Artículo completo ... )
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California

Surface-supplied diving is diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas using a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.

The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix.

Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty.

Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth.

Saturation diving is diving for periods long enough to bring all tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of the inert components of the breathing gas. It is a diving technique that allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness ("the bends") when they work at great depths for long periods of time because once saturated, decompression time does not increase with further exposure. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures.

In saturation diving, the divers live in a pressurized environment, which can be a saturation system on the surface, or an ambient pressure underwater habitat when not in the water. Transfer to and from the pressurised surface living quarters to the equivalent depth is done in a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and they are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the time spent decompressing is minimised.

It is a very specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, only 336 were saturation divers. (Full article...)
Atmospheric diving suit

An atmospheric diving suit (ADS) is a small one-person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. The ADS can be used for very deep dives of up to 2,300 feet (700 m) for many hours, and eliminates the majority of significant physiological dangers associated with deep diving; the occupant need not decompress, there is no need for special gas mixtures, nor is there danger of decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis. Divers do not even need to be skilled swimmers, but the disadvantage is limited dexterity.

Atmospheric diving suits in current use include the Newtsuit, Exosuit, Hardsuit and the WASP, all of which are self-contained hard suits that incorporate propulsion units. The hardsuit is constructed from cast aluminum (forged aluminum in a version constructed for the US Navy for submarine rescue); the upper hull is made from cast aluminum, while the bottom dome is machined aluminum. The WASP is of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body tube construction. (Full article...)
Freediver with monofin, ascending

Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving is a form of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.

Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.

Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.

Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...)
Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace

Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment.
Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done.

In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold, or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans.

The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated.
Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary.

Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under especially challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry.
Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets.
The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...)

Equipo de buceo y apoyo

Índice de equipos de buceo y apoyo

Equipo de buceo comercial suministrado desde la superficie en exhibición en una feria comercial

El equipo de buceo es un equipo que utilizan los buceadores submarinos para hacer que las actividades de buceo sean posibles, más fáciles, seguras y / o más cómodas. Puede tratarse de equipos destinados principalmente a este fin, o equipos destinados a otros fines que se consideren adecuados para el buceo.

El elemento fundamental del equipo de buceo utilizado por los buceadores es el aparato de respiración subacuático , como el equipo de buceo y elequipo de buceo suministrado desde la superficie , pero hay otros equipos importantes que hacen que el buceo sea más seguro, más conveniente o más eficiente. El equipo de buceo utilizado por los buceadores recreativos es principalmente equipo personal que lleva el buceador, pero los buzos profesionales, particularmente cuando se opera en el modo de saturación o con suministro de superficie , use una gran cantidad de equipo de apoyo que no lleve el buceador.

Se excluyen los equipos que se utilizan para trabajos subacuáticos u otras actividades que no estén directamente relacionados con la actividad del buceo, o que no hayan sido diseñados o modificados específicamente para su uso bajo el agua por buceadores. ( Artículo completo ... )
Israeli Navy Underwater Missions Unit transfers equipment using lifting-bags

A lifting bag is an item of diving equipment consisting of a robust and air-tight bag with straps, which is used to lift heavy objects underwater by means of the bag's buoyancy. The heavy object can either be moved horizontally underwater by the diver or sent unaccompanied to the surface.

Lift bag appropriate capacity should match the task at hand. If the lift bag is grossly oversized a runaway or otherwise out of control ascent may result. Commercially available lifting bags may incorporate dump valves to allow the operator to control the buoyancy during ascent, but this is a hazardous operation with high risk of entanglement in an uncontrolled lift or sinking. If a single bag is insufficient, multiple bags may be used, and should be distributed to suit the load.

There are also lifting bags used on land as short lift jacks for lifting cars or heavy loads or lifting bags which are used in machines as a type of pneumatic actuator which provides load over a large area. These lifting bags of the AS/CR type are for example used in the brake mechanism of rollercoasters. (Full article...)
Conventional scuba weight-belt with quick-release buckle

A diving weighting system is ballast weight added to a diver or diving equipment to counteract excess buoyancy. They may be used by divers or on equipment such as diving bells, submersibles or camera housings.

Divers wear diver weighting systems, weight belts or weights to counteract the buoyancy of other diving equipment, such as diving suits and aluminium diving cylinders, and buoyancy of the diver. The scuba diver must be weighted sufficiently to be slightly negatively buoyant at the end of the dive when most of the breathing gas has been used, and needs to maintain neutral buoyancy at safety or obligatory decompression stops. During the dive, buoyancy is controlled by adjusting the volume of air in the buoyancy compensation device (BCD) and, if worn, the dry suit, in order to achieve negative, neutral, or positive buoyancy as needed. The amount of weight required is determined by the maximum overall positive buoyancy of the fully equipped but unweighted diver anticipated during the dive, with an empty buoyancy compensator and normally inflated dry suit. This depends on the diver's mass and body composition, buoyancy of other diving gear worn (especially the diving suit), water salinity, weight of breathing gas consumed, and water temperature. It normally is in the range of 2 kilograms (4.4 lb) to 15 kilograms (33 lb). The weights can be distributed to trim the diver to suit the purpose of the dive.

Surface-supplied divers may be more heavily weighted to facilitate underwater work, and may be unable to achieve neutral buoyancy, and rely on the diving stage, bell, umbilical, lifeline, shotline or jackstay for returning to the surface.

Free divers may also use weights to counteract buoyancy of a wetsuit. However, they are more likely to weight for neutral buoyancy at a specific depth, and their weighting must take into account not only the compression of the suit with depth, but also the compression of the air in their lungs, and the consequent loss of buoyancy. As they have no decompression obligation, they do not have to be neutrally buoyant near the surface at the end of a dive.

If the weights have a method of quick release, they can provide a useful rescue mechanism: they can be dropped in an emergency to provide an instant increase in buoyancy which should return the diver to the surface. Dropping weights increases the risk of barotrauma and decompression sickness due to the possibility of an uncontrollable ascent to the surface. This risk can only be justified when the emergency is life-threatening or the risk of decompression sickness is small, as is the case in free diving and scuba diving when the dive is well short of the no-decompression limit for the depth. Often divers take great care to ensure the weights are not dropped accidentally, and heavily weighted divers may arrange their weights so subsets of the total weight can be dropped individually, allowing for a somewhat more controlled emergency ascent.

The weights are generally made of lead because of its high density, reasonably low cost, ease of casting into suitable shapes, and resistance to corrosion. The lead can be cast in blocks, cast shapes with slots for straps, or shaped as pellets known as "shot" and carried in bags. There is some concern, but little evidence, that lead diving weights may constitute a toxic hazard to users and environment. (Full article...)
Surface supplied diver on diving stage

There are several categories of decompression equipment used to help divers decompress, which is the process required to allow divers to return to the surface safely after spending time underwater at higher pressures.

Decompression obligation for a given dive profile must be calculated and monitored to ensure that the risk of decompression sickness is controlled. Some equipment is specifically for these functions, both during planning before the dive and during the dive. Other equipment is used to mark the underwater position of the diver, as a position reference in low visibility or currents, or to assist the diver's ascent and control the depth.

Decompression may be shortened (or accelerated) by breathing an oxygen-rich "decompression gas" such as a nitrox blend or pure oxygen. The high partial pressure of oxygen in such decompression mixes produces the effect known as the oxygen window. This decompression gas is often carried by scuba divers in side-slung cylinders. Cave divers who can only return by a single route, can leave decompression gas cylinders attached to the guideline at the points where they will be used. Surface-supplied divers will have the composition of the breathing gas controlled at the gas panel.

Divers with long decompression obligations may be decompressed inside gas filled hyperbaric chambers in the water or at the surface, and in the extreme case, saturation divers are only decompressed at the end of a tour of duty that may be several weeks long. (Full article...)
Trimix scuba cylinder label

Trimix is a breathing gas consisting of oxygen, helium and nitrogen and is used in deep commercial diving, during the deep phase of dives carried out using technical diving techniques, and in advanced recreational diving.

The helium is included as a substitute for some of the nitrogen, to reduce the narcotic effect of the breathing gas at depth. With a mixture of three gases it is possible to create mixes suitable for different depths or purposes by adjusting the proportions of each gas. Oxygen content can be optimised for the depth to limit the risk of toxicity, and the inert component balanced between nitrogen (which is cheap but narcotic) and helium (which is not narcotic and reduces work of breathing, but is more expensive and increases heat loss).

The mixture of helium and oxygen with a 0% nitrogen content is generally known as Heliox. This is frequently used as a breathing gas in deep commercial diving operations, where it is often recycled to save the expensive helium component. Analysis of two-component gases is much simpler than three-component gases. (Full article...)
Typical Nitrox cylinder marking

Nitrox refers to any gas mixture composed (excepting trace gases) of nitrogen and oxygen. This includes atmospheric air, which is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, primarily argon. In the usual application, underwater diving, nitrox is normally distinguished from air and handled differently. The most common use of nitrox mixtures containing oxygen in higher proportions than atmospheric air is in scuba diving, where the reduced partial pressure of nitrogen is advantageous in reducing nitrogen uptake in the body's tissues, thereby extending the practicable underwater dive time by reducing the decompression requirement, or reducing the risk of decompression sickness (also known as the bends).

Nitrox is used to a lesser extent in surface-supplied diving, as these advantages are reduced by the more complex logistical requirements for nitrox compared to the use of simple low-pressure compressors for breathing gas supply. Nitrox can also be used in hyperbaric treatment of decompression illness, usually at pressures where pure oxygen would be hazardous. Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects; although its use can reduce the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risk of oxygen toxicity and fire.

Though not generally referred to as nitrox, an oxygen-enriched air mixture is routinely provided at normal surface ambient pressure as oxygen therapy to patients with compromised respiration and circulation. (Full article...)
Filling a spare air bailout cylinder

A bailout bottle (BoB) or, more formally, bailout cylinder is a scuba cylinder carried by an underwater diver for use as an emergency supply of breathing gas in the event of a primary gas supply failure. A bailout cylinder may be carried by a scuba diver in addition to the primary scuba set, or by a surface supplied diver using either free-flow or demand systems. The bailout gas is not intended for use during the dive except in an emergency. The term may refer to just the cylinder, or the bailout set or emergency gas supply (EGS), which is the cylinder with the gas delivery system attached. The bailout set or bailout system is the combination of the emergency gas cylinder with the gas delivery system to the diver, which includes a diving regulator with either a demand valve, a bailout block, or a bailout valve (BOV).

In solo diving, a buddy bottle is a bailout cylinder carried as a substitute for an emergency gas supply from a diving buddy.

Rebreathers also have bailout systems, often including an open-circuit bailout bottle. (Full article...)
A liveaboard dive boat on the Similan Islands, Thailand

A dive boat is a boat that recreational divers or professional scuba divers use to reach a dive site which they could not conveniently reach by swimming from the shore. Dive boats may be propelled by wind or muscle power, but are usually powered by internal combustion engines. Some features, like convenient access from the water, are common to all dive boats, while others depend on the specific application or region where they are used. The vessel may be extensively modified to make it fit for purpose, or may be used without much adaptation if it is already usable.

Dive boats may simply transport divers and their equipment to and from the dive site for a single dive, or may provide longer term support and shelter for day trips or periods of several consecutive days. Deployment of divers may be while moored, at anchor, or under way, (also known as live-boating or live-boat diving). There are a range of specialised procedures for boat diving, which include water entry and exit, avoiding injury by the dive boat, and keeping the dive boat crew aware of the location of the divers in the water.

There are also procedures used by the boat crew, to avoid injuring the divers in the water, keeping track of where they are during a dive, recalling the divers in an emergency, and ensuring that none are left behind. (Full article...)
Diving regulator: First and second stages, low pressure inflator hose and submersible pressure gauge

A diving regulator is a pressure regulator that controls the pressure of breathing gas for diving. The most commonly recognised application is to reduce pressurized breathing gas to ambient pressure and deliver it to the diver, but there are also other types of gas pressure regulator used for diving applications. The gas may be air or one of a variety of specially blended breathing gases. The gas may be supplied from a scuba cylinder carried by the diver or via a hose from a compressor or high-pressure storage cylinders at the surface in surface-supplied diving. A gas pressure regulator has one or more valves in series which reduce pressure from the source, and use the downstream pressure as feedback to control the delivered pressure, or the upstream pressure as feedback to prevent excessive flow rates, lowering the pressure at each stage.

The terms "regulator" and "demand valve" are often used interchangeably, but a demand valve is the final stage pressure-reduction regulator that delivers gas only while the diver is inhaling and reduces the gas pressure to approximately ambient. In single-hose regulators, the demand valve is either held in the diver's mouth by a mouthpiece or attached to the full-face mask or helmet. In twin-hose regulators the demand valve is included in the body of the regulator which is usually attached directly to the cylinder valve or manifold outlet, with a remote mouthpiece supplied at ambient pressure.

A pressure-reduction regulator is used to control the delivery pressure of the gas supplied to a free-flow helmet or full-face mask, in which the flow is continuous, to maintain the downstream pressure which is provided by the ambient pressure of the exhaust and the flow resistance of the delivery system (mainly the umbilical and exhaust valve) and not much influenced by the breathing of the diver. Diving rebreather systems may also use regulators to control the flow of fresh gas, and demand valves, known as automatic diluent valves, to maintain the volume in the breathing loop during descent. Gas reclaim systems and built-in breathing systems (BIBS) use a different kind of regulator to control the flow of exhaled gas to the return hose and through the topside reclaim system, these are of the back-pressure regulator class.

The performance of a regulator is measured by the cracking pressure and added mechanical work of breathing, and the capacity to deliver breathing gas at peak inspiratory flow rate at high ambient pressures without excessive pressure drop, and without excessive dead space. For some cold water diving applications the capacity to deliver high flow rates at low ambient temperatures without jamming due to regulator freezing is important. (Full article...)
Offshore support vessel Toisa Perseus with, in the background, the fifth-generation deepwater drillship Discoverer Enterprise, over the Thunder Horse Oil Field. Both are equipped with DP systems.

Dynamic positioning (DP) is a computer-controlled system to automatically maintain a vessel's position and heading by using its own propellers and thrusters. Position reference sensors, combined with wind sensors, motion sensors and gyrocompasses, provide information to the computer pertaining to the vessel's position and the magnitude and direction of environmental forces affecting its position. Examples of vessel types that employ DP include, but are not limited to, ships and semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling units (MODU), oceanographic research vessels, cable layer ships and cruise ships.

The computer program contains a mathematical model of the vessel that includes information pertaining to the wind and current drag of the vessel and the location of the thrusters. This knowledge, combined with the sensor information, allows the computer to calculate the required steering angle and thruster output for each thruster. This allows operations at sea where mooring or anchoring is not feasible due to deep water, congestion on the sea bottom (pipelines, templates) or other problems.

Dynamic positioning may either be absolute in that the position is locked to a fixed point over the bottom, or relative to a moving object like another ship or an underwater vehicle. One may also position the ship at a favorable angle towards wind, waves and current, called weathervaning.

Dynamic positioning is used by much of the offshore oil industry, for example in the North Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa, and off the coast of Brazil. There are currently more than 1800 DP ships. (Full article...)
Diving cylinders to be filled at a diving air compressor station

A diving cylinder, scuba tank or diving tank is a gas cylinder used to store and transport the high pressure breathing gas required by a scuba set. It may also be used for surface-supplied diving or as decompression gas or an emergency gas supply for surface supplied diving or scuba. Cylinders provide gas to the diver through the demand valve of a diving regulator or the breathing loop of a diving rebreather.

Diving cylinders are usually manufactured from aluminium or steel alloys, and are normally fitted with one of two common types of cylinder valve for filling and connection to the regulator. Other accessories such as manifolds, cylinder bands, protective nets and boots and carrying handles may be provided. Various configurations of harness may be used to carry the cylinder or cylinders while diving, depending on the application. Cylinders used for scuba typically have an internal volume (known as water capacity) of between 3 and 18 litres (0.11 and 0.64 cu ft) and a maximum working pressure rating from 184 to 300 bars (2,670 to 4,350 psi). Cylinders are also available in smaller sizes, such as 0.5, 1.5 and 2 litres, however these are often used for purposes such as inflation of surface marker buoys, drysuits and buoyancy compensators rather than breathing. Scuba divers may dive with a single cylinder, a pair of similar cylinders, or a main cylinder and a smaller "pony" cylinder, carried on the diver's back or clipped onto the harness at the sides. Paired cylinders may be manifolded together or independent. In some cases, more than two cylinders are needed.

When pressurised, a cylinder carries an equivalent volume of free gas greater than its water capacity, because the gas is compressed up to several hundred times atmospheric pressure. The selection of an appropriate set of diving cylinders for a diving operation is based on the amount of gas required to safely complete the dive. Diving cylinders are most commonly filled with air, but because the main components of air can cause problems when breathed underwater at higher ambient pressure, divers may choose to breathe from cylinders filled with mixtures of gases other than air. Many jurisdictions have regulations that govern the filling, recording of contents, and labelling for diving cylinders. Periodic inspection and testing of cylinders is often obligatory to ensure the safety of operators of filling stations. Pressurised diving cylinders are considered dangerous goods for commercial transportation, and regional and international standards for colouring and labelling may also apply. (Full article...)
Line Arrow Marker

In cave (and occasionally wreck) diving, line markers are used for orientation as a visual and tactile reference on a permanent guideline. Directional markers (commonly a notched acute isosceles triangle in basic outline), are also known as line arrows or Dorff arrows, and point the way to an exit. Line arrows may mark the location of a "jump" location in a cave when two are placed adjacent to each other. Two adjacent arrows facing away from each other, mark a point in the cave where the diver is equidistant from two exits. Arrow direction can be identified by feel in low visibility.

Non-directional markers ("cookies") are purely personal markers that mark specific spots, or the direction of one's chosen exit at line intersections where there are options. Their shape does not provide a tactile indication of direction as this could cause confusion in low visibility. One important reason to be adequately trained before cave diving is that incorrect marking can confuse and fatally endanger not only oneself, but also other divers. (Full article...)
Snorkeler wearing a clear silicone diving mask

A diving mask (also half mask, dive mask or scuba mask) is an item of diving equipment that allows underwater divers, including scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers, to see clearly underwater. Surface supplied divers usually use a full face mask or diving helmet, but in some systems the half mask may be used. When the human eye is in direct contact with water as opposed to air, its normal environment, light entering the eye is refracted by a different angle and the eye is unable to focus the light on the retina. By providing an air space in front of the eyes, the eye is able to focus nearly normally. The shape of the air space in the mask slightly affects the ability to focus. Corrective lenses can be fitted to the inside surface of the viewport or contact lenses may be worn inside the mask to allow normal vision for people with focusing defects.

When the diver descends, the ambient pressure rises, and it becomes necessary to equalise the pressure inside the mask with the external ambient pressure to avoid the barotrauma known as mask squeeze, This is done by allowing sufficient air to flow out through the nose into the mask to relieve the pressure difference. This requires the nose to be included in the airspace of the mask. Equalisation during ascent is automatic as excess air inside the mask easily leaks out past the seal.

A wide range of viewport shapes and internal volumes are available, and each design will generally fit some shapes of face better than others. A good comfortable fit and a reliable seal around the edges of the rubber skirt is important to the correct function of the mask.
Nine national and international standards relating to diving masks are known to exist: British standard BS 4532:1969 (amended 1977); USSR and CIS standard GOST 20568:1975 (Active); German standard DIN 7877:1980; Polish Industry Standard BN-82/8444-17.01 (Active). American national standard ANSI Z87.11:1985 (Active); Austrian standard ÖNORM S 4225:1988; Chinese national standard CNS 12497:1989 (Active); Chinese national standard CNS 12498:1989 (Active); and European standard EN 16805:2015 (Active). (Full article...)
Two divers, one wearing a 1 atmosphere diving suit and the other standard diving dress, preparing to explore the wreck of the RMS Lusitania, 1935

A diving suit is a garment or device designed to protect a diver from the underwater environment. A diving suit may also incorporate a breathing gas supply (i.e. Standard diving dress or atmospheric diving suit). but in most cases applies only to the environmental protective covering worn by the diver. The breathing gas supply is usually referred to separately. There is no generic term for the combination of suit and breathing apparatus alone. It is generally referred to as diving equipment or dive gear along with any other equipment necessary for the dive.

Diving suits can be divided into two classes: "soft" or ambient pressure diving suits – examples are wetsuits, dry suits, semi-dry suits and dive skins – and "hard" or atmospheric pressure diving suits, armored suits that keep the diver at atmospheric pressure at any depth within the operating range of the suit. (Full article...)
A pair of demand valves fitted to a scuba regulator

In underwater diving, an alternative air source, or more generally alternative breathing gas source, is a secondary supply of air or other breathing gas for use by the diver in an emergency. Examples include an auxiliary demand valve, a pony bottle and bailout bottle.

An alternative air source may be fully redundant (completely independent of any part of the main air supply system) or non-redundant, if it can be compromised by any failure of the main air supply. From the diver's point of view, air supplied by a buddy or rescue diver is fully redundant, as it is unaffected by the diver's own air supply in any way, but a second regulator on a double cylinder valve or a secondary demand valve (octopus) is not redundant to the diver carrying it, as it is attached to his or her main air supply. Decompression gas can be considered an alternative gas supply only when the risk of breathing it at the current depth is acceptable.

Effective use of any alternate air source requires competence in the associated skill set. The procedures for receiving air from another diver or from one's own equipment are most effective and least likely to result in a life-threatening incident if well trained to the extent that they do not distract the diver from other essential matters. A major difference from buddy breathing is that the diver using a redundant alternative air source need not alternate breathing with the donor, which can be a substantial advantage in many circumstances. There is a further significant advantage when the alternate air source is carried by the diver using it, in that it is not necessary to locate the buddy before it is available, but this comes at the cost of extra equipment. (Full article...)

Procedimientos de buceo

Índice de procedimientos de buceo

Una línea de tiro con trapecio de descompresión proporciona un lugar relativamente seguro y conveniente para la descompresión en el agua.

La planificación de inmersiones es el proceso de planificación de una operación de buceo submarino. El propósito de la planificación de inmersiones es aumentar la probabilidad de que una inmersión se complete de forma segura y se logren los objetivos. Se realiza alguna forma de planificación para la mayoría de las inmersiones submarinas, pero la complejidad y los detalles considerados pueden variar enormemente.

Las operaciones de buceo profesional generalmente se planifican formalmente y el plan se documenta como un registro legal de que se ha realizado la debida diligencia por motivos de salud y seguridad. La planificación de inmersiones recreativas puede ser menos formal, pero para inmersiones técnicas complejas, puede ser tan formal, detallado y extenso como la mayoría de los planes de buceo profesionales. Un contratista de buceo profesional estará limitado por el código de práctica, las órdenes permanentes o la legislación reguladora que cubre un proyecto u operaciones específicas dentro de un proyecto, y es responsable de garantizar que el alcance del trabajo a realizar esté dentro del alcance de las reglas relevantes para ese trabajo. Un buceador recreativo (incluido el técnico) o un grupo de buceo generalmente está menos restringido, pero sin embargo, casi siempre está restringido por alguna legislación y, a menudo, también por las reglas de las organizaciones a las que están afiliados los buzos.

La planificación de una operación de buceo puede ser simple o compleja. En algunos casos, es posible que los procesos deban repetirse varias veces antes de lograr un plan satisfactorio, e incluso entonces, es posible que el plan deba modificarse en el sitio para adaptarse a las circunstancias cambiantes. El producto final del proceso de planificación puede documentarse formalmente o, en el caso de los buceadores recreativos, un acuerdo sobre cómo se llevará a cabo la inmersión. Un proyecto de buceo puede consistir en una serie de operaciones de buceo relacionadas.

Un plan de buceo documentado puede contener elementos de la siguiente lista:
- Resumen de las actividades de buceo
- Programa de operaciones de buceo
- Información específica del plan de buceo
- Presupuesto
( Artículo completo ... )
Recreational scuba diver

Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a mixture of air and oxygen called enriched air or nitrox has become popular due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Breathing gas diluted with helium may be used to reduce nitrogen narcosis .

Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.

Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.

A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection (ie: a wet suit or dry suit), equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Some scuba divers use a snorkel when swimming on the surface. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by diving instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedure s for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...)
Solo diver surveying a dive site. The bailout cylinder can be seen slung at the diver's left side

Solo diving is the practice of self-sufficient underwater diving without a "dive buddy", particularly with reference to scuba diving, but the term is also applied to freediving. Surface supplied diving and atmospheric suit diving are single diver underwater activities but are accompanied by an on-surface support team dedicated to the safety of the diver, and not considered solo diving in its truest sense.

Solo diving has occurred for millennia as evidenced by artifacts dating back to the ancient people of Mesopotamia when humans dived to gather food and to collect pearl oysters. It wasn't until the 1950s, with the development of formalised recreational dive training, that recreational solo diving was considered dangerous, particularly for beginners. In an effort to mitigate associated risks, some scuba certification agencies incorporated the practice of buddy diving into their diver training programmes. Some divers, typically those with advanced underwater skills, prefer solo diving over buddy diving and assume responsibility for their own safety. Professionally, solo diving has always been an option as it applies to operational requirements and risk assessment. It customarily involves voice or line communications from diver to surface, usually with a diver at the surface on standby ready to assist on short notice. Recreational divers seldom have such options available.

The recreational solo diver uses enhanced procedures, skills and equipment to mitigate the risks associated with not having another diver immediately available to assist if something goes wrong. The skills and procedures may be learned through a variety of effective methods to achieve appropriate competence, including formal training programmes with associated assessment and certification. Recreational solo diving, once discouraged by most training agencies, has been accepted since the late 1990s by some training agencies that will qualify experienced divers skilled in self-sufficiency and redundant backup equipment. (Full article...)
In-water recompression (IWR) or underwater oxygen treatment is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by returning the diver underwater to help the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a procedure that exposes the diver to significant risk which should be compared with the risk associated with the available options. Some authorities recommend that it is only be used when the time to travel to the nearest recompression chamber is too long to save the victim's life, others take a more pragmatic approach, and accept that in some circumstances IWR is the best available option. The risks may noy be justified for case of mild symptoms likely to resolve spontaneously, or for cases where the diver is likely to be unsafe in the water, but in-water recompression may be justified in cases where severe outcomes are likely, if conducted by a competent and suitably equipped team.

Carrying out in-water recompression when there is a nearby recompression chamber or without suitable equipment and training is never a desirable option. The risk of the procedure is due to the diver suffering from DCS being seriously ill and may become paralysed, unconscious or stop breathing while under water. Any one of these events is likely to result in the diver drowning or asphyxiating or suffering further injury during a subsequent rescue to the surface. This risk can be reduced by improving airway security by using surface supplied gas and a helmet ot full-face mask.

Several schedules have been published for in-water recompression treatment, but little data on their efficacy is available. (Full article...)
Diver returning from a 600 ft (183 m) dive

Technical diving (also referred to as tec diving or tech diving) is scuba diving that exceeds the agency-specified limits of recreational diving for non-professional purposes. Technical diving may expose the diver to hazards beyond those normally associated with recreational diving, and to a greater risk of serious injury or death. The risk may be reduced by appropriate skills, knowledge and experience, and by using suitable equipment and procedures. The skills may be developed through appropriate specialised training and experience. The equipment often involves breathing gases other than air or standard nitrox mixtures, and multiple gas sources.

The term technical diving has been credited to Michael Menduno, who was editor of the (now defunct) diving magazine aquaCorps Journal. The concept and term, technical diving, are both relatively recent advents, although divers have been engaging in what is now commonly referred to as technical diving for decades. (Full article...)
Ice diving is a type of penetration diving where the dive takes place under ice. Because diving under ice places the diver in an overhead environment typically with only a single entry/exit point, it requires special procedures and equipment. Ice diving is done for purposes of recreation, scientific research, public safety (usually search and rescue/recovery) and other professional or commercial reasons.

The most obvious hazards of ice diving are getting lost under the ice, hypothermia, and regulator failure due to freezing. Scuba divers are generally tethered for safety. This means that the diver wears a harness to which a line is secured, and the other end of the line is secured above the surface and monitored by an attendant. Surface supplied equipment inherently provides a tether, and reduces the risks of regulator first stage freezing as the first stage can be managed by the surface team, and the breathing gas supply is less limited. For the surface support team, the hazards include freezing temperatures and falling through thin ice. (Full article...)
Freediver with monofin, ascending

Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving is a form of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.

Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.

Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.

Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...)
SCUBA Diver in the mountain lake Lai da Marmorera 1,680 metres (5,510 ft) above sea level)

Altitude diving is underwater diving using scuba or surface supplied diving equipment where the surface is 300 metres (980 ft) or more above sea level (for example, a mountain lake). Altitude is significant in diving because it affects the decompression requirement for a dive, so that the stop depths and decompression times used for dives at altitude are different from those used for the same dive profile at sea level. The U.S. Navy tables recommend that no alteration be made for dives at altitudes lower than 91 metres (299 ft) and for dives between 91 and 300 meters correction is required for dives deeper than 44 metres (144 ft) of sea water. Most recently manufactured decompression computers can automatically compensate for altitude. (Full article...)
Divers using the anchor cable as an aid to depth control during a decompression stop

The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model, to allow asymptomatic and harmless release of excess inert gases dissolved in the tissues as a result of breathing at ambient pressures greater than surface atmospheric pressure, the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive, and the procedures authorized for the equipment and profile to be used. There is a large range of options in all of these aspects.

Decompression may be continuous or staged, where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals, but the entire ascent is part of the decompression, and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. What is commonly known as no-decompression diving, or more accurately no-stop decompression, relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation. Staged decompression may include deep stops depending on the theoretical model used for calculating the ascent schedule. Omission of decompression theoretically required for a dive profile exposes the diver to significantly higher risk of symptomatic decompression sickness, and in severe cases, serious injury or death. The risk is related to the severity of exposure and the level of supersaturation of tissues in the diver. Procedures for emergency management of omitted decompression and symptomatic decompression sickness have been published. These procedures are generally effective, but vary in effectiveness from case to case.

The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving, the available equipment, the site and environment, and the actual dive profile. Standardized procedures have been developed which provide an acceptable level of risk in the circumstances for which they are appropriate. Different sets of procedures are used by commercial, military, scientific and recreational divers, though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used, and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures. (Full article...)
Air, oxygen and helium partial pressure gas blending system

Gas blending for scuba diving (or gas mixing) is the filling of diving cylinders with non-air breathing gases such as nitrox, trimix and heliox. Use of these gases is generally intended to improve overall safety of the planned dive, by reducing the risk of decompression sickness and/or nitrogen narcosis, and may improve ease of breathing.

Filling cylinders with a mixture of gases has dangers for both the filler and the diver. During filling there is a risk of fire due to use of oxygen and a risk of explosion due to the use of high-pressure gases. The composition of the mix must be safe for the depth and duration of the planned dive. If the concentration of oxygen is too lean the diver may lose consciousness due to hypoxia and if it is too rich the diver may suffer oxygen toxicity. The concentration of inert gases, such as nitrogen and helium, are planned and checked to avoid nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness.

Methods used include batch mixing by partial pressure or by mass fraction, and continuous blending processes. Completed blends are analysed for composition for the safety of the user. Gas blenders may be required by legislation to prove competence if filling for other persons. (Full article...)
Diver at the wreck of the Hilma Hooker, Netherlands Antilles.

Wreck diving is recreational diving where the wreckage of ships, aircraft and other artificial structures are explored. Although most wreck dive sites are at shipwrecks, there is an increasing trend to scuttle retired ships to create artificial reef sites. Diving to crashed aircraft can also be considered wreck diving. The recreation of wreck diving makes no distinction as to how the vessel ended up on the bottom.

Some wreck diving involves penetration of the wreckage, making a direct ascent to the surface impossible for a part of the dive. (Full article...)
Beginner diver in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands

Recreational diving or sport diving is diving for the purpose of leisure and enjoyment, usually when using scuba equipment. The term "recreational diving" may also be used in contradistinction to "technical diving", a more demanding aspect of recreational diving which requires greater levels of training, experience and equipment to compensate for the more hazardous conditions associated with the disciplines. Breath-hold diving for recreation also fits into the broader scope of the term, but this article covers the commonly used meaning of scuba diving for recreational purposes, where the diver is not constrained from making a direct near-vertical ascent to the surface at any point during the dive, and risk is considered low.

The equipment used for recreational diving is mostly open circuit scuba, though semi closed and fully automated electronic closed circuit rebreathers may be included in the scope of recreational diving. Risk is managed by training the diver in a range of standardised procedures and skills appropriate to the equipment the diver chooses to use and the environment in which the diver plans to dive. Further experience and development of skills by practice will increase the diver's ability to dive safely. Specialty training is made available by the recreational diver training industry and diving clubs to increase the range of environments and venues the diver can enjoy at an acceptable level of risk.

Reasons to dive and preferred diving activities may vary during the personal development of a recreational diver, and may depend on their psychological profile and their level of dedication to the activity. Most divers average less than 8 dives per year, but some total several thousand dives over a few decades and continue diving into their 60s and 70s, occasionally older.
Recreational divers may frequent local dive sites or dive as tourists at more distant venues known for desirable underwater environments. An economically significant diving tourism industry services recreational divers, providing equipment, training and diving experiences, generally by specialist providers known as dive centers, dive schools, live-aboard and day charter and basic dive boats.

Legal constraints on recreational diving vary considerably across jurisdictions. Recreational diving may be industry regulated or regulated by law to some extent. The legal responsibility for recreational diving service providers is usually limited as far as possible by waivers which they require the customer to sign before engaging in any diving activity. The extent of responsibility of recreational buddy divers is unclear, but buddy diving is generally recommended by recreational diver training agencies as safer than solo diving, and some service providers insist that customers dive in buddy pairs. (Full article...)
Dive profile of an actual dive as recorded by a personal dive computer and displayed on a desktop screen using dive logging software. In this case depth is in metres.

A dive profile is a description of a diver's pressure exposure over time. It may be as simple as just a depth and time pair, as in: "sixty for twenty," (a stay of 20 minutes at a depth of 60 feet) or as complex as a second by second graphical representation of depth and time recorded by a personal dive computer. Several common types of dive profile are specifically named, and these may be characteristic of the purpose of the dive. For example, a working dive at a limited location will often follow a constant depth (square) profile, and a recreational dive is likely to follow a multilevel profile, as the divers start deep and work their way up a reef to get the most out of the available breathing gas. The names are usually descriptive of the graphic appearance.

The intended dive profile is useful as a planning tool as an indication of the risks of decompression sickness and oxygen toxicity for the exposure, and also for estimating the volume of open-circuit breathing gas needed for a planned dive, as these depend in part upon the depth and duration of the dive. A dive profile diagram is conventionally drawn with elapsed time running from left to right and depth increasing down the page.

Many personal dive computers record the instantaneous depth at small time increments during the dive. This data can sometimes be displayed directly on the dive computer or more often downloaded to a personal computer, tablet, or smartphone and displayed in graphic form as a dive profile. (Full article...)
The instructor monitors a trainee practicing diving skills

Scuba skills are the skills required to dive safely using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, (scuba). Most of these skills are relevant to both open circuit and rebreather scuba, and many are also relevant to surface-supplied diving. Those skills which are critical to the safety of the diver may require more practice than is usually provided during training to achieve reliable long-term proficiency

Some of the skills are generally accepted by recreational diver certification agencies as necessary for any scuba diver to be considered competent to dive without direct supervision, and others are more advanced, though some diver certification and accreditation organizations may consider some of these to also be essential for minimum acceptable entry level competence. Divers are instructed and assessed on these skills during basic and advanced training, and are expected to remain competent at their level of certification, either by practice or refresher courses.

The skills include selection, functional testing, preparation and transport of scuba equipment, dive planning, preparation for a dive, kitting up for the dive, water entry, descent, breathing underwater, monitoring the dive profile (depth, time and decompression status), personal breathing gas management, situational awareness, communicating with the dive team, buoyancy and trim control, mobility in the water, ascent, emergency and rescue procedures, exit from the water, unkitting after the dive, cleaning and preparation of equipment for storage and recording the dive, within the scope of the diver's certification.

Some scuba skills are only relevant to specific environments, activities or equipment. (Full article...)
A dive team listens to a safety brief from their dive supervisor

The diving supervisor is the professional diving team member who is directly responsible for the diving operation's safety and the management of any incidents or accidents that may occur during the operation; the supervisor is required to be available at the control point of the diving operation for the diving operation's duration, and to manage the planned dive and any contingencies that may occur. Details of competence, requirements, qualifications, registration and formal appointment differ depending on jurisdiction and relevant codes of practice. Diving supervisors are used in commercial diving, military diving, public safety diving and scientific diving operations.

The control point is the place where the supervisor can best monitor the status of the diver and progress of the dive. For scuba dives this is commonly on deck of the dive boat where there is a good view of the surface above the operational area, or on the shore at a nearby point where the divers can be seen when surfaced. For surface supplied diving, the view of the water is usually still necessary, and a view of the line tenders handling the umbilicals is also required, unless there is live video feed from the divers and two-way audio communications with the tenders. The control position also includes the gas panel and communications panel, so the supervisor can remain as fully informed as practicable of the status of the divers and their life support systems during the dive. For bell diving and saturation diving the situation is more complex and the control position may well be inside a compartment where the communications, control and monitoring equipment for the bell and life-support systems are set up.

In recreational diving the term is used to refer to persons managing a recreational dive, with certification such as Divemaster,
Dive Control Specialist, Dive Coordinator, etc. (Full article...)

Ciencia del buceo

Índice de la ciencia del buceo submarino

La sobresaturación ocurre con una solución química cuando la concentración de un soluto excede la concentración especificada por el valor de solubilidad en equilibrio. Más comúnmente, el término se aplica a una solución de un sólido en un líquido. Una solución sobresaturada está en unestado metaestable ; se puede llevar al equilibrio obligando a que el exceso de soluto se separe de la solución. El término también se puede aplicar a una mezcla de gases. ( Artículo completo ... )
The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, enabling submersion for an extended time.

The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including adult humans, babies up to 6 months old (see infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins.

The diving reflex is triggered specifically by chilling and wetting the nostrils and face while breath-holding, and is sustained via neural processing originating in the carotid chemoreceptors. The most noticeable effects are on the cardiovascular system, which displays peripheral vasoconstriction, slowed heart rate, redirection of blood to the vital organs to conserve oxygen, release of red blood cells stored in the spleen, and, in humans, heart rhythm irregularities. Although aquatic animals have evolved profound physiological adaptations to conserve oxygen during submersion, the apnea and its duration, bradycardia, vasoconstriction, and redistribution of cardiac output occur also in terrestrial animals as a neural response, but the effects are more profound in natural divers. (Full article...)
Scuba diver decompressing at a planned stop during ascent from a dive

Decompression theory is the study and modelling of the transfer of the inert gas component of breathing gases from the gas in the lungs to the tissues and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure. In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work, this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure, but astronauts, high altitude mountaineers, and travellers in aircraft which are not pressurised to sea level pressure, are generally exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the symptoms caused by decompression occur during or within a relatively short period of hours, or occasionally days, after a significant pressure reduction.

The term "decompression" derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms known as decompression sickness, and also delays the elimination of the gas.

Decompression modeling attempts to explain and predict the mechanism of gas elimination and bubble formation within the organism during and after changes in ambient pressure, and provides mathematical models which attempt to predict acceptably low risk and reasonably practicable procedures for decompression in the field.
Both deterministic and probabilistic models have been used, and are still in use. (Full article...)
In diving, the oxygen window is the difference between the partial pressure of oxygen (ppO₂) in arterial blood and the ppO₂ in body tissues. It is caused by metabolic consumption of oxygen. (Full article...)
Scuba diver decompressing at a planned stop during ascent from a dive

The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: "Saturation diving"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.

The absorption of gases in liquids depends on the solubility of the specific gas in the specific liquid, the concentration of gas, customarily measured by partial pressure, and temperature. In the study of decompression theory the behaviour of gases dissolved in the tissues is investigated and modeled for variations of pressure over time. Once dissolved, distribution of the dissolved gas may be by diffusion, where there is no bulk flow of the solvent, or by perfusion where the solvent (blood) is circulated around the diver's body, where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower concentration. Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas, the concentration in the tissues will stabilise, or saturate, at a rate depending on the solubility, diffusion rate and perfusion. If the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues, there will be a tendency for gas to return from the tissues to the breathing gas. This is known as outgassing, and occurs during decompression, when the reduction in ambient pressure or a change of breathing gas reduces the partial pressure of the inert gas in the lungs.

The combined concentrations of gases in any given tissue will depend on the history of pressure and gas composition. Under equilibrium conditions, the total concentration of dissolved gases will be less than the ambient pressure, as oxygen is metabolised in the tissues, and the carbon dioxide produced is much more soluble. However, during a reduction in ambient pressure, the rate of pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubbles will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as Decompression sickness.

The actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and the solubility of gases in specific tissues are not generally known, and vary considerably. However mathematical models have been proposed which approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent, and these models are used to predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given pressure exposure profile. (Full article...)
Scuba diver with bifocal lenses fitted to a mask

Underwater, objects are less visible because of lower levels of natural illumination caused by rapid attenuation of light with distance passed through the water. They are also blurred by scattering of light between the object and the viewer, also resulting in lower contrast. These effects vary with wavelength of the light, and color and turbidity of the water. The vertebrate eye is usually either optimised for underwater vision or air vision, as is the case in the human eye. The visual acuity of the air-optimised eye is severely adversely affected by the difference in refractive index between air and water when immersed in direct contact. Provision of an airspace between the cornea and the water can compensate, but has the side effect of scale and distance distortion. The diver learns to compensate for these distortions. Artificial illumination is effective to improve illumination at short range.

Stereoscopic acuity, the ability to judge relative distances of different objects, is considerably reduced underwater, and this is affected by the field of vision. A narrow field of vision caused by a small viewport in a helmet results in greatly reduced stereoacuity, and associated loss of hand-eye coordination.

At very short range in clear water distance is underestimated, in accordance with magnification due to refraction through the flat lens of the mask, but at greater distances - greater than arm's reach, the distance tends to be overestimated to a degree influenced by turbidity. Both relative and absolute depth perception are reduced underwater. Loss of contrast results in overestimation, and magnification effects account for underestimation at short range.

Divers can to a large extent adapt to these effects over time and with practice.

Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. The human eye is adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), effectively eliminating the cornea's focusing properties. When immersed in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they are focused behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia. (Full article...)
The ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as a gas or liquid, in contact with the object. (Full article...)
Turbidity standards of 5, 50, and 500 NTU

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality.

Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid.

Turbidity (or haze) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2.5° from the incoming light direction. (Full article...)
In a mixture of gases, each constituent gas has a partial pressure which is the notional pressure of that constituent gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature. The total pressure of an ideal gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture (Dalton's Law).

The partial pressure of a gas is a measure of thermodynamic activity of the gas's molecules. Gases dissolve, diffuse, and react according to their partial pressures, and not according to their concentrations in gas mixtures or liquids. This general property of gases is also true in chemical reactions of gases in biology. For example, the necessary amount of oxygen for human respiration, and the amount that is toxic, is set by the partial pressure of oxygen alone. This is true across a very wide range of different concentrations of oxygen present in various inhaled breathing gases or dissolved in blood. The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are important parameters in tests of arterial blood gases, but can also be measured in, for example, cerebrospinal fluid. (Full article...)
Graph showing a tropical ocean thermocline (depth vs. temperature). Note the rapid change between 100 and 1000 meters. The temperature is nearly constant after 1500 meters depth.

A thermocline (also known as the thermal layer or the metalimnion in lakes) is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid (e.g. water, as in an ocean or lake; or air, e.g. an atmosphere) in which temperature changes more drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below. In the ocean, the thermocline divides the upper mixed layer from the calm deep water below.

Depending largely on season, latitude, and turbulent mixing by wind, thermoclines may be a semi-permanent feature of the body of water in which they occur, or they may form temporarily in response to phenomena such as the radiative heating/cooling of surface water during the day/night. Factors that affect the depth and thickness of a thermocline include seasonal weather variations, latitude, and local environmental conditions, such as tides and currents. (Full article...)
Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water. The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions, upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a.

The increased availability of nutrients in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary production and thus fishery production. Approximately 25% of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5% of the total ocean area. Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields. (Full article...)
Dead space is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused. In other words, not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur.

Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space.
1. Carbon dioxide is retained, making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible.
2. Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, improving O₂ uptake.
3. Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by mucociliary transport.
4. Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus.
In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O₂ and CO₂ levels. In adults, it is usually in the range of 150 mL.

Dead space can be increased (and better envisioned) by breathing through a long tube, such as a snorkel. Even though one end of the snorkel is open to the air, when the wearer breathes in, they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation. Thus, a snorkel increases the person's dead space by adding even more "airway" that doesn't participate in gas exchange. (Full article...)
Work of breathing (WOB) is the energy expended to inhale and exhale a breathing gas. It is usually expressed as work per unit volume, for example, joules/litre, or as a work rate (power), such as joules/min or equivalent units, as it is not particularly useful without a reference to volume or time. It can be calculated in terms of the pulmonary pressure multiplied by the change in pulmonary volume, or in terms of the oxygen consumption attributable to breathing.
In a normal resting state the work of breathing constitutes about 5% of the total body oxygen consumption. It can increase considerably due to illness or constraints on gas flow imposed by breathing apparatus, ambient pressure, or breathing gas composition. (Full article...)
Example for a dissolved solid (left).

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and presence of other chemicals (including changes to the pH) of the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute.

Insolubility is the inability to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.

Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas (see vapor–liquid equilibrium instead).

Under certain conditions, the equilibrium solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution, which is metastable. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its crystalline form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when 'seed' crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs. Phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point.

Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, because the solution might also occur because of a chemical reaction. For example, zinc dissolves (with effervescence) in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid.

The solubility of a substance is an entirely different property from the rate of solution, which is how fast it dissolves. The smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization.

Crucially, solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic and biochemistry. In all cases it will depend on the physical conditions (temperature, pressure and concentration) and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned.
By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a wide range of organic substances. This is a crucial factor in acidity and alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. (Full article...)
Cold shock response is a series of cardio-respiratory responses caused by sudden immersion in cold water.

In cold water immersions, cold shock response is perhaps the most common cause of death, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which, if underwater, can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body. For people with existing cardiovascular disease, the additional workload can result in cardiac arrest. Inhalation of water (and thus drowning) may result from hyperventilation. Some people are much better able to survive swimming in very cold water due to body or mental conditioning. (Full article...)

Buceo ocupacional

Índice de buceo ocupacional

La demolición submarina se refiere a la destrucción o neutralización deliberada de obstáculos submarinos naturales o artificiales, tanto con fines militares como civiles. ( Artículo completo ... )
US Navy Diver being decontaminated after a dive. If the contamination was serious, the decontamination team would have been wearing hazmat gear

Hazmat diving is underwater diving in a known hazardous materials environment. The environment may be contaminated by hazardous materials, the diving medium may be inherently a hazardous material, or the environment in which the diving medium is situated may include hazardous materials with a significant risk of exposure to these materials to members of the diving team. Special precautions, equipment and procedures are associated with hazmat diving. (Full article...)
Drawing to scale, underwater

Underwater archaeology is archaeology practiced underwater. As with all other branches of archaeology, it evolved from its roots in pre-history and in the classical era to include sites from the historical and industrial eras. Its acceptance has been a relatively late development due to the difficulties of accessing and working underwater sites, and because the application of archaeology to underwater sites initially emerged from the skills and tools developed by shipwreck salvagers. As a result, underwater archaeology initially struggled to establish itself as bona fide archaeological research. The situation changed when universities began teaching the subject and when a theoretical and practical base for the sub-discipline was firmly established. Underwater archaeology now has a number of branches including, after it became broadly accepted in the late 1980s, maritime archaeology: the scientifically based study of past human life, behaviours and cultures and their activities in, on, around and (lately) under the sea, estuaries and rivers. This is most often effected using the physical remains found in, around or under salt or fresh water or buried beneath water-logged sediment. In recent years, the study of submerged WWII sites and of submerged aircraft in the form of underwater aviation archaeology have also emerged as bona fide activity.

Though often mistaken as such, underwater archaeology is not restricted to the study of shipwrecks. Changes in sea level because of local seismic events such as the earthquakes that devastated Port Royal and Alexandria or more widespread climatic changes on a continental scale mean that some sites of human occupation that were once on dry land are now submerged. At the end of the last ice age, the North Sea was a great plain, and anthropological material, as well as the remains of animals such as mammoths, are sometimes recovered by trawlers. Also, because human societies have always made use of water, sometimes the remains of structures that these societies built underwater still exist (such as the foundations of crannogs, bridges and harbours) when traces on dry land have been lost. As a result, underwater archaeological sites cover a vast range including: submerged indigenous sites and places where people once lived or visited that have been subsequently covered by water due to rising sea levels; wells, cenotes, wrecks (shipwrecks; aircraft); the remains of structures created in water (such as crannogs, bridges or harbours); other port-related structures; refuse or debris sites where people disposed of their waste, garbage and other items, such as ships, aircraft, munitions and machinery, by dumping into the water.

Underwater archaeology is often complementary to archaeological research on terrestrial sites because the two are often linked by many and various elements including geographic, social, political, economic and other considerations. As a result, a study of an archaeological landscape can involve a multidisciplinary approach requiring the inclusion of many specialists from a variety of disciplines including prehistory, historical archaeology, maritime archaeology, and anthropology. There are many examples. One is the wreck of the VOC ship Zuytdorp lost in 1711 on the coast of Western Australia, where there remains considerable speculation that some of the crew survived and, after establishing themselves on shore, intermixed with indigenous tribes from the area. The archaeological signature at this site also now extends into the interaction between indigenous people and the European pastoralists who entered the area in the mid-19th century. (Full article...)
A divemaster (DM) is a role that includes organising and leading recreational dives, particularly in a professional capacity, and is a qualification used in many parts of the world in recreational scuba diving for a diver who has supervisory responsibility for a group of divers and as a dive guide. As well as being a generic term, 'Divemaster' is the title of the first professional rating of many training agencies, such as PADI, SSI, SDI, NASE, except NAUI, which rates a NAUI Divemaster under a NAUI Instructor but above a NAUI Assistant Instructor. The divemaster certification is generally equivalent to the requirements of ISO 24801-3 Dive Leader.

The BSAC recognizes several agencies' divemaster certificates as equivalent to BSAC Dive Leader, but not to BSAC Advanced Diver. The converse may not be true.

The certification is a prerequisite for training as an instructor in recreational diving with the professional agencies except NAUI, where it is an optional step, because of the different position of the NAUI Divemaster in the NAUI hierarchy. (Full article...)
A United States Navy Mass Communication Specialist conducting underwater photography training

Underwater photography is the process of taking photographs while under water. It is usually done while scuba diving, but can be done while diving on surface supply, snorkeling, swimming, from a submersible or remotely operated underwater vehicle, or from automated cameras lowered from the surface.

Underwater photography can also be categorised as an art form and a method for recording data.
Successful underwater imaging is usually done with specialized equipment and techniques. However, it offers exciting and rare photographic opportunities. Animals such as fish and marine mammals are common subjects, but photographers also pursue shipwrecks, submerged cave systems, underwater "landscapes", invertebrates, seaweeds, geological features, and portraits of fellow divers. (Full article...)
Nesconset fire department scuba rescue team on training exercise

Public safety diving is underwater diving conducted as part of law enforcement and search and rescue. Public safety divers differ from recreational, scientific and commercial divers who can generally plan the date, time, and location of a dive, and dive only if the conditions are conducive to the task. Public safety divers respond to emergencies 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and may be required to dive in the middle of the night, during inclement weather, in zero visibility "black water," or in waters polluted by chemicals and biohazards. (Full article...)
Underwater videographer

Underwater videography is the branch of electronic underwater photography concerned with capturing underwater moving images as a recreational diving, scientific, commercial, documentary, or filmmaking activity. (Full article...)
Public safety diving team members bring in a casualty

Underwater search and recovery is the process of locating and recovering underwater objects, often by divers, but also by the use of submersibles, remotely operated vehicles and electronic equipment on surface vessels.

Most underwater search and recovery is done by professional divers as part of commercial marine salvage operations, military operations, emergency services, or law enforcement activities.

Minor aspects of search and recovery are also considered within the scope of recreational diving. (Full article...)
Virginia-class submarine

Underwater warfare is one of the three operational areas of naval warfare, the others being surface warfare and aerial warfare. It refers to combat conducted underwater such as:
- Actions by submarines actions, and anti-submarine warfare, i.e. warfare between submarines, other submarines and surface ships; combat airplanes and helicopters may also be engaged when launching special dive-bombs and torpedo-missiles against submarines;
- Underwater special operations, considering:
  Military diving sabotage against ships and ports.
  Anti-frogman techniques.
  Reconnaissance tasks.
(Full article...)
Pearl diver in Japan

Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting used to be prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan. Pearl diving began in the 1850s on the northern and north-western coast of Australia, and started in the Torres Strait, off Far North Queensland in the 1870s.

In most cases the pearl-bearing molluscs live at depths where they are not manually accessible from the surface, and diving or the use of some form of tool is needed to reach them. Historically the molluscs were retrieved by freediving, a technique where the diver descends to the bottom, collects what they can, and surfaces on a single breath. The diving mask improved the ability of the diver to see while underwater. When the surface-supplied diving helmet became available for underwater work, it was also applied to the task of pearl hunting, and the associated activity of collecting pearl shell as a raw material for the manufacture of buttons, inlays and other decorative work. The surface supplied diving helmet greatly extended the time the diver could stay at depth, and introduced the previously unfamiliar hazards of barotrauma of ascent and decompression sickness. (Full article...)
Scuba diving education levels as used by ISO, PADI, CMAS, SSI and NAUI

Recreational diver training is the process of developing knowledge and understanding of the basic principles, and the skills and procedures for the use of scuba equipment so that the diver is able to dive for recreational purposes with acceptable risk using the type of equipment and in similar conditions to those experienced during training.

Not only is the underwater environment hazardous but the diving equipment itself can be dangerous. There are problems that divers must learn to avoid and manage when they do occur. Divers need repeated practice and a gradual increase in challenge to develop and internalise the skills needed to control the equipment, to respond effective if they encounter difficulties, and to build confidence in their equipment and themselves. Diver practical training starts with simple but essential procedures, and builds on them until complex procedures can be managed effectively. This may be broken up into several short training programmes, with certification issued for each stage, or combined into a few more substantial programmes with certification issued when all the skills have been mastered.

Many diver training organizations exist, throughout the world, offering diver training leading to certification: the issuing of a "diving certification card," also known as a "C-card," or qualification card. This diving certification model originated at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1952 after two divers died while using university-owned equipment and the SIO instituted a system where a card was issued after training as evidence of competence. Diving instructors affiliated to a diving certification agency may work independently or through a university, a dive club, a dive school or a dive shop. They will offer courses that should meet, or exceed, the standards of the certification organization that will certify the divers attending the course. The International Organization for Standardization has approved six recreational diving standards that may be implemented worldwide, and some of the standards developed by the (United States) RSTC are consistent with the applicable ISO Standards:

The initial open water training for a person who is medically fit to dive and a reasonably competent swimmer is relatively short. Many dive shops in popular holiday locations offer courses intended to teach a novice to dive in a few days, which can be combined with diving on the vacation. Other instructors and dive schools will provide more thorough training, which generally takes longer. Dive operators, dive shops, and cylinder filling stations may refuse to allow uncertified people to dive with them, hire diving equipment or have their diving cylinders filled. This may be an agency standard, company policy, or specified by legislation. (Full article...)
Salvage diving is the diving work associated with the recovery of all or part of ships, their cargoes, aircraft, and other vehicles and structures which have sunk or fallen into water. In the case of ships it may also refer to repair work done to make an abandoned or distressed but still floating vessel more suitable for towing or propulsion under its own power. The recreational/technical activity known as wreck diving is generally not considered salvage work, though some recovery of artifacts may be done by recreational divers.

Most salvage diving is commercial work, or military work, depending on the diving contractor and the purpose for the salvage operation, Similar underwater work may be done by divers as part of forensic investigations into accidents, in which case the procedures may be more closely allied with underwater archaeology than the more basic procedures of maximum cost/benefit expected in commercial and military operations.

Clearance diving, the removal of obstructions and hazards to navigation, is closely related to salvage diving, but has a different purpose, in that the objects to be removed are not intended to be recovered, just removed or reduced to a condition where they no longer constitute a hazard. Many of the techniques and procedures used in clearance diving are also used in salvage work. (Full article...)
Surface supplied diving equipment on display

Commercial offshore diving, sometimes shortened to just offshore diving, generally refers to the branch of commercial diving, with divers working in support of the exploration and production sector of the oil and gas industry in places such as the Gulf of Mexico in the United States, the North Sea in the United Kingdom and Norway, and along the coast of Brazil. The work in this area of the industry includes maintenance of oil platforms and the building of underwater structures. In this context "offshore" implies that the diving work is done outside of national boundaries. Technically it also refers to any diving done in the international offshore waters outside of the territorial waters of a state, where national legislation does not apply. Most commercial offshore diving is in the Exclusive Economic Zone of a state, and much of it is outside the territorial waters. Offshore diving beyond the EEZ does also occur, and is often for scientific purposes.

Equipment used for commercial offshore diving tends to be surface supplied equipment but this varies according to the work and location. For instance, divers in the Gulf of Mexico may use wetsuits whilst North Sea divers need dry suits or even hot water suits because of the low temperature of the water.

Diving work in support of the offshore oil and gas industries is usually contract based.

Saturation diving is standard practice for bottom work at many of the deeper offshore sites, and allows more effective use of the diver's time while reducing the risk of decompression sickness. Surface oriented air diving is more usual in shallower water. (Full article...)
Sponge diver putting on his diving suit in Tarpon Springs, Florida.

Sponge diving is the oldest known form of the original art of underwater diving . Its purpose is to retrieve natural sponges for human use. (Full article...)
Instructor and learner divers practicing scuba skills in confined water

A diving instructor is a person who trains and usually also assesses competence of underwater divers. This includes freedivers, recreational divers including the subcategory technical divers, and professional divers which includes military, commercial, public safety and scientific divers.

Depending on the jurisdiction, there will generally be specific published codes of practice and guidelines for training, competence and registration of diving instructors, as they have a duty of care to their clients, and operate in an environment with intrinsic hazards which may be unfamiliar to the lay person. Training and assessment will generally follow adiver training standard.

Recreational diving instructors are usually registered members of one or more recreational diver certification agencies, and are generally registered to train and assess divers against specified certification standards. Military diving instructors are generally members of the armed force for which they train personnel. Commercial diving instructors may be required to register with national government appointed organisations, and comply with specific training and assessment standards, but there may be other requirements in some parts of the world. (Full article...)

Buceo recreativo

Índice de buceo recreativo

Monumento al pescador submarino en Croacia

La pesca submarina es un método de pesca que se ha utilizado en todo el mundo durante milenios. Las primeras civilizaciones estaban familiarizadas con la costumbre de sacar peces de ríos y arroyos con palos afilados.

Actualmente, la pesca submarina hace uso de fusiles y eslingas depropulsión elástica, o fusiles de propulsión neumática de gas comprimido, para golpear a los peces cazados. Se han desarrollado técnicas y equipos especializados para varios tipos de entornos acuáticos y peces objetivo.

La pesca submarina se puede realizar mediante buceo libre , snorkel o buceo.técnicas, pero la pesca submarina con equipo de buceo es ilegal en algunos países. El uso de arpones de propulsión mecánica también está prohibido en algunos países y jurisdicciones. La pesca submarina es muy selectiva, normalmente no utiliza cebo y no tiene capturas accesorias . ( Artículo completo ... )
Sharks swimming outside shark-proof cage with people inside.

Shark cage diving is underwater diving or snorkeling where the observer remains inside a protective cage designed to prevent sharks from making contact with the divers. Shark cage diving is used for scientific observation, underwater cinematography, and as a tourist activity. Sharks may be attracted to the vicinity of the cage by the use of bait, in a procedure known as chumming, which has attracted some controversy as it is claimed to potentially alter the natural behaviour of sharks in the vicinity of swimmers.

Similar cages are also used purely as a protective measure for divers working in waters where potentially dangerous shark species are known to be present. In this application the shark-proof cage may be used as a refuge, or as a diving stage during descent and ascent, particularly during staged decompression where the divers may be vulnerable while constrained to a specific depth in mid-water for several minutes. In other applications a mobile cage may be carried by the diver while harvesting organisms such as abalone. (Full article...)
A United States Navy Mass Communication Specialist conducting underwater photography training

Underwater photography is the process of taking photographs while under water. It is usually done while scuba diving, but can be done while diving on surface supply, snorkeling, swimming, from a submersible or remotely operated underwater vehicle, or from automated cameras lowered from the surface.

Underwater photography can also be categorised as an art form and a method for recording data.
Successful underwater imaging is usually done with specialized equipment and techniques. However, it offers exciting and rare photographic opportunities. Animals such as fish and marine mammals are common subjects, but photographers also pursue shipwrecks, submerged cave systems, underwater "landscapes", invertebrates, seaweeds, geological features, and portraits of fellow divers. (Full article...)
Underwater football match involving USN personnel in Panama City, Florida on June 3, 2011

Underwater football is a two-team underwater sport that shares common elements with underwater hockey and underwater rugby. As with both of those games, it is played in a swimming pool with snorkeling equipment (mask, snorkel, and fins).

The goal of the game is to manoeuvre (by carrying and passing) a slightly negatively buoyant ball from one side of a pool to the other by players who are completely submerged underwater. Scoring is achieved by placing the ball (under control) in the gutter on the side of the pool. Variations include using a toy rubber torpedo as the ball, and weighing down buckets to rest on the bottom and serve as goals.

It is played in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan. (Full article...)
Underwater rugby match in Norway.

Underwater rugby (UWR) is an underwater team sport. During a match two teams try to score a negatively buoyant ball (filled with saltwater) into the opponents’ goal at the bottom of a swimming pool. It originated from within the physical fitness training regime existing in German diving clubs during the early 1960s and has little in common with rugby football except for the name. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 1978 and was first played as a world championship in 1980. (Full article...)
Beginner diver in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands

Recreational diving or sport diving is diving for the purpose of leisure and enjoyment, usually when using scuba equipment. The term "recreational diving" may also be used in contradistinction to "technical diving", a more demanding aspect of recreational diving which requires greater levels of training, experience and equipment to compensate for the more hazardous conditions associated with the disciplines. Breath-hold diving for recreation also fits into the broader scope of the term, but this article covers the commonly used meaning of scuba diving for recreational purposes, where the diver is not constrained from making a direct near-vertical ascent to the surface at any point during the dive, and risk is considered low.

The equipment used for recreational diving is mostly open circuit scuba, though semi closed and fully automated electronic closed circuit rebreathers may be included in the scope of recreational diving. Risk is managed by training the diver in a range of standardised procedures and skills appropriate to the equipment the diver chooses to use and the environment in which the diver plans to dive. Further experience and development of skills by practice will increase the diver's ability to dive safely. Specialty training is made available by the recreational diver training industry and diving clubs to increase the range of environments and venues the diver can enjoy at an acceptable level of risk.

Reasons to dive and preferred diving activities may vary during the personal development of a recreational diver, and may depend on their psychological profile and their level of dedication to the activity. Most divers average less than 8 dives per year, but some total several thousand dives over a few decades and continue diving into their 60s and 70s, occasionally older.
Recreational divers may frequent local dive sites or dive as tourists at more distant venues known for desirable underwater environments. An economically significant diving tourism industry services recreational divers, providing equipment, training and diving experiences, generally by specialist providers known as dive centers, dive schools, live-aboard and day charter and basic dive boats.

Legal constraints on recreational diving vary considerably across jurisdictions. Recreational diving may be industry regulated or regulated by law to some extent. The legal responsibility for recreational diving service providers is usually limited as far as possible by waivers which they require the customer to sign before engaging in any diving activity. The extent of responsibility of recreational buddy divers is unclear, but buddy diving is generally recommended by recreational diver training agencies as safer than solo diving, and some service providers insist that customers dive in buddy pairs. (Full article...)
Underwater sports is a group of competitive sports using one or a combination of the following underwater diving techniques - breath-hold, snorkelling or scuba including the use of equipment such as diving masks and fins. These sports are conducted in the natural environment at sites such as open water and sheltered or confined water such as lakes and in artificial aquatic environments such as swimming pools. Underwater sports include the following - aquathlon (i.e. underwater wrestling), finswimming, freediving, spearfishing, sport diving, underwater football, underwater hockey, underwater ice hockey, underwater orienteering, underwater photography, underwater rugby, underwater target shooting and underwater video. (Full article...)
Diver returning from a 600 ft (183 m) dive

Technical diving (also referred to as tec diving or tech diving) is scuba diving that exceeds the agency-specified limits of recreational diving for non-professional purposes. Technical diving may expose the diver to hazards beyond those normally associated with recreational diving, and to a greater risk of serious injury or death. The risk may be reduced by appropriate skills, knowledge and experience, and by using suitable equipment and procedures. The skills may be developed through appropriate specialised training and experience. The equipment often involves breathing gases other than air or standard nitrox mixtures, and multiple gas sources.

The term technical diving has been credited to Michael Menduno, who was editor of the (now defunct) diving magazine aquaCorps Journal. The concept and term, technical diving, are both relatively recent advents, although divers have been engaging in what is now commonly referred to as technical diving for decades. (Full article...)
DIR divers

Doing It Right (DIR) is a holistic approach to scuba diving that encompasses several essential elements, including fundamental diving skills, teamwork, physical fitness, and streamlined and minimalistic equipment configurations. DIR proponents maintain that through these elements, safety is improved by standardizing equipment configuration and dive-team procedures for preventing and dealing with emergencies.

DIR evolved out of the efforts of divers involved in the Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP) during the 1990s, who were seeking ways of reducing the fatality rate in those cave systems. The DIR philosophy is now used as a basis for teaching scuba diving from entry-level to technical and cave qualifications by several organizations, such as Global Underwater Explorers (GUE), Unified Team Diving (UTD) and InnerSpace Explorers (ISE). (Full article...)
Underwater Target Shooting is an underwater sport/shooting sport that tests a competitors’ ability to accurately use a speargun via a set of individual and team events conducted in a swimming pool using freediving or Apnoea technique. The sport was developed in France during the early 1980s and is currently practiced mainly in Europe. It is known as Tir sur cible subaquatique in French and as Tiro al Blanco Subacuático in Spanish. (Full article...)
Skandalopetra diving dates from ancient Greece, when it was used by sponge fishermen, and has been re-discovered in recent years as a freediving discipline. It was in this discipline that the first world record in freediving was registered, when the Greek sponge fisherman Stathis Chantzis dived to a depth of 83 m (272 ft). It consists of a variable ballast dive using a skandalopetra tied to a rope. A companion on a boat recovers the diver by pulling the rope up after the descent, and keeps a watch on the diver from the surface. (Full article...)
Below is the list of current Commonwealth Records for finswimming. The records are ratified by the Commonwealth Finswimming Committee, which is made up of the National Finswimming Governing Bodies of Commonwealth of Nations. The First Commonwealth Championships were held in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia in February 2007.

This page does not include the Commonwealth Finswimming Championship Records. This list echoes that found on the Swansea Finswimming Club Website and the British Finswimming Association documents website. These records are correct as of 4 December 2008.
Times set before the First Commonwealth Championships have been allowed. All records have been accepted as a result of documentary evidence of the events or time-trials that they were set at.

Currently there are only four nations hold records: Australia (10), England (8), New Zealand (7) and Singapore (5). Finswimming is currently competed in eight Commonwealth Countries (including home nations); Australia, Canada, Cyprus, England, New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa and Wales (). (Full article...)
Finswimming with monofin

Finswimming is an underwater sport consisting of four techniques involving swimming with the use of fins either on the water's surface using a snorkel with either monofins or bifins or underwater with monofin either by holding one's breath or using open circuit scuba diving equipment. Events exist over distances similar to swimming competitions for both swimming pool and open water venues. Competition at world and continental level is organised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). The sport's first world championship was held in 1976. It also has been featured at the World Games as a trend sport since 1981 and was demonstrated at the 2015 European Games in June 2015. (Full article...)
Below is the list of current British records in finswimming. The records are ratified by the British Finswimming Association.

This list echoes that found on the Monofin: Finswimming In the UK Website. These records are correct as of 1 April 2018.

In December 2017 British Finswimming Association made a decision to maintain the National records separately for adults and juniors in line with CMAS regulations. (Full article...)
Underwater ice hockey (also called Sub-aqua ice hockey) is a minor extreme sport that is a variant of ice hockey. It is played upside-down underneath frozen pools or ponds. Participants wear diving masks, fins and wetsuits and use the underside of the frozen surface as the playing area or rink for a floating puck. Competitors do not use any breathing apparatus, but instead surface for air every 30 seconds or so.

It is not to be confused with underwater hockey, in which the floor of a swimming pool and a sinking puck are used. (Full article...)

Peligros, incidentes, seguridad y leyes de buceo

Índice de seguridad en el buceo

Infografía de NIOSH . Los métodos de control en la parte superior del gráfico son potencialmente más efectivos y protectores que los de la parte inferior. Seguir esta jerarquía conduce normalmente a la implementación de sistemas intrínsecamente más seguros, donde el riesgo de enfermedad o lesión se ha reducido sustancialmente.

La jerarquía de control de peligros es un sistema utilizado en la industria para minimizar o eliminar la exposición a los peligros . Es un sistema ampliamente aceptado promovido por numerosas organizaciones de seguridad. Este concepto se enseña a los gerentes de la industria para que sea promovido como práctica estándar en el lugar de trabajo. También se ha utilizado para informar las políticas públicas, en campos como la seguridad vial . Se utilizan varias ilustraciones para representar este sistema, más comúnmente un triángulo.

Los controles de peligros en la jerarquía son, en orden de efectividad decreciente:
- Eliminación
- Sustitución
- Controles de ingeniería
- Controles administrativos
- Equipo de protección personal
( Artículo completo ... )
Broadly speaking, a risk assessment is the combined effort of:
1. identifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and/or the environment (i.e. hazard analysis); and
2. making judgments "on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis" while considering influencing factors (i.e. risk evaluation).
Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment determines possible mishaps, their likelihood and consequences, and the tolerances for such events. The results of this process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion. Risk assessment is an inherent part of a broader risk management strategy to help reduce any potential risk-related consequences. (Full article...)
This list identifies the legislation governing underwater diving activities listed by region. Some legislation affects only professional diving, other may affect only recreational diving, or all diving activities. The list includes primary and delegated legislation, and international standards for the conduct of diving adopted by national states, but does not include legislation or standards relating to manufacture or testing of diving equipment. (Full article...)
A code of practice can be a document that complements occupational health and safety laws and regulations to provide detailed practical guidance on how to comply with legal obligations, and should be followed unless another solution with the same or better health and safety standard is in place, or may be a document for the same purpose published by a self-regulating body to be followed by member organisations.

Codes of practice published by governments do not replace the occupational health and safety laws and regulations, and are generally issued in terms of those laws and regulations. They are intended to help understand how to comply with the requirements of regulations. A workplace inspector can refer to a code of practice when issuing an improvement or prohibition notice, and they may be admissible in court proceedings. A court may use a code of practice to establish what is reasonably practicable action to manage a specific risk. Equivalent or better ways of achieving the required work health and safety may be possible, so compliance with codes of practice is not usually mandatory, providing that any alternative systems used provide a standard of health and safety equal to or better than those recommended by the code of practice.

Organisational codes of practice do not have the same authority under law, but serve a similar purpose. Member organisations generally undertake to comply with the codes of practice as a condition of membership and may lose membership if found to be in violation of the code. (Full article...)
In tort law, a duty of care is a legal obligation which is imposed on an individual, requiring adherence to a standard of reasonable care while performing any acts that could foreseeably harm others. It is the first element that must be established to proceed with an action in negligence. The claimant must be able to show a duty of care imposed by law which the defendant has breached. In turn, breaching a duty may subject an individual to liability. The duty of care may be imposed by operation of law between individuals who have no current direct relationship (familial or contractual or otherwise) but eventually become related in some manner, as defined by common law (meaning case law).

Duty of care may be considered a formalisation of the social contract, the implicit responsibilities held by individuals towards others within society. It is not a requirement that a duty of care be defined by law, though it will often develop through the jurisprudence of common law. (Full article...)
Human factors are the physical or cognitive properties of individuals, or social behavior which is specific to humans, and influence functioning of technological systems as well as human-environment equilibria. The safety of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur. Human error can be defined as an individual's deviation from acceptable or desirable practice which culminates in undesirable or unexpected results.

Dive safety is primarily a function of four factors: the environment, equipment, individual diver performance and dive team performance. The water is a harsh and alien environment which can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver. The remaining factors must be controlled and coordinated so the diver can overcome the stresses imposed by the underwater environment and work safely. Diving equipment is crucial because it provides life support to the diver, but the majority of dive accidents are caused by individual diver panic and an associated degradation of the individual diver's performance. - M.A. Blumenberg, 1996

Human error is inevitable and most errors are minor and do not cause significant harm, but others can have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60% to 80% of all accidents.
In a high risk environment, as is the case in diving, human error is more likely to have catastrophic consequences. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career. These findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65% of recreational divers have panicked under water. Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver's judgment or performance, and may result in an accident. Human error and panic are considered to be the leading causes of dive accidents and fatalities.

Only 4.46% of the recreational diving fatalities in a 1997 study were attributable to a single contributory cause. The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well-trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in commercial Scuba diving is due to this factor. The study also concluded that it would be impossible to eliminate absolutely all minor contraindications of Scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and would bring all diving to a halt. (Full article...)
The civil liability of a recreational diver may include a duty of care to another diver during a dive. Breach of this duty that is a proximate cause of injury or loss to the other diver may lead to civil litigation for damages in compensation for the injury or loss suffered.

Participation in recreational diving implies acceptance of the inherent risks of the activity Diver training includes training in procedures known to reduce these risks to a level considered acceptable by the certification agency, and issue of certification implies that the agency accepts that the instructor has assessed the diver to be sufficiently competent in these skills at the time of assessment and to be competent to accept the associated risks. Certification relates to a set of skills and knowledge defined by the associated training standard, which also specifies the limitations on the scope of diving activities for which the diver is deemed competent. These limitations involve depth, environment and equipment that the diver has been trained to use. Intentionally diving significantly beyond the scope of certified competence is at the diver's risk, and may be construed as negligence if it puts another person at risk. Recommendations generally suggest that extending the scope should be done gradually, and preferably under the guidance of a diver experienced in similar conditions. The training agencies usually specify that any extension of scope should only be done by further training under a registered instructor, but this is not always practicable, or even possible, as there can always be circumstances that differ from those experienced during training.

Retention of skills requires exercise of those skills, and prolonged periods between dives will degrade skills by unpredictable amounts. This is recognised by training agencies which require instructors to keep in date, and recommend that divers take part in refresher courses after long periods of diving inactivity. (Full article...)
Example of risk assessment: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station

Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO 31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives) followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.

Risks can come from various sources including uncertainty in international markets, threats from project failures (at any phase in design, development, production, or sustaining of life-cycles), legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters, deliberate attack from an adversary, or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause. There are two types of events i.e. negative events can be classified as risks while positive events are classified as opportunities. Risk management standards have been developed by various institutions, including the Project Management Institute, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, actuarial societies, and ISO standards. Methods, definitions and goals vary widely according to whether the risk management method is in the context of project management, security, engineering, industrial processes, financial portfolios, actuarial assessments, or public health and safety.

Strategies to manage threats (uncertainties with negative consequences) typically include avoiding the threat, reducing the negative effect or probability of the threat, transferring all or part of the threat to another party, and even retaining some or all of the potential or actual consequences of a particular threat. The opposite of these strategies can be used to respond to opportunities (uncertain future states with benefits).

Certain risk management standards have been criticized for having no measurable improvement on risk, whereas the confidence in estimates and decisions seems to increase. (Full article...)
Folding lockout hasp, allowing the use of up to six padlocks to secure a device.
Lock Out, Tag Out (LOTO) is a safety procedure used in industry and research settings to ensure that dangerous machines are properly shut off and not able to be started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or repair work. It requires that hazardous energy sources be "isolated and rendered inoperative" before work is started on the equipment in question. The isolated power sources are then locked and a tag is placed on the lock identifying the worker who placed it. The worker then holds the key for the lock, ensuring that only he or she can remove the lock and start the machine. This prevents accidental startup of a machine while it is in a hazardous state or while a worker is in direct contact with it.

Lockout-tagout is used across industries as a safe method of working on hazardous equipment and is mandated by law in some countries. (Full article...)
Beaching a casualty while providing artificial respiration

Diver rescue, following an accident, is the process of avoiding or limiting further exposure to diving hazards and bringing a diver to a place of safety. A safe place is often a place where the diver cannot drown, such as a boat or dry land, where first aid can be administered and from which professional medical treatment can be sought. In the context of surface supplied diving, the place of safety for a diver with a decompression obligation is often the diving bell.

Rescue may be needed for various reasons where the diver becomes unable to manage an emergency, and there are several stages to a rescue, starting with recognising that a rescue is needed. In some cases the dive buddy identifies the need by personal observation, but in the more general case identification of the need is followed by locating the casualty. The most common and urgent diving emergencies involve loss of breathing gas, and the provision of emergency gas is the usual response. On other occasions the diver may be trapped and must be released by the rescuer. These first responses are usually followed by recovery of the distressed diver, who may be unconscious, to a place of safety with a secure supply of breathing gas, and following rescue, it may be necessary to evacuate the casualty to a place where further treatment is possible.

In all rescue operations, the rescuer must take care of their own safety and avoid becoming another casualty. In professional diving the supervisor is responsible for initiating rescue procedures, and for ensuring the safety of the dive team. The rescue is generally carried out by the stand-by diver, and for this reason the stand-by diver must be willing and competent to perform any reasonably foreseeable rescue that may be required for a planned diving operation. (Full article...)
A job safety analysis (JSA) is a procedure which helps integrate accepted safety and health principles and practices into a particular task or job operation. In a JSA, each basic step of the job is to identify potential hazards and to recommend the safest way to do the job. Other terms used to describe this procedure are job hazard analysis (JHA) and job hazard breakdown.

The terms "job" and "task" are commonly used interchangeably to mean a specific work assignment, such as "operating a grinder," "using a pressurized water extinguisher" or "changing a flat tire." JSAs are not suitable for jobs defined too broadly, for example, "overhauling an engine"; or too narrowly, for example, "positioning car jack." (Full article...)
Divers face specific physical and health risks when they go underwater with scuba or other diving equipment, or use high pressure breathing gas. Some of these factors also affect people who work in raised pressure environments out of water, for example in caissons. This article lists hazards that a diver may be exposed to during a dive, and possible consequences of these hazards, with some details of the proximate causes of the listed consequences. A listing is also given of precautions that may be taken to reduce vulnerability, either by reducing the risk or mitigating the consequences. A hazard that is understood and acknowledged may present a lower risk if appropriate precautions are taken, and the consequences may be less severe if mitigation procedures are planned and in place.

A hazard is any agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most hazards remain dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm, and when a hazard becomes active, and produces undesirable consequences, it is called an incident and may culminate in an emergency or accident. Hazard and vulnerability interact with likelihood of occurrence to create risk, which can be the probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a specific hazard, or the combined probability of undesirable consequences of all the hazards of a specific activity. The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident. The assessed risk of a dive would generally be considered unacceptable if the diver is not expected to cope with any single reasonably foreseeable incident with a significant probability of occurrence during that dive. Precisely where the line is drawn depends on circumstances. Commercial diving operations tend to be less tolerant of risk than recreational, particularly technical divers, who are less constrained by occupational health and safety legislation.

Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving are associated with certain demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous decompression illness, years since certification, dives in last year, number of diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, days diving, and being male were associated with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.

Statistics show diving fatalities comparable to motor vehicle accidents of 16.4 per 100,000 divers and 16 per 100,000 drivers. Divers Alert Network 2014 data shows there are 3.174 million recreational scuba divers in America, of which 2.351 million dive 1 to 7 times per year and 823,000 dive 8 or more times per year. It is reasonable to say that the average would be in the neighbourhood of 5 dives per year. (Full article...)
Investigation of diving accidents includes investigations into the causes of reportable incidents in professional diving and recreational diving accidents, usually when there is a fatality or litigation for gross negligence.

An investigation of some kind usually follows a fatal diving accident, or one in which litigation is expected. There may be several investigations with different agendas. If police are involved, they generally look for evidence of a crime. In the US the Coastguard will usually investigate if there is a death when diving from a vessel in coastal waters. Health and safety administration officials may investigate when the diver was injured or killed at work. When a death occurs during an organised recreational activity, the certification agency's insurers will usually send an investigator to look into possible liability issues. The investigation may occur almost immediately to some considerable time after the event. In most cases the body will have been recovered and resuscitation attempted, and in this process equipment is usually removed and may be damaged or lost, or the evidence compromised by handling. Witnesses may have dispersed, and equipment is often mishandled by the investigating authorities who are often unfamiliar with the equipment and may store it improperly, which can destroy evidence and compromise findings.

Recreational diving accidents are usually relatively uncomplicated, but accidents involving an extended range environment of specialised equipment may require expertise beyond the experience of any one investigator. This is a particular issue when rebreather equipment is involved.

For every incident in which someone is injured of killed, it has been estimated that a relatively large number of "near miss" incidents occur, which the diver manages well enough to avoid harm. Ideally these will be recorded, analysed for cause, reported, and the results made public, so that similar incidents can be avoided in the future. (Full article...)
A dive team listens to a safety brief from their dive supervisor

The diving supervisor is the professional diving team member who is directly responsible for the diving operation's safety and the management of any incidents or accidents that may occur during the operation; the supervisor is required to be available at the control point of the diving operation for the diving operation's duration, and to manage the planned dive and any contingencies that may occur. Details of competence, requirements, qualifications, registration and formal appointment differ depending on jurisdiction and relevant codes of practice. Diving supervisors are used in commercial diving, military diving, public safety diving and scientific diving operations.

The control point is the place where the supervisor can best monitor the status of the diver and progress of the dive. For scuba dives this is commonly on deck of the dive boat where there is a good view of the surface above the operational area, or on the shore at a nearby point where the divers can be seen when surfaced. For surface supplied diving, the view of the water is usually still necessary, and a view of the line tenders handling the umbilicals is also required, unless there is live video feed from the divers and two-way audio communications with the tenders. The control position also includes the gas panel and communications panel, so the supervisor can remain as fully informed as practicable of the status of the divers and their life support systems during the dive. For bell diving and saturation diving the situation is more complex and the control position may well be inside a compartment where the communications, control and monitoring equipment for the bell and life-support systems are set up.

In recreational diving the term is used to refer to persons managing a recreational dive, with certification such as Divemaster,
Dive Control Specialist, Dive Coordinator, etc. (Full article...)
Divers face specific physical and health risks when they go underwater with scuba or other diving equipment, or use high pressure breathing gas. Some of these factors also affect people who work in raised pressure environments out of water, for example in caissons. This article lists hazards that a diver may be exposed to during a dive, and possible consequences of these hazards, with some details of the proximate causes of the listed consequences. A listing is also given of precautions that may be taken to reduce vulnerability, either by reducing the risk or mitigating the consequences. A hazard that is understood and acknowledged may present a lower risk if appropriate precautions are taken, and the consequences may be less severe if mitigation procedures are planned and in place.

A hazard is any agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most hazards remain dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm, and when a hazard becomes active, and produces undesirable consequences, it is called an incident and may culminate in an emergency or accident. Hazard and vulnerability interact with likelihood of occurrence to create risk, which can be the probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a specific hazard, or the combined probability of undesirable consequences of all the hazards of a specific activity. The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident. The assessed risk of a dive would generally be considered unacceptable if the diver is not expected to cope with any single reasonably foreseeable incident with a significant probability of occurrence during that dive. Precisely where the line is drawn depends on circumstances. Commercial diving operations tend to be less tolerant of risk than recreational, particularly technical divers, who are less constrained by occupational health and safety legislation.

Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving are associated with certain demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous decompression illness, years since certification, dives in last year, number of diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, days diving, and being male were associated with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.

Statistics show diving fatalities comparable to motor vehicle accidents of 16.4 per 100,000 divers and 16 per 100,000 drivers. Divers Alert Network 2014 data shows there are 3.174 million recreational scuba divers in America, of which 2.351 million dive 1 to 7 times per year and 823,000 dive 8 or more times per year. It is reasonable to say that the average would be in the neighbourhood of 5 dives per year. (Full article...)

Medicina, trastornos y tratamiento del buceo

Índice de medicina, trastornos y tratamiento del buceo

El disbarismo se refiere a condiciones médicas que resultan de cambios en la presión ambiental. Varias actividades están asociadas con los cambios de presión. El buceo submarino es el ejemplo citado con más frecuencia, pero los cambios de presión también afectan a las personas que trabajan en otros entornos presurizados (por ejemplo,trabajadores de cajones ) y a las personas que se mueven entre diferentes altitudes . ( Artículo completo ... )
Compression arthralgia is pain in the joints caused by exposure to high ambient pressure at a relatively high rate of compression, experienced by underwater divers.
Also referred to in the US Navy diving Manual as compression pains.

Compression arthralgia has been recorded as deep aching pain in the knees, shoulders, fingers, back, hips, neck and ribs. Pain may be sudden and intense in onset and may be accompanied by a feeling of roughness in the joints.

Onset commonly occurs around 60 msw (meters of sea water), and symptoms are variable depending on depth, compression rate and personal susceptibility. Intensity increases with depth and may be aggravated by exercise. Compression arthralgia is generally a problem of deep diving, particularly deep saturation diving, where at sufficient depth even slow compression may produce symptoms. Peter B. Bennett et al. showed that the use of trimix could reduce the symptoms.

Fast compression (descent) may produce symptoms as shallow as 30 msw. Saturation divers generally compress much more slowly, and symptoms are unlikely at less than around 90 msw. At depths beyond 180m even very slow compression may produce symptoms. Spontaneous improvement may occur over time at depth, but this is unpredictable, and pain may persist into decompression. Symptoms may be distinguished from decompression sickness as they are present before starting decompression, and resolve with decreasing pressure, the opposite of decompression sickness. The pain may be sufficiently severe to limit the diver's capacity for work, and may also limit travel rate and depth of downward excursions. (Full article...)
A Sechrist Monoplace hyperbaric chamber at the Moose Jaw Union Hospital, Saskatchewan, Canada

Hyperbaric medicine is medical treatment in which an ambient pressure greater than sea level atmospheric pressure is a necessary component. The treatment comprises hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT), the medical use of oxygen at an ambient pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, and therapeutic recompression for decompression illness, intended to reduce the injurious effects of systemic gas bubbles by physically reducing their size and providing improved conditions for elimination of bubbles and excess dissolved gas.

The equipment required for hyperbaric oxygen treatment consists of a pressure chamber, which may be of rigid or flexible construction, and a means of delivering 100% oxygen. Operation is performed to a predetermined schedule by trained personnel who monitor the patient and may adjust the schedule as required. HBOT found early use in the treatment of decompression sickness, and has also shown great effectiveness in treating conditions such as gas gangrene and carbon monoxide poisoning. More recent research has examined the possibility that it may also have value for other conditions such as cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis, but no significant evidence has been found.

Therapeutic recompression is usually also provided in a hyperbaric chamber. It is the definitive treatment for decompression sickness and may also be used to treat arterial gas embolism caused by pulmonary barotrauma of ascent. In emergencies divers may sometimes be treated by in-water recompression (when a chamber is not available) if suitable diving equipment (to reasonably secure the airway) is available.

A number of hyperbaric treatment schedules have been published over the years for both therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy for other conditions. (Full article...)
In-water recompression (IWR) or underwater oxygen treatment is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by returning the diver underwater to help the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a procedure that exposes the diver to significant risk which should be compared with the risk associated with the available options. Some authorities recommend that it is only be used when the time to travel to the nearest recompression chamber is too long to save the victim's life, others take a more pragmatic approach, and accept that in some circumstances IWR is the best available option. The risks may noy be justified for case of mild symptoms likely to resolve spontaneously, or for cases where the diver is likely to be unsafe in the water, but in-water recompression may be justified in cases where severe outcomes are likely, if conducted by a competent and suitably equipped team.

Carrying out in-water recompression when there is a nearby recompression chamber or without suitable equipment and training is never a desirable option. The risk of the procedure is due to the diver suffering from DCS being seriously ill and may become paralysed, unconscious or stop breathing while under water. Any one of these events is likely to result in the diver drowning or asphyxiating or suffering further injury during a subsequent rescue to the surface. This risk can be reduced by improving airway security by using surface supplied gas and a helmet ot full-face mask.

Several schedules have been published for in-water recompression treatment, but little data on their efficacy is available. (Full article...)
Divers breathe a mixture of oxygen, helium and nitrogen for deep dives to avoid the effects of narcosis. A cylinder label shows the maximum operating depth and mixture (oxygen/helium).

Narcosis while diving (also known as nitrogen narcosis, inert gas narcosis, raptures of the deep, Martini effect) is a reversible alteration in consciousness that occurs while diving at depth. It is caused by the anesthetic effect of certain gases at high pressure. The Greek word νάρκωσις (narkōsis), "the act of making numb", is derived from νάρκη (narkē), "numbness, torpor", a term used by Homer and Hippocrates. Narcosis produces a state similar to drunkenness (alcohol intoxication), or nitrous oxide inhalation. It can occur during shallow dives, but does not usually become noticeable at depths less than 30 meters (100 ft).

Except for helium and probably neon, all gases that can be breathed have a narcotic effect, although widely varying in degree. The effect is consistently greater for gases with a higher lipid solubility, and although the mechanism of this phenomenon is still not fully clear, there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related. As depth increases, the mental impairment may become hazardous. Divers can learn to cope with some of the effects of narcosis, but it is impossible to develop a tolerance. Narcosis affects all divers, although susceptibility varies widely among individuals and from dive to dive.

Narcosis may be completely reversed in a few minutes by ascending to a shallower depth, with no long-term effects. Thus narcosis while diving in open water rarely develops into a serious problem as long as the divers are aware of its symptoms, and are able to ascend to manage it. Diving much beyond 40 m (130 ft) is generally considered outside the scope of recreational diving. In order to dive at greater depths, as narcosis and oxygen toxicity become critical risk factors, specialist training is required in the use of various helium-containing gas mixtures such as trimix or heliox. These mixtures prevent narcosis by replacing some or all of the inert fraction of the breathing gas with non-narcotic helium. (Full article...)
Cyanosis of the hand in an elderly person with low oxygen saturation

Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.

Hypoxia differs from hypoxemia and anoxemia in that hypoxia refers to a state in which oxygen supply is insufficient, whereas hypoxemia and anoxemia refer specifically to states that have low or zero arterial oxygen supply. Hypoxia in which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as anoxia.

Generalized hypoxia occurs in healthy people when they ascend to high altitude, where it causes altitude sickness leading to potentially fatal complications: high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air. Mild, non-damaging intermittent hypoxia is used intentionally during altitude training to develop an athletic performance adaptation at both the systemic and cellular level.

In acute or silent hypoxia, a person's oxygen level in blood cells and tissue can drop without any initial warning, even though the individual's chest x-ray shows diffuse pneumonia with an oxygen level below normal. Doctors report cases of silent hypoxia with COVID-19 patients who did not experience shortness of breath or coughing until their oxygen levels had plummeted to such a degree that the patients risked acute respiratory distress (ARDS) and organ failure. In a New York Times opinion piece (April 20th, 2020), emergency room doctor Richard Levitan reports "a vast majority of Covid pneumonia patients I met had remarkably low oxygen saturations at triage—seemingly incompatible with life—but they were using their cellphones as we put them on monitors."

Hypoxia is a common complication of preterm birth in newborn infants. Because the lungs develop late in pregnancy, premature infants frequently possess underdeveloped lungs. To improve lung function, doctors frequently place infants at risk of hypoxia inside incubators (also known as humidicribs) that provide warmth, humidity, and oxygen. More serious cases are treated with CPAP.

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to William G. Kaelin Jr., Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe, and Gregg L. Semenza in recognition of their discovery of cellular mechanisms to sense and adapt to different oxygen concentrations, establishing a basis for how oxygen levels affect physiological function. (Full article...)
In physiology, isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD) is the diffusion of different gases into and out of tissues while under a constant ambient pressure, after a change of gas composition, and the physiological effects of this phenomenon. The term inert gas counterdiffusion is sometimes used as a synonym, but can also be applied to situations where the ambient pressure changes. It has relevance in mixed gas diving and anesthesiology. (Full article...)
A person wearing a simple face mask

Oxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is the use of oxygen as a medical treatment. This can include for low blood oxygen, carbon monoxide toxicity, cluster headaches, and to maintain enough oxygen while inhaled anesthetics are given. Long-term oxygen is often useful in people with chronically low oxygen such as from severe COPD or cystic fibrosis. Oxygen can be given in a number of ways including nasal cannula, face mask, and inside a hyperbaric chamber.

Oxygen is required for normal cell metabolism. Excessively high concentrations can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. Higher oxygen concentrations also increase the risk of fires, particularly while smoking, and without humidification can also dry out the nose. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94–96% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88–92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest they should be as high as possible. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume while oxygen therapy increases this by some amount up to 100%.

The use of oxygen in medicine became common around 1917. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The cost of home oxygen is about US$150 a month in Brazil and US$400 a month in the United States. Home oxygen can be provided either by oxygen tanks or an oxygen concentrator. Oxygen is believed to be the most common treatment given in hospitals in the developed world. (Full article...)
Freediving blackout, breath-hold blackout or apnea blackout is a class of hypoxic blackout, a loss of consciousness caused by cerebral hypoxia towards the end of a breath-hold (freedive or dynamic apnea) dive, when the swimmer does not necessarily experience an urgent need to breathe and has no other obvious medical condition that might have caused it. It can be provoked by hyperventilating just before a dive, or as a consequence of the pressure reduction on ascent, or a combination of these. Victims are often established practitioners of breath-hold diving, are fit, strong swimmers and have not experienced problems before. Blackout may also be referred to as a syncope or fainting.

Divers and swimmers who black out or grey out underwater during a dive will usually drown unless rescued and resuscitated within a short time. Freediving blackout has a high fatality rate, and mostly involves males younger than 40 years, but is generally avoidable. Risk cannot be quantified, but is clearly increased by any level of hyperventilation.

Freediving blackout can occur on any dive profile: at constant depth, on an ascent from depth, or at the surface following ascent from depth and may be described by a number of terms depending on the dive profile and depth at which consciousness is lost. Blackout during a shallow dive differs from blackout during ascent from a deep dive in that deep water blackout is precipitated by depressurisation on ascent from depth while shallow water blackout is a consequence of hypocapnia following hyperventilation. (Full article...)
PC based spirometer output

Fitness to dive, (also medical fitness to dive), is the medical and physical suitability of a diver to function safely in the underwater environment using underwater diving equipment and procedures. Depending on the circumstances it may be established by a signed statement by the diver that he or she does not suffer from any of the listed disqualifying conditions and is able to manage the ordinary physical requirements of diving, to a detailed medical examination by a physician registered as a medical examiner of divers following a procedural checklist, and a legal document of fitness to dive issued by the medical examiner.

The most important medical is the one before starting diving, as the diver can be screened to prevent exposure when a dangerous condition exists. The other important medicals are after some significant illness, where medical intervention is needed there and has to be done by a doctor who is competent in diving medicine, and can not be done by prescriptive rules.

Psychological factors can affect fitness to dive, particularly where they affect response to emergencies, or risk taking behaviour. The use of medical and recreational drugs, can also influence fitness to dive, both for physiological and behavioural reasons. In some cases prescription drug use may have a net positive effect, when effectively treating an underlying condition, but frequently the side effects of effective medication may have undesirable influences on the fitness of diver, and most cases of recreational drug use result in an impaired fitness to dive, and a significantly increased risk of sub-optimal response to emergencies. (Full article...)
Exostoses in the ear canal, as seen through otoscopy

Surfer's ear is the common name for an exostosis or abnormal bone growth within the ear canal. Surfer's ear is not the same as swimmer's ear, although infection can result as a side effect.

Irritation from cold wind and water exposure causes the bone surrounding the ear canal to develop lumps of new bony growth which constrict the ear canal. Where the ear canal is actually blocked by this condition, water and wax can become trapped and give rise to infection. The condition is so named due to its prevalence among cold water surfers. Warm water surfers are also at risk for exostosis due to the evaporative cooling caused by wind and the presence of water in the ear canal.

Most avid surfers have at least some mild bone growths (exostoses), causing little to no problems. The condition is progressive, making it important to take preventive measures early, preferably whenever surfing.
The condition is not limited to surfing and can occur in any activity with cold, wet, windy conditions such as windsurfing, kayaking, sailing, jet skiing, kitesurfing, and diving. (Full article...)
Main symptoms of carbon dioxide toxicity, by increasing volume percent in air.

Hypercapnia (from the Greek hyper = "above" or "too much" and kapnos = "smoke"), also known as hypercarbia and CO₂ retention, is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels in the blood. Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs. Carbon dioxide may accumulate in any condition that causes hypoventilation, a reduction of alveolar ventilation (the clearance of air from the small sacs of the lung where gas exchange takes place). Inability of the lungs to clear carbon dioxide leads to respiratory acidosis. Eventually the body compensates for the raised acidity by retaining alkali in the kidneys, a process known as "metabolic compensation".

Acute hypercapnia is called acute hypercapnic respiratory failure (AHRF) and is a medical emergency as it generally occurs in the context of acute illness. Chronic hypercapnia, where metabolic compensation is usually present, may cause symptoms but is not generally an emergency. Depending on the scenario both forms of hypercapnia may be treated with medication, with mask-based non-invasive ventilation or with mechanical ventilation.

Hypercapnia is a hazard of underwater diving associated with breath-hold diving, scuba diving, particularly on rebreathers, and deep diving where it is associated with increased breathing gas density due to the high ambient pressure. (Full article...)
Monitoring the decompression chamber during a simulated medical emergency

Hyperbaric treatment schedules or hyperbaric treatment tables, are planned sequences of events in chronological order for hyperbaric pressure exposures specifying the pressure profile over time and the breathing gas to be used during specified periods, for medical treatment. Hyperbaric therapy is based on exposure to pressures greater than normal atmospheric pressure, and in many cases the use of breathing gases with oxygen content greater than that of air.

A large number of hyperbaric treatment schedules are intended primarily for treatment of underwater divers and hyperbaric workers who present symptoms of decompression illness during or after a dive or hyperbaric shift, but hyperbaric oxygen therapy may also be used for other conditions.

Most hyperbaric treatment is done in hyperbaric chambers where environmental hazards can be controlled, but occasionally treatment is done in the field by in-water recompression when a suitable chamber cannot be reached in time. The risks of in-water recompression include maintaining gas supplies for multiple divers and people able to care for a sick patient in the water for an extended period of time. (Full article...)
During Napoleon Bonaparte's retreat from Russia in the winter of 1812, many troops died from hypothermia.

Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F) in humans. Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases. In severe hypothermia, there may be paradoxical undressing, in which a person removes their clothing, as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping.

Hypothermia has two main types of causes. It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold. It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss. Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar, anorexia, and advanced age. Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F) through thermoregulation. Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering, increased voluntary activity, and putting on warmer clothing. Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person's core temperature.

The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks, warm clothing, and physical activity. In those with moderate hypothermia, heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended. People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently. In severe hypothermia, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful. In those without a pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is indicated along with the above measures. Rewarming is typically continued until a person's temperature is greater than 32 °C (90 °F). If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time, resuscitation may be discontinued.

Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1,500 deaths a year in the United States. It is more common in older people and males. One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 °C (55.4 °F) in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden. Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described. In individuals for whom ECMO or bypass is used, survival is around 50%. Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars. The term is from Greek ὑπο, hupo, meaning "under", and θερμία, thermía, meaning "heat". The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia, an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation. (Full article...)

Herramientas y armas submarinas

Índice de herramientas y armas subacuáticas

El cabestrillo hawaiano es un dispositivo utilizado en la pesca submarina . La honda funciona de manera muy similar a como lo hace un arco y una flecha en tierra, pero la energía se almacena en tubos de goma en lugar de un arco de madera o fibra de vidrio. ( Artículo completo ... )
A limpet mine is a type of naval mine attached to a target by magnets. It is so named because of its superficial similarity to the limpet, a type of sea snail that clings tightly to rocks or other hard surfaces.

A swimmer or diver may attach the mine, which is usually designed with hollow compartments to give the mine just slight negative buoyancy, making it easier to handle underwater.

Usually limpet mines are set off by a time fuse. They may also have an anti-handling device. (Full article...)
OS P11

The HK P11 is a Heckler & Koch pistol designed as an underwater firearm that was developed in 1976. It has five barrels and each fires a 7.62 X 36mm dart electrically. Loading is by means of a five-round case. The design resembles that of a pepper-box firearm. (Full article...)
Israeli Navy Underwater Missions Unit transfers equipment using lifting-bags

A lifting bag is an item of diving equipment consisting of a robust and air-tight bag with straps, which is used to lift heavy objects underwater by means of the bag's buoyancy. The heavy object can either be moved horizontally underwater by the diver or sent unaccompanied to the surface.

Lift bag appropriate capacity should match the task at hand. If the lift bag is grossly oversized a runaway or otherwise out of control ascent may result. Commercially available lifting bags may incorporate dump valves to allow the operator to control the buoyancy during ascent, but this is a hazardous operation with high risk of entanglement in an uncontrolled lift or sinking. If a single bag is insufficient, multiple bags may be used, and should be distributed to suit the load.

There are also lifting bags used on land as short lift jacks for lifting cars or heavy loads or lifting bags which are used in machines as a type of pneumatic actuator which provides load over a large area. These lifting bags of the AS/CR type are for example used in the brake mechanism of rollercoasters. (Full article...)
Airlift dredging

An airlift is device based on a pipe, used in nautical archaeology to suck small objects, sand and mud from the sea bed and to transport the resulting debris upwards and away from its source. It is sometimes called a suction dredge. A water dredge or water eductor may be used for the same purpose.

Typically, the airlift is constructed from a 3-metre to 10 metre long, 10 cm diameter pipe. A controllable compressed air supply vents into the inside, lower end of the pipe (The input end always being the lower end). Compressed air is injected into the pipe in one to three second bursts with an interval long enough to let the resulting bubble to rise to the higher, output end of the pipe. The bubble moves water through the pipe sucking debris from the lower end and depositing it from the upper end of the pipe. Ejected debris can be either cast off (as in simply removing overburden) or collected in a mesh cage for inspection (as more often is the case in nautical archaeology). It is often designed to be hand-operated by a diver.

Airlift pumps are used by water utilities, farmers and others to extract water from deep wells. In such cases the pipes can be 30, 60 or more meters deep underground. Airlift pumps are governed by the physics of two-phase flow. (Full article...)
ROV at work in an underwater oil and gas field. The ROV is operating a subsea torque tool (wrench) on a valve on the subsea structure.

A remotely operated underwater vehicle (technically ROUV but commonly just ROV) is a tethered underwater mobile device. (Full article...)
Powerhead may refer to:
- Powerhead (firearm), a direct-contact, underwater firearm
- Powerhead (aquarium), a submersible aquarium pump
- Powerhead (rocket engine), the preburners and turbopumps of a pump-fed rocket engine (excludes the engine combustion chamber and nozzle)
- Powerhead (pump), the mechanical drive of any one of several non-aquarium pump types; marine propeller powerhead, fountain powerhead, etc.
(Full article...)
Speargun

A speargun is a ranged underwater fishing device designed to launch a tethered spear or harpoon to impale fish or other marine animals and targets. Spearguns are used in sport fishing and underwater target shooting. The two basic types are pneumatic and elastic (powered by rubber bands). Spear types come in a number of varieties including threaded, break-away and lined. Floats and buoys are common accessories when targeting larger fish. (Full article...)
Assembled tremie placing concrete underwater

A tremie is a watertight pipe, usually of about 250mm inside diameter (150 to 300 mm), with a conical hopper at its upper end above the water level. It may have a loose plug or a valve at the bottom end. A tremie is used to pour concrete underwater in a way that avoids washout of cement from the mix due to turbulent water contact with the concrete while it is flowing. This produces a more reliable strength of the product. Common applications include the following.
- Caissons, which are the foundations of bridges, among other things, that span bodies of water.
- Pilings.
- Monitoring wells. Builders use tremie methods for materials other than concrete, and for industries other than construction. For example, bentonite slurries for monitoring wells are often emplaced via tremie pipe.
(Full article...)
The APS amphibious rifle, an underwater assault rifle

An underwater firearm is a firearm designed for use underwater. They are in the arms inventories of many nations. A common feature of underwater firearms or needleguns is that they fire flechettes or spear-like bolts instead of standard bullets. These may be fired by pressurised gas. (Full article...)
SPP-1M

The SPP-1 underwater pistol was made in the Soviet Union for use underwater by Soviet frogmen as an underwater firearm. It was developed in the late 1960s and accepted for use in 1975. Under water, ordinary-shaped bullets are inaccurate and very short-range. As a result, this pistol fires a round-based 4.5 millimetres (0.18 in) caliber steel dart about 115 millimetres (4.5 in) long, weighing 12.8 grams (0.45 oz), which has longer range and more penetrating power than speargun spears. The complete cartridge is 145 millimetres (5.7 in) long and weighs 17.5 grams (0.62 oz). (Full article...)
The Gyrojet carbine and rifle at the National Firearms Museum

The Gyrojet is a family of unique firearms developed in the 1960s named for the method of gyroscopically stabilizing its projectiles. Rather than inert bullets, Gyrojets fire small rockets called Microjets which have little recoil and do not require a heavy barrel or chamber to resist the pressure of the combustion gases. Velocity on leaving the tube was very low, but increased to around 1,250 feet per second (380 m/s) at 30 feet (9.1 m). The result is a very lightweight & transportable weapon.

Long out of production, today they are a coveted collector's item with prices for even the most common model ranging above $1,000. They are rarely fired; ammunition, when available at all, can cost over $100 per round. (Full article...)
The M1 Underwater Defense Gun, also called the Underwater Defense Gun Mark 1 Mod 0, is an underwater firearm developed by the United States during the Cold War. Similar to other underwater firearms, it fires a special 4.25 inch metal dart as its projectile. (Full article...)
APS underwater rifle with 5.66-mm cartridge

The APS underwater assault rifle (APS stands for Avtomat Podvodny Spetsialnyy (Автомат Подводный Специальный) or "Special Underwater Assault Rifle") is an underwater firearm designed by the Soviet Union in the early 1970s. It was adopted in 1975. Made by the Tula Arms Plant (Тульский Оружейный Завод, Tul'skiy Oruzheynyy Zavod) in Russia, it is exported by Rosoboronexport.

Under water, ordinary bullets are inaccurate and have a very short range. The APS fires a 120 mm (4.75 in) long 5.66 mm calibre steel bolt specially designed for this weapon. Its magazine holds 26 rounds. The APS's barrel is not rifled; the fired projectile is kept in line by hydrodynamic effects; as a result, the APS is somewhat inaccurate when fired out of water.

The APS has a longer range and more penetrating power than spearguns. This is useful in such situations such as shooting an opposing diver through a reinforced dry suit, a protective helmet (whether air-holding or not), thick tough parts of breathing sets and their harnesses, and the plastic casings and transparent covers of some small underwater vehicles.

The APS is more powerful than a pistol, but is bulkier, heavier and takes longer to aim, particularly swinging its long barrel and large flat magazine sideways through water. (Full article...)
The 5.45mm ADS rifle

The ADS is a Russian assault rifle specially made for combat divers. It is of a bullpup layout and is chambered in the 5.45×39mm M74 round. The ADS can adapt a suppressor and optical sights. (Full article...)

Historia del buceo submarino

Índice de la historia del buceo submarino

El capitán Albert Richard Behnke Jr. USN (retirado) (8 de agosto de 1903 - 16 de enero de 1992) fue un médico estadounidense , principal responsable del desarrollo del Instituto de Investigación Médica Naval de los Estados Unidos. Behnke separó los síntomas de la embolia gaseosa arterial (AGE) de los de la enfermedad por descompresión y sugirió el uso de oxígeno en la terapia de recompresión .

Behnke también es conocido como el "padre moderno" de la composición del cuerpo humano por su trabajo en el desarrollo del método de hidrodensitometría para medir la densidad corporal, sus modelos estándar de hombre y mujer, así como un somatograma basado en análisis antropométricos.mediciones. ( Artículo completo ... )
The Russian government committed to raising the wreck and recovering the crew's remains in a US$65M salvage operation. They contracted with the Dutch marine salvage companies Smit International and Mammoet to raise Kursk from the sea floor. It became the largest salvage operation of its type ever accomplished. The salvage operation was extremely dangerous because of the risk of radiation from the reactor. Only seven of the submarine's 24 torpedoes were accounted for. (Full article...)
Defenses against swimmer incursions are security methods developed to protect watercraft, ports and installations, and other sensitive resources in or near vulnerable waterways from potential threats or intrusions by swimmers or scuba divers. (Full article...)
16th century Islamic painting of Alexander the Great lowered in a glass diving bell.

The history of underwater diving starts with freediving as a widespread means of hunting and gathering, both for food and other valuable resources such as pearls and coral, By classical Greek and Roman times commercial applications such as sponge diving and marine salvage were established, Military diving also has a long history, going back at least as far as the Peloponnesian War, with recreational and sporting applications being a recent development. Technological development in ambient pressure diving started with stone weights (skandalopetra) for fast descent. In the 16th and 17th centuries diving bells became functionally useful when a renewable supply of air could be provided to the diver at depth, and progressed to surface supplied diving helmets - in effect miniature diving bells covering the diver's head and supplied with compressed air by manually operated pumps - which were improved by attaching a waterproof suit to the helmet and in the early 19th century became the standard diving dress.

Limitations in mobility of the surface supplied systems encouraged the development of both open circuit and closed circuit scuba in the 20th century, which allow the diver a much greater autonomy. These also became popular during World War II for clandestine military operations, and post-war for scientific, search and rescue, media diving, recreational and technical diving. The heavy free-flow surface supplied copper helmets evolved into lightweight demand helmets, which are more economical with breathing gas, which is particularly important for deeper dives and expensive helium based breathing mixtures, and saturation diving reduced the risks of decompression sickness for deep and long exposures.

An alternative approach was the development of the "single atmosphere" or armoured suit, which isolates the diver from the pressure at depth, at the cost of great mechanical complexity and limited dexterity. The technology first became practicable in the middle 20th century. Isolation of the diver from the environment was taken further by the development of remotely operated underwater vehicles in the late 20th century, where the operator controls the ROV from the surface, and autonomous underwater vehicles, which dispense with an operator altogether. All of these modes are still in use and each has a range of applications where it has advantages over the others, though diving bells have largely been relegated to a means of transport for surface supplied divers. In some cases combinations are particularly effective, such as the simultaneous use of surface orientated or saturation surface supplied diving equipment and work or observation class remotely operated vehicles.

Although the pathophysiology of decompression sickness in not yet fully understood, decompression practice has reached a stage where the risk is fairly low, and most incidences are successfully treated by therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Mixed breathing gases are routinely used to reduce the effects of the hyperbaric environment on ambient pressure divers. (Full article...)
Olterra at anchor shortly before being broken up at Vado Ligure, 1961

The auxiliary ship Olterra was a 5,000 ton Italian tanker scuttled by her own crew at Algeciras in the Bay of Gibraltar on 10 June 1940, after the entry of Italy in World War II. She was recovered in 1942 by a special unit of the Decima Flottiglia MAS to be used as an undercover base for manned torpedoes in order to attack Allied shipping at Gibraltar. (Full article...)
Dr. Lambertsen, U.S. Army in 1942

Christian James Lambertsen (May 15, 1917 – February 11, 2011) was an American environmental medicine and diving medicine specialist who was principally responsible for developing the United States Navy frogmen's rebreathers in the early 1940s for underwater warfare. Lambertsen designed a series of rebreathers in 1940 (patent filing date: 16 Dec 1940) and in 1944 (patent issue date: 2 May 1944) and first called his invention breathing apparatus. Later, after the war, he called it Laru (portmanteau for Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit) and finally, in 1952, he changed his invention's name again to SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus). Although diving regulator technology was invented by Émile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau in 1943 and was unrelated to rebreathers, the current use of the word SCUBA is largely attributed to the Gagnan-Cousteau invention. The US Navy considers Lambertsen to be "the father of the Frogmen". (Full article...)
Robert William Hamilton Jr. (1930 – 16 September 2011) was an American physiologist known for his work in hyperbaric physiology. (Full article...)
Scuba diver of the late 1960s

The history of scuba diving is closely linked with the history of scuba equipment. By the turn of the twentieth century, two basic architectures for underwater breathing apparatus had been pioneered; open-circuit surface supplied equipment where the diver's exhaled gas is vented directly into the water, and closed-circuit breathing apparatus where the diver's carbon dioxide is filtered from the exhaled breathing gas, which is then recirculated, and more gas added to replenish the oxygen content. Closed circuit equipment was more easily adapted to scuba in the absence of reliable, portable, and economical high pressure gas storage vessels. By the mid-twentieth century, high pressure cylinders were available and two systems for scuba had emerged: open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaled breath is vented directly into the water, and closed-circuit scuba where the carbon dioxide is removed from the diver's exhaled breath which has oxygen added and is recirculated. Oxygen rebreathers are severely depth limited due to oxygen toxicity risk, which increases with depth, and the available systems for mixed gas rebreathers were fairly bulky and designed for use with diving helmets. The first commercially practical scuba rebreather was designed and built by the diving engineer Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London. His self contained breathing apparatus consisted of a rubber mask connected to a breathing bag, with an estimated 50–60% oxygen supplied from a copper tank and carbon dioxide scrubbed by passing it through a bundle of rope yarn soaked in a solution of caustic potash. During the 1930s and all through World War II, the British, Italians and Germans developed and extensively used oxygen rebreathers to equip the first frogmen. In the U.S. Major Christian J. Lambertsen invented a free-swimming oxygen rebreather. In 1952 he patented a modification of his apparatus, this time named SCUBA, an acronym for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus," which became the generic English word for autonomous breathing equipment for diving, and later for the activity using the equipment. After World War II, military frogmen continued to use rebreathers since they do not make bubbles which would give away the presence of the divers. The high percentage of oxygen used by these early rebreather systems limited the depth at which they could be used due to the risk of convulsions caused by acute oxygen toxicity.

Although a working demand regulator system had been invented in 1864 by Auguste Denayrouze and Benoît Rouquayrol, the first open-circuit scuba system developed in 1925 by Yves Le Prieur in France was a manually adjusted free-flow system with a low endurance, which limited the practical usefulness of the system. In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the first successful and safe open-circuit scuba, a twin hose system known as the Aqua-Lung. Their system combined an improved demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks. This was patented in 1945. To sell his regulator in English-speaking countries Cousteau registered the Aqua-Lung trademark, which was first licensed to the U.S. Divers company, and in 1948 to Siebe Gorman of England, Siebe Gorman was allowed to sell in Commonwealth countries, but had difficulty in meeting the demand and the U.S. patent prevented others from making the product. The patent was circumvented by Ted Eldred of Melbourne, Australia, who developed the single-hose open-circuit scuba system, which separates the first stage and demand valve of the pressure regulator by a low-pressure hose, puts the demand valve at the diver's mouth, and releases exhaled gas through the demand valve casing. Eldred sold the first Porpoise Model CA single hose scuba early in 1952.

Early scuba sets were usually provided with a plain harness of shoulder straps and waist belt. Many harnesses did not have a backplate, and the cylinders rested directly against the diver's back. Early scuba divers dived without a buoyancy aid. In an emergency they had to jettison their weights. In the 1960s adjustable buoyancy life jackets (ABLJ) became available, which can be used to compensate for loss of buoyancy at depth due to compression of the neoprene wetsuit and as a lifejacket that will hold an unconscious diver face-upwards at the surface. The first versions were inflated from a small disposable carbon dioxide cylinder, later with a small direct coupled air cylinder. A low-pressure feed from the regulator first-stage to an inflation/deflation valve unit an oral inflation valve and a dump valve lets the volume of the ABLJ be controlled as a buoyancy aid. In 1971 the stabilizer jacket was introduced by ScubaPro. This class of buoyancy aid is known as a buoyancy control device or buoyancy compensator. A backplate and wing is an alternative configuration of scuba harness with a buoyancy compensation bladder known as a "wing" mounted behind the diver, sandwiched between the backplate and the cylinder or cylinders. This arrangement became popular with cave divers making long or deep dives, who needed to carry several extra cylinders, as it clears the front and sides of the diver for other equipment to be attached in the region where it is easily accessible. Sidemount is a scuba diving equipment configuration which has basic scuba sets, each comprising a single cylinder with a dedicated regulator and pressure gauge, mounted alongside the diver, clipped to the harness below the shoulders and along the hips, instead of on the back of the diver. It originated as a configuration for advanced cave diving, as it facilitates penetration of tight sections of cave, as sets can be easily removed and remounted when necessary. Sidemount diving has grown in popularity within the technical diving community for general decompression diving, and has become a popular specialty for recreational diving.

In the 1950s the United States Navy (USN) documented procedures for military use of what is now called nitrox, and in 1970, Morgan Wells, of (NOAA) began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air. In 1979 NOAA published procedures for the scientific use of nitrox in the NOAA Diving Manual. In 1985 IAND (International Association of Nitrox Divers) began teaching nitrox use for recreational diving. After initial resistance by some agencies, the use of a single nitrox mixture has become part of recreational diving, and multiple gas mixtures are common in technical diving to reduce overall decompression time. Nitrogen narcosis limits the depth when breathing nitrox mixtures. In 1924 the US Navy started to investigate the possibility of using helium and after animal experiments, human subjects breathing heliox 20/80 (20% oxygen, 80% helium) were successfully decompressed from deep dives, Cave divers started using trimix to allow deeper dives and it was used extensively in the 1987 Wakulla Springs Project and spread to the north-east American wreck diving community. The challenges of deeper dives and longer penetrations and the large amounts of breathing gas necessary for these dive profiles and ready availability of oxygen sensing cells beginning in the late 1980s led to a resurgence of interest in rebreather diving. By accurately measuring the partial pressure of oxygen, it became possible to maintain and accurately monitor a breathable gas mixture in the loop at any depth. In the mid 1990s semi-closed circuit rebreathers became available for the recreational scuba market, followed by closed circuit rebreathers around the turn of the millennium. Rebreathers are currently (2018) manufactured for the military, technical and recreational scuba markets. (Full article...)
Colonel William Paul "Bill" Fife USAF (Ret) (November 23, 1917 – October 13, 2008) was a United States Air Force officer that first proved the feasibility for U.S. Air Force Security Service airborne Communications Intelligence (COMINT) collection and Fife is considered the "Father of Airborne Intercept". Fife was also a hyperbaric medicine specialist who was known for his pioneering research on pressurized environments ranging from high altitude to underwater habitats. Fife was a Professor Emeritus at Texas A&M University. (Full article...)
An Italian manned torpedo

The Raid on Alexandria was carried out on 19 December 1941 by Italian Navy divers of the Decima Flottiglia MAS, who attacked and disabled two Royal Navy battleships in the harbour of Alexandria, Egypt, using manned torpedoes. (Full article...)
Drawing of the Rainbow Warrior

The sinking of Rainbow Warrior, codenamed Opération Satanique, was a bombing operation by the "action" branch of the French foreign intelligence services, the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE), carried out on 10 July 1985. During the operation, two operatives sank the flagship of the Greenpeace fleet, Rainbow Warrior, at the Port of Auckland in New Zealand on her way to a protest against a planned French nuclear test in Moruroa. Fernando Pereira, a photographer, drowned on the sinking ship.

France initially denied responsibility, but two French agents were captured by New Zealand Police and charged with arson, conspiracy to commit arson, willful damage, and murder. The scandal resulted in the resignation of the French Defence Minister Charles Hernu, while the two agents pleaded guilty to manslaughter and were sentenced to ten years in prison. They spent a little over two years confined to the French island of Hao before being freed by the French government.

Several political figures, including then New Zealand Prime Minister David Lange, have referred to the bombing as an act of terrorism or state-sponsored terrorism. (Full article...)
The timeline of underwater diving technology is a chronological list of notable events in the history of the development of underwater diving equipment. With the partial exception of breath-hold diving, the development of underwater diving capacity, scope, and popularity, has been closely linked to available technology, and the physiological constraints of the underwater environment.

Primary constraints are the provision of breathing gas to allow endurance beyond the limits of a single breath, the ability to see clearly enough to effectively perform the task, and sufficient mobility to get to and from the workplace. (Full article...)
Brian Andrew Hills, born 19 March 1934 in Cardiff, Wales, died 13 January 2006 in Brisbane, Queensland, was a physiologist who worked on decompression theory.

Early decompression work was done with Hugh LeMessurier's aeromedicine group at the department of Physiology, University of Adelaide. His "thermodynamic decompression model" was one of the first models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution. In this model, pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake, and bubble-formation during decompression causes "phase equilibration" of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases. The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation, also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window, where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide. This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Strait Islands pearl divers' empirically developed decompression schedules, which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules. This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models.

Hills made a significant contribution to the mainstream scientific literature of some 186 articles between 1967 and 2006. The first 15 years of this contribution are mostly related to decompression theory. Other contributions to decompression science include the development of two early decompression computers, a method to detect tissue bubbles using electrical impedance, the use of kangaroo rats as animal models for decompression sickness, theoretical and experimental work on bubble nucleation, inert gas uptake and washout, acclimatisation to decompression sickness, and isobaric counterdiffusion. (Full article...)
Because Egypt had such valuable cargo, it was not long before salvage attempts began. However, the Egypt′s wreck was not found until 1930. She was found lying upright in a depth of 170 metres (560 ft), making the recovery very difficult with the technology of the time. Giovanni Quaglia from the Genoese company Società Ricuperi Marittimi (So.Ri.Ma.) was in charge of the operation and decided to use a diver in an armoured suit to direct the placing of explosives to blast through the ship to expose the strong room. The diver was then used to direct a grab which picked up the gold and silver. The salvage continued until 1935 by which time 98% of the contents of the strong room had been recovered. (Full article...)

Formación, registro y certificación de buceadores

Índice de formación, certificación, registro y estándares de buceadores

El Programa Australiano de Acreditación de Buzos (ADAS) es un programa internacional de certificación de buzos comerciales y ocupacionales . Tiene acuerdos de reconocimiento mutuo con otros esquemas nacionales equivalentes. Las calificaciones ADAS tienen reconocimiento internacional.

El esquema nacional de certificación de buzos ocupacionales original de Australia y Nueva Zelanda (NZ) fue desarrollado por el gobierno australiano como un esquema de certificación y acreditación sin fines de lucro. Es administrado sobre una base de recuperación de costos por la Junta de ADAS bajo la dirección del Departamento de Industria, Innovación y Ciencia de Australia .

La capacitación es proporcionada por establecimientos de capacitación acreditados (ATE) que deben operar al nivel de las mejores prácticas internacionales según lo definido por ADAS.

El esquema proporciona los siguientes servicios:
- desarrollar cursos de formación para satisfacer las necesidades de la industria
- certificación de buzos
- acreditación de establecimientos de formación
- Cabildeo nacional e internacional para mejorar la seguridad de los buceadores.
- promover la movilidad de los titulares de licencias ADAS en todo el mundo.
( Artículo completo ... )
The American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS) is a group of Scientific organizations and individual members who conduct scientific and educational activities underwater. It was organized in 1977 and incorporated in the State of California in 1983. (Full article...)
Typical UK sump access conditions

The Cave Diving Group (CDG) is a United Kingdom-based diver training organisation specialising in cave diving.

The CDG was founded in 1946 by Graham Balcombe, making it the world's oldest continuing diving club. Graham Balcombe and Jack Sheppard pioneered cave diving in the late 1930s, notably at Wookey Hole in Somerset.

Passages through caves are often blocked by a submerged section, or sump. Cavers in many countries have tried to pass these barriers in a variety of ways; using the simple "free dive" with a lungful of air or by utilising the available diving technology of the day. (Full article...)
The Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID) is a dive training organization which was founded in 2007 by Barry Coleman to support diver training for the Poseidon Mk VI Discovery Rebreather. It has since extended its scope to include open circuit scuba training and training for both recreational and technical diving sectors as well as snorkeling and freediving. (Full article...)
International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA) is a leading international trade association for the marine contracting industry. It is a not for profit organisation with members representing the majority of worldwide marine contractors in the oil and gas and renewable energy industries. IMCA was formed by the merger of the Association of Offshore Diving Contractors (AODC) with the Dynamically Positioned Vessel Owners Association (DPVOA) in 1995. (Full article...)
The National Association for Cave Diving (NACD) was founded in 1968 with the goal of improving the safety of scuba diving in caves through training and education. A non-profit corporation, the NACD has its headquarters in Gainesville, Florida but is conducting its administration and operations from High Springs, Florida.

NACD offers training courses and certification in cavern and cave diving, and instructor courses. As part of its mission to raise safety standards in cave diving, the NACD publishes a quarterly journal, holds seminars, and sponsors cave diving projects. (Full article...)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) is an international federation that represents underwater activities in underwater sport and underwater sciences, and oversees an international system of recreational snorkel and scuba diver training and recognition. It is also known by its English name, the World Underwater Federation, and its Spanish name, Confederación Mundial De Actividades Subacuáticas. Its foundation in Monaco during January 1959 makes it one of the world's oldest underwater diving organisations. (Full article...)
This page lists notable underwater diver certification agencies. These include certification in cave diving, commercial diving, recreational diving, technical diving and freediving. Diver certification agencies are organisations which issue certification of competence in diving skills under their own name, and which train, assess, certify and register the instructors licensed to present courses following the standards for the certification they issue. (Full article...)
The Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (English: National Association of Diving Instructors) ( ANMP ) is a French professional body recognized by the Ministry of Sports. It is empowered to grant certification to recreational divers in France.

ANMP is a founding member of CEDIP (European Committee of Professional Diving Instructors) and a union member of the National Union of Autonomous Unions (UNSA).

ANMP instructors are state certified instructors. (Full article...)
Emergency Response Diving International claims to be the largest organization devoted to training emergency response divers in public safety diving (PSD). It was founded in Orlando, Florida in 2000 by Scuba Diving International in response to a high accident rate in the training of emergency response divers. The earliest lessons held by it were attended by almost 24 police officers, firefighters, and volunteers from the United States. Mitch Skaggs was one of the instructors at the founding of the organization.

The organization trains public safety officials, including firefighters and policemen for underwater/submerged environments. Its sister organization Technical Diving International, is the world's largest training agency for technical diving.

All ERDI programs are NFPA and OSHA compliant. All materials are written and reviewed by PSD professionals. (Full article...)
Scuba Educators International (SEI) (also known as SEI Diving) is a non-for-profit underwater diving training organisation established in the United States during 2008 to continue the underwater diving training program known as the YMCA SCUBA Program which ceased operation in 2008. (Full article...)
Israeli Diving Federation (Hebrew: ההתאחדות הישראלית לצלילה, Hitahdut Haisraelit Letslila‎) (TIDF) is a non-governmental SCUBA diving training organization based in Israel. (Full article...)
The British Sub-Aqua Club or BSAC has been recognised since 1954 by UK Sport as the national governing body of recreational diving in the United Kingdom.

The club was founded in 1953 and at its peak in the mid-1990s had over 50,000 members declining to over 30,000 in 2009. It is a diver training organization that operates through its associated network of around 1,100 local, independent diving clubs and around 400 diving schools worldwide. The old logo featured the Roman god Neptune (Greek god Poseidon), god of the sea. The new logo, as of 2017, features a diver with the updated BSAC motto "Dive with us".

BSAC is unusual for a diver training agency in that most BSAC instructors are volunteers, giving up their spare time to train others, unlike many other agencies, in which instructors are paid employees, or self-employed.

Given that UK waters are relatively cold and have restricted visibility, BSAC training is regarded by its members as more comprehensive than some. Specifically it places emphasis on rescue training very early in the programme. BSAC also maintains links with other organisations, such as NACSAC.

Science writer and science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke was a famous member of BSAC.^{[full citation needed]}
The current President of BSAC is the Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. His grandfather Philip, father Charles, and brother Harry all trained with BSAC. (Full article...)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT; pronounced [ˈkoːɾʲ.lʲə fˠɔ.hiːnʲ], Irish for "Under-Wave Council"), also known as Irish Underwater Council, is the national governing body for recreational diving and underwater sports in Ireland. (Full article...)

Organizaciones de buceo subacuático

Índice de organizaciones de buceo subacuático

La Sociedad Espeleológica Nacional ( NSS ) es una organización formada en 1941 para avanzar en la exploración , conservación, estudio y comprensión de las cuevas en los Estados Unidos . Originalmente con sede en Washington DC, sus oficinas actuales se encuentran en Huntsville, Alabama . La organización se dedica a la investigación y el estudio científico, la restauración, la exploración y la protección de cuevas. Tiene más de 10,000 miembros en más de 250 grutas . ( Artículo completo ... )
The Aerospace Medical Association (AsMA) is the largest professional organization in the fields of aviation, space, and environmental medicine. The AsMA membership includes aerospace and hyperbaric medical specialists, scientists, flight nurses, physiologists, and researchers from all over the world. (Full article...)
The British Sub-Aqua Club or BSAC has been recognised since 1954 by UK Sport as the national governing body of recreational diving in the United Kingdom.

The club was founded in 1953 and at its peak in the mid-1990s had over 50,000 members declining to over 30,000 in 2009. It is a diver training organization that operates through its associated network of around 1,100 local, independent diving clubs and around 400 diving schools worldwide. The old logo featured the Roman god Neptune (Greek god Poseidon), god of the sea. The new logo, as of 2017, features a diver with the updated BSAC motto "Dive with us".

BSAC is unusual for a diver training agency in that most BSAC instructors are volunteers, giving up their spare time to train others, unlike many other agencies, in which instructors are paid employees, or self-employed.

Given that UK waters are relatively cold and have restricted visibility, BSAC training is regarded by its members as more comprehensive than some. Specifically it places emphasis on rescue training very early in the programme. BSAC also maintains links with other organisations, such as NACSAC.

Science writer and science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke was a famous member of BSAC.^{[full citation needed]}
The current President of BSAC is the Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. His grandfather Philip, father Charles, and brother Harry all trained with BSAC. (Full article...)
The South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS) is a primary source of information for diving and hyperbaric medicine physiology worldwide. (Full article...)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT; pronounced [ˈkoːɾʲ.lʲə fˠɔ.hiːnʲ], Irish for "Under-Wave Council"), also known as Irish Underwater Council, is the national governing body for recreational diving and underwater sports in Ireland. (Full article...)
The Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine (RANSUM) is based at Sydney, Australia.

Before 1961 medical support at the diving section of HMAS Watson was provided by the District Medical Officer, Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Shane A.C. Watson, whose interest in diving led to research in injuries related to marine animals. Medical Director-General of the Royal Australian Navy, Surgeon Rear Admiral Lionel Lockwood, recognized the need for a specialisation in diving medicine and appointed Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Rex Gray to service in Underwater Medicine. Dr. Gray was an anaesthesiologist and accepted this commission on 20 February 1961.

Dr. Gray was trained as a diver and sent to England for seven months to learn about modern diving medicine. He visited the Royal Naval Medical School at Alverstoke, the R.N. Physiological Laboratory, the Submarine Training School at HMS Dolphin, Diving School HMS Vernon, and the RN Air Medical School at Seafield Park. Following his time in England, he travelled to the United States, where he spent two weeks each in the Experimental Diving Unit, Washington Navy Yard, and with the Medical Research Laboratory, Submarine Base, New London, Connecticut, returning to Australia in July, 1962, aboard HMAS Supply.

The first School of Underwater Medicine Report was issued in 1963 and outlined the need for communication with organizations with similar interests such as carbon monoxide poisoning and recompression chambers. The first eight-day Underwater Medicine course was held in May 1963, presented by Surgeon Lieutenant Commander A.A. Reid, and was followed by a thirteen-day course by Surgeon Lieutenant Commander B.M. Wadham, in June 1963. (Full article...)
The International Association for Handicapped Divers (or "IAHD") is a non-profit organization with its headquarters in Middenmeer, the Netherlands. The organization was established in 1993, with the aim to promote, develop and conduct programs for the training in scuba diving of people with a disability. From 1993 to date (2008) IAHD have educated and certified over 5500 divers and dive professionals worldwide. As the IAHD is a non-profit foundation, all the people on the board are volunteers. There are also volunteers in regions around the world.

Physical exercise helps people improve their health both physically and mentally. A person with a disability gets these benefits as well as increased social activity by taking up an activity like scuba diving. Being involved with such activities may even result in giving a person with a disability a renewed interest in life and provide positive and lasting benefits.

The risks in training a disabled person in diving are no higher than for able bodied people. Instructors may have to alter some of the techniques and some equipment may also need changing to meet the individual's need. In some cases extra pool or open water training may be needed. In some extreme cases even individual lessons may be needed. IAHD believes that people with a disability should be in a regular class at some point in their training. (Full article...)
The South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) is a science network of people, organisations and, most importantly observation platforms, that perform Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) in South Africa and its surrounding oceans. The SAEON is of global importance as an innovative approach in ecology to understand environmental change and to determine the impact of anthropogenic forces at multiple scales but it is a remarkably complex challenge to statistically discern between ubiquitous natural variability and exogenous forcing. The SAEON constitutes a national government response to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002) and is a component of the GEO (Group on Earth Observations). The SAEON has become the leader in environmental science and observation in South Africa but has been criticised for taking a long time to establish, a situation which was inevitable in view of SAEON's multiple stakeholder corps. It has also been raised that the cost of replicated experimental treatments across SAEON sites will be high (Full article...)
Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS) is a Provincial Heritage Organization in Ontario, Canada. SOS is a public charitable organization which operates through Local Chapter Committees supported by a Provincial Board of Directors and Provincial Executive. (Full article...)
Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA, formerly the Diving Equipment Manufacturers Association), is an international organization dedicated to the promotion and growth of the recreational scuba diving and snorkeling industry. With more than 1,300 members, this non-profit, global organization promotes scuba diving through consumer awareness programs and media campaigns such as the national Be a Diver campaign; diver retention initiatives such as DiveCaching; and an annual trade-only event for businesses in the scuba diving, action watersports and adventure/dive-travel industries, DEMA Show.

Board Members serve three year terms. (Full article...)
The European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS) is a primary source of information for diving and hyperbaric medicine physiology worldwide. The organization was initially formed as the European Underwater and Biomedical Society in 1971 and was an affiliate of the Undersea Medical Society for several years. Its purpose is promoting the advancement of diving and hyperbaric medicine and the education of those involved in the field; EUBS provides a forum and a journal for exchange of information and promotes research into diving medicine. (Full article...)
The Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA) is a cave diving organisation which was formed in September 1973 to represent the interests of recreational scuba divers who dive in water‐filled caves and sinkholes principally in the Lower South East (now called the Limestone Coast) of South Australia (SA) and secondly in other parts of Australia. Its formation occurred after a series of diving fatalities in waterfilled caves and sinkholes in the Mount Gambier region between 1969 and 1973 and in parallel to a South Australian Government inquiry into these deaths. The CDAA's major achievement has been the dramatic reduction of fatalities via the introduction of a site rating scheme and an associated testing system which was brought in during the mid-1970s. While its major area of operation is in the Limestone Coast region of SA, it administers and supports cave diving activity in other parts of Australia including the Nullarbor Plain and Wellington, New South Wales. (Full article...)
The Woodville Karst Plain Project or WKPP, is a project and organization that maps the underwater cave systems underlying the Woodville Karst Plain. This plain is a 450-square-mile (1,200 km²) area that runs from Tallahassee, Florida, U.S. to the Gulf of Mexico and includes numerous first magnitude springs, including Wakulla Springs, and the Leon Sinks Cave System, the longest underwater cave in the United States. The project grew out of a cave diving research and exploration group established in 1985 and incorporated in 1990 (by Bill Gavin and Bill Main, later joined by Parker Turner, Lamar English and Bill McFaden, at the time the chairman of the NACD Exploration and Survey Committee).

WKPP is the only organization currently allowed to dive some of these caves – which are all on State, Federal, or private land – due to the extreme nature of the systems and the discipline required to safely explore them, although these caves were explored extensively prior to the establishment of the WKPP. This is a controversial issue, as many people think these caves should be open to the public or, at the least, to other qualified cave diving groups and individuals. Recently, during 2007, one state-owned entrance of the Leon Sinks cave system has been reopened to other qualified cave divers.

WKPP divers hold every deep (below −190 feet (−58 m)) distance record in underwater cave diving. WKPP director Casey McKinlay and Jarrod Jablonski hold the world's record for the greatest distance below −190 feet (−58 m)) from air in a cave dive - 25,789 feet (7,860 m) each way at Wakulla Spring at an average depth of −275 feet (−84 m). This record dive required more than 29 hours submersion including 16 hours of decompression (also a record). The WKPP also hold the world's record for the longest traverse between two known entry points - 35,791 feet (10,909 m) one way between Turner Sink and Wakulla Spring at an average depth of −275 feet (−84 m). The WKPP is also responsible for exploring and mapping more cave passageway below 190 ft than any other organization in the world - 108,584 feet (33,096 m). In total, WKPP explorers have mapped and explored 144,192 feet (43,950 m) as of June, 2018.

The data gathered by WKPP divers has allowed planners a better definition of what to expect from the underground aquifer system and how best to handle issues relating to such things as surface water runoff and other nonpoint source pollution issues. WKPP mapping has resulted in the State of Florida and the U.S. Department of Agriculture establishing a "greenway" surrounding the Leon Sinks cave system and a "protection zone" for Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park, as well as numerous improvements in water management district operations, DOT road-building, and development planning. WKPP data has been the basis for multi-million dollar land purchase decisions to protect critical "below the surface" resources requiring protection. (Full article...)
The Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) is the highest authority in the field of Spanish aquatic sports, being the national federation of autonónicas groups across the country. While the federation normally uses the official state language, Castilian or Spanish, it also uses co-official languages common in the Galician, Basque and Catalan regions. It is a voting member of the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) . (Full article...)

Publicaciones de buceo submarino

Índice de publicaciones sobre buceo submarino

El Manual de buceo de la NOAA: Buceo para la ciencia y la tecnología es un libro publicado originalmente por el Departamento de Comercio de EE. UU. Para su uso como guía de entrenamiento y operación para los buceadores de la Administración Nacional Oceanográfica y Atmosférica. La NOAA también publica un Manual de seguridad y estándares de buceo (NDSSM), que describe los estándares mínimos de seguridad para sus operaciones de buceo. Se han publicado varias ediciones del manual de buceo y varios editores y autores han contribuido a lo largo de los años. El libro es ampliamente utilizado como obra de referencia por buceadores profesionales y recreativos. ( Artículo completo ... )
The Last Dive: A Father and Son's Fatal Descent into the Ocean's Depths (2000) is a non-fiction book written by diver Bernie Chowdhury and published by HarperCollins. It documents the fatal dive of Chris Rouse, Sr. and Chris "Chrissy" Rouse, Jr., a father-son team who perished off the New Jersey coast in 1992. The author is a dive expert and was a friend of the Rouses.

The divers were exploring a German U-boat in 230 feet (70 m) of water off the coast of New Jersey. Although experienced in using technical diving gas mixtures such as "trimix" (adding helium gas to the nitrogen and oxygen found in air), they were diving on just compressed air. The pair had set out to retrieve the captain's log book from the so-called U-Who to "fulfill their dream of diving into fame."

Chowdhury is a technical diver who, according to writer Neal Matthews' review of Robert Kurson's book Shadow Divers (2004), "was among the first to adapt cave-diving principles to deep-water wrecks". Also according to Matthews, "His book documents how the clashes of equipment philosophy between cave divers and wreck divers mirrored the clash of diving subcultures." (Full article...)
The Silent World (subtitle: A story of undersea discovery and adventure, by the first men to swim at record depths with the freedom of fish) is a 1953 book co-authored by Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Frédéric Dumas, and edited by James Dugan. (Full article...)
The Darkness Beckons (ISBN 0-939748-32-0) is the definitive book on the history of UK cave diving.

It was written by Martyn Farr, a major figure in UK diving at a time when many of the original participants were still alive and available for interview. (Full article...)
Goldfinder is a 2001 autobiography of British diver and treasure hunter Keith Jessop. It tells the story of Jessop's life and salvaging such underwater treasures as HMS Edinburgh, one of the greatest deep sea salvage operations and most financially rewarding in history.

One day in April 1981 Jessop's survey ship called Damtor began searching for the wreck of HMS Edinburgh in the Barents Sea in the Arctic Ocean of the coast of Russia. The ship had been sunk in battle in 1942 during World War II while carrying payment for military equipment from Murmansk in Russia to Scotland. His company, called Jessop Marine, won the contract for the salvage rights to the wreck of Edinburgh because his methods, involving complex cutting machinery and divers, were deemed more appropriate for a war grave, compared to the explosives-oriented methods of other companies.

In late April 1981, the survey ship discovered the ship's final resting place at an approximate position of 72.00°N, 35.00°E, at a depth of 245 metres (804 ft) within ten days of the start of the operation. Using specialist camera equipment, Damtor took detailed film of the wreck, which allowed Jessop and his divers to carefully plan the salvage operation.

Later that year, on 30 August, the dive-support vessel Stephaniturm journeyed to the site, and salvage operations began in earnest. Leading the operation undersea, by mid-September of that year Jessop was able to salvage over $100,000,000 in Russian gold bullion (431 bars) from the wreck out of 465 over several days making him the greatest underwater treasurer in history.

Jessop died on 22 May 2010. (Full article...)
Shadow Divers (published in 2004) is a non-fictional book by Robert Kurson recounting of the discovery of a World War II German U-boat 60 miles (97 km) off the coast of New Jersey, United States in 1991. (Full article...)

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Una cámara de recompresión se utiliza para tratar algunos trastornos del buceo y para entrenar a los buceadores para que reconozcan los síntomas.

Los trastornos del buceo son afecciones médicas que surgen específicamente del buceo submarino . Los signos y síntomas de estos pueden presentarse durante una inmersión, al salir a la superficie o hasta varias horas después de una inmersión. Los buzos tienen que respirar un gas que está a la misma presión que su entorno ( presión ambiental ), que puede ser mucho mayor que en la superficie. La presión ambiental bajo el agua aumenta en 1 atmósfera estándar (100 kPa) por cada 10 metros (33 pies) de profundidad.

Las principales condiciones son la enfermedad por descompresión (que cubre la enfermedad por descompresión y la embolia gaseosa arterial).), narcosis por nitrógeno , síndrome nervioso de alta presión , toxicidad por oxígeno y barotrauma pulmonar (estallido de pulmón). Aunque algunos de estos pueden ocurrir en otros entornos, son de particular interés durante las actividades de buceo.

Los trastornos son causados por respirar gas a las altas presiones que se encuentran en la profundidad, y los buzos a menudo respirarán una mezcla de gas diferente del aire para mitigar estos efectos. El nitrox , que contiene más oxígeno y menos nitrógeno , se usa comúnmente como gas de respiración para reducir el riesgo de enfermedad por descompresión en profundidades recreativas (hasta aproximadamente 40 metros (130 pies)).Se puede agregar helio para reducir la cantidad de nitrógeno y oxígeno en la mezcla de gases cuando se bucea más profundo, para reducir los efectos de la narcosis y evitar el riesgo de toxicidad por oxígeno. Esto es complicado a profundidades superiores a los 150 metros (500 pies), porque una mezcla de helio y oxígeno ( heliox ) provoca el síndrome nervioso de alta presión. Mezclas más exóticas como hydreliox , una mezcla de hidrógeno, helio y oxígeno, se utilizan a profundidades extremas para contrarrestar esto. ( Artículo completo ... )
This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768, depicts an experiment originally performed by Robert Boyle in 1660.

Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure.

When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises. Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water, and some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and other tissues. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, (see: "Saturation diving"), or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again. Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared to the ambient pressure. These bubbles, and products of injury caused by the bubbles, can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage. The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested, and used, and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable. Decompression remains a procedure with some risk, but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable for dives within the well-tested range of commercial, military and recreational diving.

The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle, who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump. In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation, but in later experiments, signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed. Later, when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress, miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease, the bends, and decompression sickness. Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles, and that recompression could relieve the symptoms, further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression, and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict low-risk decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness. (Full article...)
The hand signal "OK"

Diver communications are the methods used by divers to communicate with each other or with surface members of the dive team. In professional diving, communication is usually between a single working diver and the diving supervisor at the surface control point. This is considered important both for managing the diving work, and as a safety measure for monitoring the condition of the diver. The traditional method of communication was by line signals, but this has been superseded by voice communication, and line signals are now used in emergencies when voice communications have failed. Surface supplied divers often carry a closed circuit video camera on the helmet which allows the surface team to see what the diver is doing and to be involved in inspection tasks. This can also be used to transmit hand signals to the surface if voice communications fails. Underwater slates may be used to write text messages which can be shown to other divers, and there are some dive computers which allow a limited number of pre-programmed text messages to be sent through-water to other divers or surface personnel with compatible equipment.

Communication between divers and between surface personnel and divers is imperfect at best, and non-existent at worst, as a consequence of the physical characteristics of water. This prevents divers from performing at their full potential. Voice communication is the most generally useful format underwater, as visual forms are more affected by visibility, and written communication and signing are relatively slow and restricted by diving equipment.

Recreational divers do not usually have access to voice communication equipment, and it does not generally work with a standard scuba demand valve, so they use other signals. Hand signals are generally used when visibility allows, and there are a range of commonly used signals, with some variations. These signals are often also used by professional divers to communicate with other divers. There is also a range of other special purpose non-verbal signals, mostly used for safety and emergency communications. (Full article...)
Divers decompressing in the water at the end of a dive

The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth. It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver's body, which occurs during the ascent, largely during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops, and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium. Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use. A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress, Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure.

When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure, and therefore the ambient pressure, rises. Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure, some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues. Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture, or the depth, and therefore the pressure, is changed, or the partial pressures of the gases are changed by modifying the breathing gas mixture. During ascent, the ambient pressure is reduced, and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again. If the pressure reduction is sufficient, excess gas may form bubbles, which may lead to decompression sickness, a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition. It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness. A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely. These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage. If the decompression is effective, the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs. If they are not given enough time, or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely, the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested and used, and in many cases, superseded. Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable, the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable. Although decompression retains some risk, this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving. Nevertheless, all currently popular decompression procedures advise a 'safety stop' additional to any stops required by the algorithm, usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 ft), even on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent.

Decompression may be continuous or staged. A staged decompression ascent is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals, but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. A no-decompression dive, or more accurately, a dive with no-stop decompression, relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation in the fastest tissues. The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive. It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive. When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the "surface interval" and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive. (Full article...)
Two United States Navy sailors prepare for training inside a decompression chamber.

Decompression sickness (DCS; also known as divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, or caisson disease) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation. DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression (i.e., during ascent), but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson, flying in an unpressurised aircraft at high altitude, and extravehicular activity from spacecraft. DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness.

Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all. The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago. The severity of symptoms varies from barely noticeable to rapidly fatal.

Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon. Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed. If DCS is suspected, it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber. Diagnosis is confirmed by a positive response to the treatment. If treated early, there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery. (Full article...)
Cap badge of the Special Boat Service

The Special Boat Service (SBS) is the special forces unit of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy. The SBS can trace its origins back to the Second World War when the Army Special Boat Section was formed in 1940. After the Second World War, the Royal Navy formed special forces with several name changes—Special Boat Company was adopted in 1951 and re-designated as the Special Boat Squadron in 1974—until on 28 July 1987 when the unit was renamed as the Special Boat Service after assuming responsibility for maritime counter-terrorism. Most of the operations conducted by the SBS are highly classified, and are rarely commented on by the British government or the Ministry of Defence, owing to their sensitive nature.

The Special Boat Service is the maritime special forces unit of the United Kingdom Special Forces and is described as the sister unit of the British Army 22nd Special Air Service Regiment (22nd SAS), with both under the operational control of the Director Special Forces. In October 2001, full command of the SBS was transferred from the Commandant General Royal Marines of the Royal Marines to the Commander-in-Chief Fleet of the Royal Navy. On 18 November 2003, the SBS were given their own cap badge with the motto "By Strength and Guile". The SBS has traditionally been manned mostly by Royal Marines Commandos. (Full article...)
Divers breathe a mixture of oxygen, helium and nitrogen for deep dives to avoid the effects of narcosis. A cylinder label shows the maximum operating depth and mixture (oxygen/helium).

Narcosis while diving (also known as nitrogen narcosis, inert gas narcosis, raptures of the deep, Martini effect) is a reversible alteration in consciousness that occurs while diving at depth. It is caused by the anesthetic effect of certain gases at high pressure. The Greek word νάρκωσις (narkōsis), "the act of making numb", is derived from νάρκη (narkē), "numbness, torpor", a term used by Homer and Hippocrates. Narcosis produces a state similar to drunkenness (alcohol intoxication), or nitrous oxide inhalation. It can occur during shallow dives, but does not usually become noticeable at depths less than 30 meters (100 ft).

Except for helium and probably neon, all gases that can be breathed have a narcotic effect, although widely varying in degree. The effect is consistently greater for gases with a higher lipid solubility, and although the mechanism of this phenomenon is still not fully clear, there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related. As depth increases, the mental impairment may become hazardous. Divers can learn to cope with some of the effects of narcosis, but it is impossible to develop a tolerance. Narcosis affects all divers, although susceptibility varies widely among individuals and from dive to dive.

Narcosis may be completely reversed in a few minutes by ascending to a shallower depth, with no long-term effects. Thus narcosis while diving in open water rarely develops into a serious problem as long as the divers are aware of its symptoms, and are able to ascend to manage it. Diving much beyond 40 m (130 ft) is generally considered outside the scope of recreational diving. In order to dive at greater depths, as narcosis and oxygen toxicity become critical risk factors, specialist training is required in the use of various helium-containing gas mixtures such as trimix or heliox. These mixtures prevent narcosis by replacing some or all of the inert fraction of the breathing gas with non-narcotic helium. (Full article...)
Dive profile of an actual dive as recorded by a personal dive computer and displayed on a desktop screen using dive logging software. In this case depth is in metres.

A dive profile is a description of a diver's pressure exposure over time. It may be as simple as just a depth and time pair, as in: "sixty for twenty," (a stay of 20 minutes at a depth of 60 feet) or as complex as a second by second graphical representation of depth and time recorded by a personal dive computer. Several common types of dive profile are specifically named, and these may be characteristic of the purpose of the dive. For example, a working dive at a limited location will often follow a constant depth (square) profile, and a recreational dive is likely to follow a multilevel profile, as the divers start deep and work their way up a reef to get the most out of the available breathing gas. The names are usually descriptive of the graphic appearance.

The intended dive profile is useful as a planning tool as an indication of the risks of decompression sickness and oxygen toxicity for the exposure, and also for estimating the volume of open-circuit breathing gas needed for a planned dive, as these depend in part upon the depth and duration of the dive. A dive profile diagram is conventionally drawn with elapsed time running from left to right and depth increasing down the page.

Many personal dive computers record the instantaneous depth at small time increments during the dive. This data can sometimes be displayed directly on the dive computer or more often downloaded to a personal computer, tablet, or smartphone and displayed in graphic form as a dive profile. (Full article...)
Surface supplied diver on diving stage

There are several categories of decompression equipment used to help divers decompress, which is the process required to allow divers to return to the surface safely after spending time underwater at higher pressures.

Decompression obligation for a given dive profile must be calculated and monitored to ensure that the risk of decompression sickness is controlled. Some equipment is specifically for these functions, both during planning before the dive and during the dive. Other equipment is used to mark the underwater position of the diver, as a position reference in low visibility or currents, or to assist the diver's ascent and control the depth.

Decompression may be shortened (or accelerated) by breathing an oxygen-rich "decompression gas" such as a nitrox blend or pure oxygen. The high partial pressure of oxygen in such decompression mixes produces the effect known as the oxygen window. This decompression gas is often carried by scuba divers in side-slung cylinders. Cave divers who can only return by a single route, can leave decompression gas cylinders attached to the guideline at the points where they will be used. Surface-supplied divers will have the composition of the breathing gas controlled at the gas panel.

Divers with long decompression obligations may be decompressed inside gas filled hyperbaric chambers in the water or at the surface, and in the extreme case, saturation divers are only decompressed at the end of a tour of duty that may be several weeks long. (Full article...)
Diving cylinders to be filled at a diving air compressor station

A diving cylinder, scuba tank or diving tank is a gas cylinder used to store and transport the high pressure breathing gas required by a scuba set. It may also be used for surface-supplied diving or as decompression gas or an emergency gas supply for surface supplied diving or scuba. Cylinders provide gas to the diver through the demand valve of a diving regulator or the breathing loop of a diving rebreather.

Diving cylinders are usually manufactured from aluminium or steel alloys, and are normally fitted with one of two common types of cylinder valve for filling and connection to the regulator. Other accessories such as manifolds, cylinder bands, protective nets and boots and carrying handles may be provided. Various configurations of harness may be used to carry the cylinder or cylinders while diving, depending on the application. Cylinders used for scuba typically have an internal volume (known as water capacity) of between 3 and 18 litres (0.11 and 0.64 cu ft) and a maximum working pressure rating from 184 to 300 bars (2,670 to 4,350 psi). Cylinders are also available in smaller sizes, such as 0.5, 1.5 and 2 litres, however these are often used for purposes such as inflation of surface marker buoys, drysuits and buoyancy compensators rather than breathing. Scuba divers may dive with a single cylinder, a pair of similar cylinders, or a main cylinder and a smaller "pony" cylinder, carried on the diver's back or clipped onto the harness at the sides. Paired cylinders may be manifolded together or independent. In some cases, more than two cylinders are needed.

When pressurised, a cylinder carries an equivalent volume of free gas greater than its water capacity, because the gas is compressed up to several hundred times atmospheric pressure. The selection of an appropriate set of diving cylinders for a diving operation is based on the amount of gas required to safely complete the dive. Diving cylinders are most commonly filled with air, but because the main components of air can cause problems when breathed underwater at higher ambient pressure, divers may choose to breathe from cylinders filled with mixtures of gases other than air. Many jurisdictions have regulations that govern the filling, recording of contents, and labelling for diving cylinders. Periodic inspection and testing of cylinders is often obligatory to ensure the safety of operators of filling stations. Pressurised diving cylinders are considered dangerous goods for commercial transportation, and regional and international standards for colouring and labelling may also apply. (Full article...)
Map of Bowie Seamount

Bowie Seamount is a large submarine volcano in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, located 180 km (110 mi) west of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada.

The seamount is also known as Bowie Bank. In the Russian language, Bowie is called Гора Бауи (Gora Baui), which literally means Mount Bowie. In Haida language it is called SG̱aan Ḵinghlas, meaning Supernatural One Looking Outward. It is named after William Bowie of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The volcano has a flat-topped summit rising about 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the seabed, to 24 m (79 ft) below sea level. The seamount lies at the southern end of a long underwater volcanic mountain range called the Pratt-Welker or Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain, stretching from the Aleutian Trench in the north almost to Haida Gwaii in the south.

Bowie Seamount lies on the Pacific Plate, a large segment of the Earth's surface which moves in a northwestern direction under the Pacific Ocean. It is adjacent to two other submarine volcanoes; Hodgkins Seamount on its northern flank and Graham Seamount on its eastern flank. (Full article...)
In 1942–43 the UK Government carried out extensive testing for oxygen toxicity in divers. The chamber is pressurised with air to 3.7 bar. The subject in the centre is breathing 100% oxygen from a mask.

Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen (O
₂) at increased partial pressures. Severe cases can result in cell damage and death, with effects most often seen in the central nervous system, lungs, and eyes. Historically, the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect, and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect, after the researchers who pioneered the discoveries and descriptions in the late 19th century. Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers, those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen (particularly premature babies), and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues. The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure. Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure. Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure. Symptoms may include disorientation, breathing problems, and vision changes such as myopia. Prolonged exposure to above-normal oxygen partial pressures, or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures, can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes, collapse of the alveoli in the lungs, retinal detachment, and seizures. Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels. Studies show that, in the long term, a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible.

Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher-than-normal partial pressures, including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases, hyperbaric medicine, neonatal care and human spaceflight. These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity, with pulmonary and ocular damage being mainly confined to the problems of managing premature infants.

In recent years, oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars. The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those suffering from problems such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars. Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100% oxygen, and should have specific training in using such gases. (Full article...)
Solo diver surveying a dive site. The bailout cylinder can be seen slung at the diver's left side

Solo diving is the practice of self-sufficient underwater diving without a "dive buddy", particularly with reference to scuba diving, but the term is also applied to freediving. Surface supplied diving and atmospheric suit diving are single diver underwater activities but are accompanied by an on-surface support team dedicated to the safety of the diver, and not considered solo diving in its truest sense.

Solo diving has occurred for millennia as evidenced by artifacts dating back to the ancient people of Mesopotamia when humans dived to gather food and to collect pearl oysters. It wasn't until the 1950s, with the development of formalised recreational dive training, that recreational solo diving was considered dangerous, particularly for beginners. In an effort to mitigate associated risks, some scuba certification agencies incorporated the practice of buddy diving into their diver training programmes. Some divers, typically those with advanced underwater skills, prefer solo diving over buddy diving and assume responsibility for their own safety. Professionally, solo diving has always been an option as it applies to operational requirements and risk assessment. It customarily involves voice or line communications from diver to surface, usually with a diver at the surface on standby ready to assist on short notice. Recreational divers seldom have such options available.

The recreational solo diver uses enhanced procedures, skills and equipment to mitigate the risks associated with not having another diver immediately available to assist if something goes wrong. The skills and procedures may be learned through a variety of effective methods to achieve appropriate competence, including formal training programmes with associated assessment and certification. Recreational solo diving, once discouraged by most training agencies, has been accepted since the late 1990s by some training agencies that will qualify experienced divers skilled in self-sufficiency and redundant backup equipment. (Full article...)

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El buceo es un pasatiempo maravilloso y estaría mal que lo desalentara, pero los buceadores deben ser responsables con ellos mismos y con los demás.
- Coroner Nigel Meadows, Advertencia de investigación sobre cursos de buceo "Advertencia de investigación sobre cursos de buceo" . BBC News, Reino Unido, Inglaterra. 8 de agosto de 2006 . Consultado el 1 de julio de 2018 .

Categorias

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Áreas temáticas

Glosario de terminología de buceo subacuático
Esquema del buceo submarino
Índice de buceo submarino
Índice de buceadores submarinos
Índice de sitios de buceo recreativo

Proyectos relacionados

Este portal está dentro del alcance de WikiProject Underwater diving , una colaboración de área temática para temas de buceo submarino, y WikiProject Portals , una colaboración en el diseño, desarrollo y mantenimiento de portales.

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Técnico

Asociación Internacional de Contratistas de Buceo
AquaCorps (Michael Menduno, ed.)
Bibliografía de manuales de buceo
Carro de cepillos ref1 , ref2
Limpieza de cavitación ref1 , ref2 , ref3 , reflist
Cámara de Buceo y Deportes Acuáticos , la agencia del gobierno egipcio
Festival de buceo
Guía de buceo (publicación)
Contratista de buceo
Saltar cámara
Lista de fabricantes de equipos de buceo
La Unidad Subacuática de Recreación y Parques del Condado de Los Ángeles supervisa un programa de certificación ofrecido desde 1964
Rebreather Training Council , un organismo de la industria del buceo recreativo preocupado por el uso seguro de los rebreathers
Registro de buceador de HSE del Reino Unido
Manual subacuático (Chelín, Werts y Schandelmeier))
Salón de la fama de las mujeres buceadoras (se necesitan referencias)

Artículos biográficos: (muchos de estos son miembros del Salón de la Fama de los Buzos, por lo que debería haber referencias para la notabilidad

Kimiuo Aisek
Dick Anderson (buzo)
Jim Auxier
Mike Ball (buceador)
Bill Barada
Dewey Bergman
Chuck Blakeslee
Dick Bonin
Ernest Brooks (buceador)
Ric y Do Cammick
John Cronin (buceador)
ER Cruz
Louis de Corlieu - https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu
Stuart Cove
Gustav Dalla Valle
Jefferson Davis (buzo)
Sam Davison (buzo)
Bernard Eaton
Ralph Erickson (buzo)
Maxime Forjot
Al Giddings
Jerry Greenberg (buzo)
Howard y Michele Hall
Bill High
Bob Hollis
Peter Hughes (buceador)
Paul Humann
Nick Icorn
George Irvine III (se necesitan referencias)
Dr. Albert Jones (buceador)
Kyuhachi Kataoka
Ley Kenyon
Bert Kilbride
Ron Kipp
Jordan Klein
Andre Labn
Jack Lavanchy
Leslie Leaney
Clement Lee
Kendall McDonald
Jack Mckenny
Krov Menuhin
Daniel Mercier
Bev Morgan de Kirby Morgan
Wally Muller
Geri Murphy
Max "Gene" Nohl
Kanezo Ohgushi
Allan Power
Dimitri Rebikoff
Andreas Rechnitzer
Drew Richardson
Petra Roeglin
Carl Roessler
Howard Rosenstein
Frank Scalli
Kurt Schafer (buzo)
Rolf Schmidt (buceador)
Spencer Slate
Peter Small (buceador) , cofundador del British Sub-Aqua Club , autor. periodista
Larry Smith (buzo)
Bob Soto
Ron Steven
Kelly Tarlton
Akira Tateishi
Francis Toribiong
Paul Tzimoulis
Jan Uhre - pionero danés del buceo y la arqueología subacuática
Riichi Watanabe
Robert D. Workman (médico) investigador de descompresión de la Marina de los EE . UU.
Gardner joven
Armand y JoAnn Zigahn

Fabricantes de equipos de buceo

Balco sub (empresa) (Grecia)
Barakuda (empresa) (Alemania)
Beltrán (empresa) (España)
Cobra sub (empresa) (Brasil)
Daihan Diving Sports (empresa) (Corea)
Douglas (empresa) (Francia)
Escualo (empresa) (México)
Glaros sub (empresa) (Grecia)
Godel (empresa) (Francia)
GSD (empresa) (Italia)
Gull Marine Sports (empresa) (Japón)
Haffenden Moulding (empresa) (Reino Unido)
Hurricane / Hurrisport (Francia)
International Divers Corporation (empresa) (Canadá)
Kent Rubber (empresa) (Francia)
Longo sub (empresa) (Italia)
Marin (empresa) (Francia)
Mordem (empresa) (Italia)
Nauti-scope (empresa) (Dinamarca)
RIS-SPORTNAUTIK (empresa) (Yugoslavia)
Safari sub (empresa) (España)
Salvas (empresa) (Italia)
Simotal (empresa) (Portugal)
Squale (empresa) (Francia)
Stomil (empresa) (Polonia)
Technisub (empresa) (Italia)
Tigullio (empresa) (Italia)
Productos Torpedo (empresa) (Australia)
MD Turnbull (empresa) (Australia)
Typhoon International (empresa) (Reino Unido)
Undersee Products (empresa) (Australia)
United Service Agency (empresa) (Francia)
Yilmaz (empresa) (Turquía)

Crea artículos para redireccionamientos con posibilidades: (prioridad bastante baja)

Cursor de campana : dispositivo para guiar y controlar una campana de buceo cerca y por encima de la superficie
Bellman (buceo) : el miembro de un equipo de buceo que actúa como buceador de reserva y tierno de la campana de buceo
Estribo de embarque : un reposapiés suspendido que permite a los buceadores usar una pierna para ayudar a levantarse del agua al bote.
Al respirar aire - Calidad del aire adecuado a la respiración segura
Calidad del gas respiratorio : requisitos de pureza de los gases para la respiración humana
Operador de cámara : persona que opera una cámara de buceo.
Peso del grupo : un peso pesado suspendido en un cable que se utiliza para guiar una campana de buceo.
Buceo de descompresión : buceo donde el buceador incurre en una obligación de descompresión
Asistente del buceador : el miembro de un equipo de buceo que ayuda al buceador en la superficie y atiende el cordón umbilical o de vida del buceador.
Accidente de buceo : accidente que ocurre mientras se bucea bajo el agua
Filtro de aire de buceo : dispositivo para purificar el aire respirable comprimido
Modo de buceo : los métodos conceptuales del buceo submarino
Carrete de buceo : dispositivo para desplegar y recuperar la línea de distancia bajo el agua
Técnico de sistemas de buceo : una persona competente que mantiene y repara el equipo de soporte vital de buceo, también conocido como técnico de equipos de buceo.
Panel Europeo de Buceo Científico : panel de la Red Europea de Institutos y Estaciones de Investigación Marina con secciones para Buceador Científico Europeo y Buceador Científico Europeo Avanzado
Traje de agua caliente : un traje de neopreno con suministro de agua caliente para mantener caliente al buceador.
Bote salvavidas hiperbárico - Bote salvavidas para el transporte de personas bajo presión
Sistema de lanzamiento y recuperación (buceo) : equipo utilizado para desplegar y recuperar una campana, escenario o ROV de buceo
Técnico de soporte vital : miembro de un equipo de buceo de saturación que opera el hábitat de superficie.
Analizador de oxígeno : instrumento para medir la presión parcial de oxígeno en una mezcla de gases
Buceo de penetración : bucear bajo una barrera física para un ascenso vertical directo a la superficie
Buzo de reserva : un miembro de un equipo de buceo que está listo para ayudar o rescatar al buzo que trabaja.

Prioridad muy baja

Gas de rescate : suministro de gas respirable de emergencia que lleva el buceador
Gas de fondo : gas respirado durante la parte profunda de una inmersión.
Al respirar aire - Calidad del aire adecuado a la respiración segura
Gas de descompresión: gas rico en oxígeno que se utiliza para la descompresión acelerada.
Suministro de gas de emergencia: suministro alternativo de gas respirable independiente llevado por un buceador
Pesas de tobillo (buceo) : las pesas de los buzos se llevan en los tobillos
Pesas integradas: las pesas de buceo se llevan en los bolsillos del compensador de flotabilidad
Pesos de ajuste (buceo) : pesos de buceo distribuidos principalmente para mejorar el ajuste
Cinturón de lastre: un cinturón con lastre que usa un buzo
Jonline : una línea corta que usan los buceadores para sujetarse a algo
Inflador eléctrico: válvula de suministro de gas de baja presión para compensador de flotabilidad
Cilindro de descompresión: cilindro de buceo con gas de descompresión
Válvula de descarga (buceo) : alivio de presión y ventilación manual en el compensador de flotabilidad de buceo
Boya de descompresión: boya de señalización de superficie inflable desplegada desde el agua
Trapecio de descompresión : barras horizontales suspendidas en las profundidades de la parada de descompresión
Temporizador de fondo : un instrumento electrónico que registra los datos de profundidad y tiempo transcurrido en una inmersión submarina.
Neumofatómetro : medidor en el panel de gas para indicar la profundidad de un buceador con suministro de superficie
Manómetro sumergible - Instrumento de medición de presión para servicio subacuático
Etapa de buceo : una plataforma en la que se paran uno o dos buceadores que los transporta verticalmente a través del agua.
Carrete de buceo : dispositivo para almacenar, desplegar y recuperar la línea guía bajo el agua
Herramienta de corte del buzo : una herramienta para ayudar a sacar al buzo del atrapamiento por líneas o redes.
Cuchillo de buzo : una herramienta para ayudar a sacar al buzo del atrapamiento por líneas o redes.
Arnés de seguridad para buceo : un arnés mediante el cual se puede levantar al buceador de manera segura.
Suministro de gas de emergencia: suministro alternativo de gas respirable independiente llevado por un buceador
Equipos de buceo suministrado desde la superficie - El equipo utilizado específicamente para el buceo de superficie suministrada
Panel de gas: panel de distribución de gas respirable para buceo desde superficie
Sistema de recuperación de gas - Sistema de recuperación de gas de respiración usado y prepararlo para su reutilización
Asistente del buceador : el miembro de un equipo de buceo que ayuda al buceador en la superficie y atiende el cordón umbilical o de vida del buceador.
Buzo de apoyo : buceo recreativo equivalente a un buzo de reserva.

Limpiar

Defensa contra las incursiones de los nadadores
Frogman Necesita corrección de estilo y reformateo de referencias. Limpiar, agregar citas, arreglar el tono.
Traje de neopreno : necesita referencias, amplíe la sección de accesorios.

Mejorar la sección de clientes potenciales

La mayoría de los artículos necesitan una sección de clientes potenciales mejorada para que sirva como un resumen adecuado del tema de su artículo.

Expandir

Categoría: Talones de buceo submarino
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation - Agencia de certificación y formación de buzos recreativos
Technical Diving International - Agencia de certificación y formación de buzos técnicos
Scuba Diving International - Agencia de certificación y formación de buzos recreativos
Buceo policial : una rama del buceo profesional realizada por los servicios policiales.
American Nitrox Divers International - Agencia de certificación y formación de buzos recreativos
Certificaciones subacuáticas canadienses estadounidenses: agencia de certificación y capacitación para buceadores recreativos
Asociación Internacional de Educadores de Buceo - Agencia de certificación y entrenamiento de buceo recreativo
Dutch Springs - Cantera inundada en Pensilvania utilizada como sitio de buceo recreativo
Dick Rutkowski , pionero estadounidense en medicina hiperbárica y de buceo y uso de gases respiratorios mixtos para el buceo, como se hace referencia en IANTD y American Nitrox Divers International.
Capernwray Dive Center : cantera inundada en Lancashire, Inglaterra, utilizada como sitio de buceo recreativo
Asociación Nacional de Instructores Subacuáticos : una asociación sin fines de lucro de agencias de certificación y capacitación de instructores de buceo
Puente aéreo (dispositivo de dragado) : dispositivo de dragado que utiliza aire inyectado para mover el agua y la carga arrastrada por una tubería
Búsqueda y recuperación submarina - Localización y recuperación de objetos submarinos - Destrivializar.
Rescue Diver - Rescate de un buceador accidentado o incapacitado - descompresión complemento, suministro y procedimientos de la superficie de campana.
Flujo libre : estado de flujo continuo de gas respirable en un aparato de respiración subacuático.
Factores humanos en la seguridad del buceo - La influencia de las características físicas, cognitivas y conductuales de los buceadores en la seguridad - Varias subsecciones vacías en la sección 4
Tremie - Equipo para la colocación de hormigón bajo el agua
Instructor de buceo - Persona que entrena y evalúa a los buceadores submarinos - Varias secciones vacías. Puede ser posible utilizar resúmenes copiados de otro artículo para algunos de ellos.
Buceo de salvamento - El trabajo de buceo asociado con la recuperación de vehículos, carga y estructuras - Varias secciones vacías.
Esquema australiano de acreditación de buzos: organización internacional de acreditación de buzos ocupacionales con sede en Australia: se necesitan contenidos distintos a los estándares de capacitación
Planificación de la inmersión # Factores ambientales - El proceso de planificación de una operación de buceo submarino - Sección vacía
Entrenamiento de buceadores : procesos mediante los cuales las personas desarrollan las habilidades y el conocimiento para bucear de forma segura bajo el agua.
Robert William Hamilton Jr. - fisiólogo e investigador estadounidense en fisiología hiperbárica. - Expandir ventaja
Halcyon PVR-BASC - Rebreather de buceo de adición pasiva con compensación de profundidad de circuito semicerrado
Medicina del buceo # Historia - Diagnóstico, tratamiento y prevención de los trastornos causados por el buceo submarino y Cuestiones éticas y médico-legales (sección vacía)
Interspiro DCSC - Rebreather de buceo de adición pasiva de circuito semicerrado militar
Halcyon RB80 - Rebreather de circuito semicerrado de adición pasiva sin compensación de profundidad
Video submarino remoto con cebo - Equipo para estimar poblaciones de peces
Compatibilidad con oxígeno # Diseño de servicio de oxígeno : uso de equipos y materiales que son adecuados para el servicio con una presión parcial de oxígeno alta
William Hogarth Main - Buzo de cuevas y experimentador de configuración de buceo
Buceo submarino en la cultura popular : cualquier aspecto del buceo submarino en la ficción y la cultura popular, para cubrir películas, novelas, series de televisión, cómics, arte, juegos y ficción en general: algunas secciones vacías
Trabajo respiratorio : la energía gastada para inhalar y exhalar un gas respiratorio.
Turismo de buceo # Historia - Industria basada en viajes de buceo recreativo (sección vacía)
Impacto medioambiental del buceo recreativo : efectos del buceo en el entorno submarino
Investigación de accidentes de buceo : investigación forense de accidentes de buceo submarino (3 secciones para ampliar de Barsky))
Reunión informativa de buceo : reunión del equipo de buceo para discutir los detalles antes de la operación de buceo
Procedimientos de buceo - Métodos estandarizados para hacer cosas que se sabe que funcionan de manera efectiva y aceptablemente segura - anotaciones de enlaces finales
Luigi Ferraro (oficial naval) - Oficial de la Marina Real Italiana y pionero de la guerra submarina italiana - Traducir del artículo al respecto:
Arqueología subacuática #Historia - Técnicas arqueológicas practicadas en yacimientos submarinos
Construcción submarina: construcción industrial en un entorno submarino: expanda las listas en secciones

Expandir / completar

Limpieza y desinfección de equipos de buceo personales - Prevención de infecciones por equipos compartidos o contaminados

Evaluar

Verifique regularmente los artículos de categoría: buceo no evaluados y luego use WP: WikiProject SCUBA / Assessment para dar a cualquier artículo nuevo una clase de calidad.
Categoría de revisión : artículos SCUBA Stub-Class ; Encuentre fuentes confiables para establecer la notoriedad y agréguelas.
Categoría de revisión : artículos SCUBA de clase inicial ; Encuentre fuentes confiables para verificar los puntos principales y agréguelos.

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Escafandra autónoma

Agregar cuadro de información

Academia Estadounidense de Ciencias Subacuáticas
Ciencia y tecnología del buceo
Asociación Trimix Scuba

Arreglar NPOV

Agregar imágenes a

Rebreather - varios modelos.
Tremie

Unir

Mover / renombrar

Separar

Actualizar

Verificar

Sitios de buceo recreativo

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Haz que todos los demás al menos comiencen la clase. Cuando esto sea imposible o inapropiado, busque fusionarlos en otros artículos.
Racionalice la cobertura del tema dividiendo. fusionar y crear artículos según parezca apropiado en ese momento, y crear redireccionamientos donde sea que sean útiles.
Mantenga y desarrolle el navbox para facilitar la búsqueda de artículos útiles dentro del proyecto.
Construya el Portal: buceo submarino para que cualquier persona pueda encontrar información razonablemente importante sobre el tema. Esto está en suspenso hasta que el propósito de los portales se haya definido lo suficiente como para que valga la pena el esfuerzo.

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vtmiBuceo descompresión
General	Descompresión (buceo) Equipo de descompresión Práctica de descompresión Teoría de la descompresión Profundidad de aire equivalente Profundidad narcótica equivalente Historia de la investigación y el desarrollo de la descompresión Profundidad máxima operativa Fisiología de la descompresión Descompresión incontrolada
Algoritmos	Algoritmo de descompresión de Bühlmann Modelo de descompresión de Haldane Modelo de burbuja de degradado reducido Algoritmo de Thalmann Modelo termodinámico de descompresión Modelo de permeabilidad variable
Buceo	Buceo profundo Buceo profesional Buceo recreativo Buceo de saturación Submarinismo Buceo técnico Buceo submarino
Equipo	Boya de descompresión Mesas de descompresión Trapecio de descompresión Computadora de buceo Cámara de buceo Tiro de buceo Camilla hiperbárica Jonline Planificador de buceo recreativo
Gases	Respirando aire Respirar gas Mezcla de gases para el buceo Heliox Nitrox Oxígeno Trimix
Lesión y tratamiento	Malestar de descompresión Cámara de buceo Medicina hiperbárica Programas de tratamiento hiperbárico Recompresión en agua
Procedimientos	Parada de pyle Relación de descompresión
Categorías: Buceo descompresión Comunes: Categoría: Descompresión

vtmiOrganizaciones de buceadores
Federaciones de apneistas	AIDA Internacional (AIDA) AIDA Hellas Asociación Británica de Apnea (BFA) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Recreativo y técnico del equipo de submarinismo	British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Asociación de Buzos de Cuevas de Australia (CDAA) Grupo de Buceo Subterráneo (CDG) Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Asociación Internacional para Buzos Discapacitados (IAHD) Asociación Nacional de Buceo en Cuevas (NACD) Proyecto Woodville Karst Plain (WKPP)
Científico, arqueológico e histórico	Sociedad Histórica de Buceo Sociedad de Arqueología Náutica (NAS) Salvar los naufragios de Ontario (SOS) Sociedad de Investigación del Mar
Federaciones deportivas	Federación Australiana de Subacuáticos (AUF) Asociación Británica de Octopush (BOA) Asociación Británica de Deportes Subacuáticos (BUSA) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Federación Sudafricana de Deportes Subacuáticos (SAUSF) Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF) Sociedad Subacuática de América (USOA)
Relacionados y sin categorizar	Sociedad de Arrecifes Artificiales de la Columbia Británica (ARSBC) CMAS Europa Asociación de marketing y equipos de buceo (DEMA) Red de alerta de buzos (DAN) Aletas verdes Sub Aqua Club del Comando Aéreo Naval

vtmiEquipo de buceo
Equipamiento básico	Máscara de buceo Tubo respirador Swimfin
Protección del medio ambiente	Traje de buceo atmosférico Traje de baño Pieles de buceo Traje de buceo Traje de agua caliente Chaleco de erupción Traje de Sladen Traje de buceo estándar Traje de neopreno
Aparato de respiración subacuático	Línea de aire Traje de buceo atmosférico Respirar gas Umbilical de buzo Narguile Rebreather de buceo Recuperar casco Snuba Equipo de buceo Reemplazo de buceo Buceo desde superficie
Cascos y mascarillas	Casco de buceo Media máscara Mascarilla de cara completa
Equipo de descompresión	Boya de descompresión Gas de descompresión Mesas de descompresión Trapecio de descompresión Computadora de buceo Tablas de buceo Cámara de buceo Campana de buceo Tiro de buceo Etapa de buceo Jonline Planificador de buceo recreativo
Equipo de seguridad	Fuente de aire alternativa Bloque de rescate Botella de rescate Línea de amigos Línea de distancia Carrete de buceo Herramienta de corte para buceadores Cuchillo de buzo Campana de buceo Arnés de seguridad de buceo Suministro de gas de emergencia Lifeline (buceo) Marcador de línea Regulador de pulpo Botella de poni Cuerda de rescate Casco de seguridad Jaula a prueba de tiburones Boya de balizamiento de superficie
Instrumentación	Medidor de profundidad Computadora de buceo Temporizador de buceo Brújula de buceo Reloj de buceo Neumofatómetro Manómetro sumergible
Equipo de movilidad para buceadores	Campana de buceo Etapa de buceo Aletas para nadar Monofin Vehículo de propulsión para buceadores Sistema de entrega avanzado SEAL Serie Cosmos CE2F Sumergible de combate seco Torpedo humano Canoa sumergible motorizada Vehículo de reparto de nadador clase R-2 Mala Vehículo de entrega SEAL Sumergible de combate en aguas poco profundas Siluro San Bartolomeo Mojado nellie Remolque Sub mojado Ninfa de Necker
Estándares	DIN 7876
Categoría: Equipo de buceo Comunes: Categoría: Equipo de buceo

vtmiEquipo de apoyo al buceo
Respirar gas	Bomba de refuerzo Lavador de dióxido de carbono Sistema de llenado en cascada Bomba de buceo Compresor de aire de buceo Filtros Mezcla de gases Mezcla de gases para el buceo Panel de gas Sistema de recuperación de gas Banco de almacenamiento de gas Quad de almacenamiento de gas Tubo de almacenamiento de gas Heliox Analizador de helio Compresor de aire respirable de alta presión Compresor de aire respirable de baja presión Método de membrana de concentración de gas. Nitrox Analizador de oxigeno Compatibilidad con oxígeno Adsorción por oscilación de presión Trimix
Plataformas	Barco de buceo Artesanía de asalto de goma de combate Vida a bordo Subskimmer Buque de apoyo al buceo HMS Challenger (K07) Buceo en canoa y kayak Hábitat submarino Base de arrecife de Acuario Estación Continental Shelf Two Hábitat de Helgoland Jules 'Undersea Lodge Estación analógica espacial Scott Carpenter SEALAB Hábitat de tectitas
Sistemas de descompresión	Sistema de respiración incorporado Cámara de buceo Bote salvavidas hiperbárico Camilla hiperbárica Sistema de saturación
Vehículos submarinos operados a distancia	ROUV clase 8A4 ABISMO Equipo Atlantis ROV CURV Épaulard ROV Explorador global ROUV clase Goldfish ROV Kaikō Sistema de reconocimiento de minas a largo plazo Mini Rover ROV OpenROV ROV KIEL 6000 ROV PHOCA ROV Escorpio ROV clase Sea Dragon Tractor de fondo marino Drone Seafox Caballito de mar ROUV SeaPerch ROUV clase SJT Unidad de excavación de zanjas T1200 VideoRay UROVs
Equipo de grabación y planificación de inmersiones	Mesas de descompresión Planificación de inmersiones Libro de registro del buceador Registro de operaciones de buceo Planificador de buceo recreativo Subsuelo (software)
Equipo de seguridad	Buzo hacia abajo bandera Tiro de buceo Jackstay Suministro de gas de reserva
General	Sistema de agua caliente Línea descendente
Categoría: Equipo de apoyo al buceo Comunes: Categoría: Equipo de apoyo al buceo

vtmiNatación con aletas
Por país	Australia Gran Bretaña Estados Unidos
Competiciones	Campeonato del Mundo de Natación con Aletas 2011 2013 2016 2018 Natación con aletas en los Juegos Mundiales 2009 2013 2017 Juegos de interior asiáticos 2007 2009 Juegos del sudeste asiático 2009 2011 Juegos bolivarianos 2013 Invitación de natación con aletas al aire libre de Texas
Nadadores con aletas	Joel Armas Valentina Artemyeva Peppo Biscarini Misty Hyman Shavarsh Karapetyan Flori Lang Vitalina Simonova
Registros	Récords mundiales Registros continentales Europa Registros nacionales Gran Bretaña Estados Unidos Registros de la Commonwealth
Organizaciones	CMAS Federaciones nacionales AUF BUSA FEDAS FFESSM CABEZA TSSF USOA Otras organizaciones Asociación Británica de Natación con Aletas Asociación de Natación con Aletas de Texas
Equipo	Traje de baño competitivo Máscara de buceo Traje de baño Monofin Aletas Tubo respirador Equipo de buceo
Artículos relacionados	Deportes subacuáticos Bucear Buceo libre Submarinismo
Categoría: Natación con aletas Comunes: Categoría: Natación con aletas

vtmiBuceo libre
Ocupaciones	Acuatlón (lucha submarina) Apnea natación con aletas Buceo libre Caza de perlas Pesca submarina Fútbol subacuático Hockey subacuático Hockey sobre hielo subacuático Rugby submarino Tiro al blanco submarino
Competiciones	Nórdico profundo Vertical Azul
Disciplinas	Peso constante (CWT) Peso constante sin aletas (CNF) Apnea dinámica (DYN) Apnea dinámica sin aletas (DNF) Inmersión libre (FIM) Apnea sin límites (NLT) Apnea estática (STA) Buceo en Skandalopetra Apnea de peso variable (VWT) Apnea de peso variable sin aletas
Equipo	Máscara de buceo Traje de baño Aletas Cabestrillo hawaiano Monofin Polespear Tubo respirador Arpón Gorra de waterpolo
Apneistas	Deborah Andollo Peppo Biscarini Sara Campbell Derya Can Göçen Goran Čolak Carlos Coste Robert Croft Mandy-Rae Cruickshank Yasemin Dalkılıç Leonardo D'Imporzano Flavia Eberhard Şahika Ercümen Emma Farrell Francisco Ferreras Pierre Frolla Flavia Eberhard Mehgan Heaney-Grier Elisabeth Kristoffersen Loïc Leferme Enzo Maiorca Jacques Mayol Audrey Mestre Karol Meyer Stéphane Mifsud Alexey Molchanov Natalia Molchanova Dave Mullins Patrick Musimu Guillaume Néry Herbert Nitsch Umberto Pelizzari Annelie Pompe Michal Risian Stig Severinsen Tom Sietas Aharon Solomons Martin Štěpánek Walter Steyn Tanya Streeter William Trubridge Devrim Cenk Ulusoy Danai Varveri Alessia Zecchini
Peligros	Barotrauma Ahogo Apagón en apnea ( apagón en aguas profundas y apagón en aguas poco profundas) Hipercapnia Hipotermia
Histórico	Ama (buceo) Lucha de pulpo Natación en los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1900 - Natación subacuática masculina
Organizaciones	AIDA Internacional SSI Federación Australiana de Subacuáticos Asociación Británica de Apnea CMAS FFESSM Performance Freediving International
Relacionado	Ama (buceo) Haenyeo Bucear Centro de entrenamiento de escape submarino Buceo submarino Deportes subacuáticos
Categoría: Apnea Comunes: Categoría: Apnea

vtmiAparato de respiración subacuático
Respirar gas	Sistema de llenado en cascada Compresor de aire de buceo Sensor de oxígeno electrogalvánico Mezcla de gases Mezcla de gases para el buceo Analizador de helio Producción de nitrox método de membrana adsorción por oscilación de presión Compatibilidad con oxígeno
Cilindros de buceo	Disco de ráfaga Válvula de cilindro Examen HIDROSTATICO Agrietamiento por carga sostenida Prueba e inspección de cilindros de buceo
Reguladores de buceo	Rendimiento respiratorio de los reguladores. Regulador de marsopa Regulador de una manguera Regulador de doble manguera
Cascos y mascarillas	Anti niebla Máscara de banda Casco de buceo Máscara de buceo Mascarilla de cara completa Casco de flujo libre Casco de demanda ligero Recuperar casco Casco de buceo estándar
Buceo en circuito abierto	Fuente de aire alternativa Escafandra autónoma Botella de rescate Cilindro de descompresión Dobles independientes Juego de gemelos colectores Botella de poni Equipo de buceo Sidemount Cilindro de eslinga
Rebreathers	Lavador de dióxido de carbono Carleton CDBA CDLSE Cis-lunar Rebreather criogénico CUMA DSEA Delfín Ranas Halcyon PVR-BASC Halcyon RB80 IDA71 Interspiro DCSC BESO LAR-5 LAR-6 LAR-V LARU Marsopa Rayo Siebe Gorman CDBA Siva Víbora
Suministrado por superficie	Botella de rescate Umbilical de buzo Compresor de aire de buceo Sistema de buceo Sea Trek Snuba Vestido de buceo estándar
Otros relacionados	Campana de buceo
Categoría: Aparato de respiración subacuático Comunes: Categoría: Aparatos de respiración subacuática

vtmiTrabajo subacuático
Ocupaciones	Ama (buceo) Buzo ingeniero del ejército Buzo de liquidación Divemaster Instructor de buceo Oficial de seguridad de buceo Supervisor de buceo Submarinista Haenyeo Buceo profesional
Tipo de trabajo	Buceo comercial en alta mar Divemaster Entrenamiento de buceo recreativo Soldadura hiperbárica Pruebas no destructivas Caza de perlas Buceo policial Buceo de seguridad pública Entrenamiento de buceo recreativo Buceo de salvamento Buceo científico Buceo con esponja Arqueología subacuática Demolición submarina Fotografía submarina Búsqueda y recuperación submarina Videografía subacuática
Herramientas y Equipamiento	Puente aéreo (dispositivo de dragado) Cámara de buceo Campana de buceo Lavado a presión Bolsa elevadora Vehículo submarino operado a distancia Tremie
Armas subacuáticas	Mina de lapa Arpón Cabestrillo hawaiano Polespear Arma de fuego subacuática Gyrojet Arma de defensa submarina Mk 1 Powerhead (arma de fuego) Pistolas subacuáticas Heckler y Koch P11 Pistola subacuática SPP-1 Revólveres submarinos Revólver subacuático AAI Rifles submarinos Rifle anfibio ADS Rifle subacuático APS Fusil anfibio ASM-DT
Relacionado	Planificación de inmersiones Equipo de buceo Actividades de buceo Oceanografía Biología Marina Buceo submarino
Categoría: Trabajos subacuáticos Comunes: Categoría: Trabajos subacuáticos