Sundarbans es un área de manglares en el delta formado por la confluencia de los ríos Ganges , Brahmaputra y Meghna en la Bahía de Bengala . Se extiende desde el río Hooghly en el estado indio de Bengala Occidental hasta el río Baleswar en la división de Khulna en Bangladesh . Comprende bosques de manglares cerrados y abiertos, tierras utilizadas para fines agrícolas, marismas y tierras estériles, y está cruzado por múltiples mareas.arroyos y canales. Cuatro áreas protegidas en Sundarbans están inscritas como sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO , a saber. Santuarios de vida silvestre del Parque Nacional Sundarbans , Sundarbans West , Sundarbans South y Sundarbans East . [3] A pesar de estas protecciones, los Sundarbans indios fueron considerados en peligro en una evaluación de 2020 bajo el marco de la Lista Roja de Ecosistemas de la UICN . [4] El bosque de manglares de Sundarbans cubre un área de aproximadamente 10,000 km 2 (3,900 millas cuadradas), de los cuales los bosques en la División Khulna de Bangladesh se extienden sobre 6,017 km 2 (2,323 millas cuadradas) y en Bengala Occidental, se extienden sobre 4,260 km 2 ( 1,640 millas cuadradas) en los distritos de South 24 Parganas y North 24 Parganas . [5] Las especies arbóreas más abundantes son el sundri ( Heritiera fomes ) y el gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ). Los bosques proporcionan un hábitat a 453 de fauna y flora, incluyendo 290 de aves, 120 de peces, 42 de mamíferos, 35 de reptiles y ocho especies de anfibios. [6]
Sundarbans | |
---|---|
Ubicación de los Sundarbans, que atraviesan el Ganges - Brahmaputra delta | |
Localización | División de la presidencia , Bengala Occidental , India División de Khulna , Bangladesh |
la ciudad mas cercana | Calcuta , Khulna , Bagerhat , Patuakhali , Barguna , Satkhira |
Coordenadas | 21 ° 43′59 ″ N 88 ° 52′08 ″ E / 21.73318765 ° N 88.86896612 ° ECoordenadas : 21 ° 43′59 ″ N 88 ° 52′08 ″ E / 21.73318765 ° N 88.86896612 ° E / 21.73318765; 88.86896612 |
Órgano rector | Gobierno de India , Gobierno de Bangladesh |
UNESCO sitio de Patrimonio Mundial | |
Nombre oficial | Parque Nacional Sundarbans |
Localización | División de la presidencia , Bengala Occidental , India |
Incluye |
|
Criterios | Natural: (ix) (x) |
Referencia | 452 |
Inscripción | 1987 (undécima sesión ) |
Área | 133,010 ha (513.6 millas cuadradas) |
Coordenadas | 21 ° 56′42 ″ N 88 ° 53′45 ″ E / 21.94500 ° N 88.89583 ° E / 21,94500; 88.89583 |
UNESCO sitio de Patrimonio Mundial | |
Nombre oficial | Los Sundarbans |
Localización | División de Khulna , Bangladesh |
Incluye |
|
Criterios | Natural: (ix) (x) |
Referencia | 798 |
Inscripción | 1997 (21º período de sesiones ) |
Área | 139,500 ha (539 millas cuadradas) |
Coordenadas | 21 ° 57'N 89 ° 11'E / 21.950 ° N 89.183 ° E / 21,950; 89.183 |
Humedal Ramsar | |
Nombre oficial | Bosque reservado de Sundarbans |
Designado | 21 de mayo de 1992 |
Numero de referencia. | 560 [1] |
Humedal Ramsar | |
Nombre oficial | Humedal de Sundarban |
Designado | 30 de enero de 2019 |
Numero de referencia. | 2370 [2] |
A pesar de la prohibición total de la matanza o captura de vida silvestre que no sean peces y algunos invertebrados, parece que hay un patrón constante de biodiversidad agotada o pérdida de especies en el siglo XX y que la calidad ecológica del bosque está disminuyendo. [7] La Dirección de Bosques es responsable de la administración y gestión del Parque Nacional Sundarban en Bengala Occidental. En Bangladesh, se creó un Círculo Forestal en 1993 para preservar el bosque, y desde entonces se han designado Conservadores en Jefe de Bosques. A pesar de los compromisos de preservación de ambos gobiernos, los Sunderbans están amenazados por causas tanto naturales como provocadas por el hombre. En 2007, la llegada del ciclón Sidr dañó alrededor del 40% de los Sundarbans. El bosque también sufre un aumento de la salinidad debido al aumento del nivel del mar y la reducción del suministro de agua dulce. Una vez más, en mayo de 2009, el ciclón Aila devastó Sundarban con un gran número de víctimas. Al menos 100.000 personas se vieron afectadas por este ciclón. [8] [9] Se prevé que la central eléctrica Rampal de carbón propuesta , situada a 14 km (8,7 millas) al norte de los Sundarbans en Rampal Upazila del distrito de Bagerhat en Khulna, Bangladesh, dañará aún más este bosque de manglares único, según un informe de 2016 por la UNESCO. [10]
Etimología
El nombre bengalí Sundarban Bengali : সুন্দরবন significa "bosque hermoso". [11] [12] Puede haber sido derivado de la palabra Sundari o Sundri , el nombre local de la especie de manglar Heritiera fomes . Alternativamente, se ha propuesto que el nombre es una corrupción de Samudraban , Shomudrobôn ("bosque marino") o Chandra-bandhe , el nombre de una tribu. [13]
Historia
La historia de la zona se remonta al 200-300 d. C. Se ha encontrado una ruina de una ciudad construida por Chand Sadagar en el bloque forestal de Baghmara. Durante el período mogol , los emperadores mogoles alquilaron los bosques de los Sundarbans a los residentes cercanos. Muchos criminales se refugiaron en los Sundarbans del avance de los ejércitos del emperador Akbar . Se sabe que muchos han sido atacados por tigres. [14] Muchos de los edificios que construyeron más tarde cayeron en manos de piratas portugueses, contrabandistas de sal y ladrones en los siglos XVI y XVII. La evidencia del hecho se puede rastrear en las ruinas de Netidhopani y otros lugares esparcidos por todo Sundarbans. [15] La situación jurídica de los bosques experimentó una serie de cambios, incluida la distinción de ser el primer manglar del mundo sometido a un manejo científico. El área fue cartografiada por primera vez en persa, por el Agrimensor General ya en 1769, poco después de que la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales obtuviera los derechos de propiedad del emperador mogol Alamgir II en 1757. La gestión sistemática de este tramo forestal comenzó en la década de 1860 después de la establecimiento de un departamento forestal en la provincia de Bengala , en la India británica . La gestión se diseñó en su totalidad para extraer los tesoros disponibles, pero la mano de obra y la gestión inferior en su mayoría estaban a cargo de lugareños, ya que los británicos no tenían conocimientos ni experiencia de adaptación en los bosques de manglares. [dieciséis]
La primera División de Manejo Forestal que tuvo jurisdicción sobre los Sundarbans se estableció en 1869. En 1875, una gran parte de los manglares fue declarada como bosques reservados bajo la Ley Forestal de 1865 (Ley VIII de 1865). Las porciones restantes de los bosques fueron declaradas bosque de reserva al año siguiente y el bosque, que hasta ahora estaba administrado por el distrito de la administración civil, quedó bajo el control del Departamento Forestal. En 1879 se creó una División Forestal, que es la unidad básica de gestión y administración forestal, con sede en Khulna , Bangladesh. El primer plan de gestión se redactó para el período 1893-1898. [17] [18]
En 1911, se describió como una extensión de tierra baldía que nunca había sido encuestada ni se le había extendido el censo. Luego se extendía por unos 266 kilómetros (165 millas) desde la desembocadura del río Hooghly hasta la desembocadura del río Meghna y limitaba hacia el interior con los tres distritos poblados de las 24 Parganas , Khulna y Bakerganj . El área total (incluida el agua) se estimó en 16.900 kilómetros cuadrados (6.526 millas cuadradas). Era una jungla anegada, en la que abundaban los tigres y otras bestias salvajes. Los intentos de recuperación no habían tenido mucho éxito.
Geografía
El bosque de Sundarban se encuentra en el vasto delta de la Bahía de Bengala formado por la superconfluencia de los ríos Hooghly , Padma (ambos son distributarios del Ganges ), Brahmaputra y Meghna en el sur de Bangladesh . Los bosques pantanosos de agua dulce de Sundarbans inundados estacionalmente se encuentran tierra adentro desde los bosques de manglares en la franja costera. El bosque cubre 10.000 km 2 (3.900 millas cuadradas) de los cuales aproximadamente 6.000 km 2 (2.300 millas cuadradas) se encuentran en Bangladesh. Se estima que la parte india de Sundarbans tiene unos 4.110 km 2 (1.590 millas cuadradas), de los cuales aproximadamente 1.700 km 2 (660 millas cuadradas) están ocupados por cuerpos de agua en forma de ríos, canales y arroyos de ancho que varía de unos pocos metros a varios kilómetros.
Los Sundarbans es cruzada por una red compleja de las mareas medio acuático, marismas y las pequeñas islas de manglares tolerantes a la sal. La red interconectada de vías fluviales hace que casi todos los rincones del bosque sean accesibles en barco. La zona es conocida por el tigre de Bengala ( Panthera tigris ), así como por una fauna numerosa que incluye especies de aves, ciervos manchados , cocodrilos y serpientes. Los suelos fértiles del delta han estado sujetos a un uso humano intensivo durante siglos, y la ecorregión se ha convertido principalmente en agricultura intensiva, quedando pocos enclaves de bosque. Los bosques restantes, junto con los manglares de Sundarbans, son un hábitat importante para el tigre en peligro de extinción. Además, los Sundarbans cumplen una función crucial como barrera protectora para los millones de habitantes de Khulna y Mongla y sus alrededores contra las inundaciones que resultan de los ciclones .
Fisiografía
El delta del Ganges, dominado por manglares , los Sundarbans, es un ecosistema complejo que comprende una de las tres extensiones individuales más grandes de bosques de manglares del mundo. La mayor parte está situada en Bangladesh, una pequeña parte se encuentra en la India. Se estima que la parte india del bosque es de alrededor del 40 por ciento, mientras que la parte de Bangladesh es del 60 por ciento. Al sur, el bosque se encuentra con la bahía de Bengala; al este limita con el río Baleswar y al norte hay una interfaz marcada con tierras de cultivo intensivo. El drenaje natural en las áreas aguas arriba, además de los principales canales de los ríos, se ve obstaculizado en todas partes por extensos terraplenes y pólderes . El Sundarbans se midió originalmente (hace unos 200 años) en unos 16.700 kilómetros cuadrados (6.400 millas cuadradas). Ahora se ha reducido a aproximadamente 1/3 del tamaño original. El área total de tierra hoy es de 4.143 kilómetros cuadrados (1.600 millas cuadradas), incluidas las barras de arena expuestas con un área total de 42 kilómetros cuadrados (16 millas cuadradas); el área de agua restante de 1.874 kilómetros cuadrados (724 millas cuadradas) abarca ríos, pequeños arroyos y canales. Los ríos de los Sundarbans son lugares de encuentro de agua salada y agua dulce. Por lo tanto, es una región de transición entre el agua dulce de los ríos que se originan en el Ganges y el agua salina de la Bahía de Bengala. [19]
Los Sundarbans a lo largo de la Bahía de Bengala han evolucionado a lo largo de los milenios a través de la deposición natural de sedimentos río arriba acompañados de segregación intermareal. La fisiografía está dominada por formaciones deltaicas que incluyen innumerables líneas de drenaje asociadas con diques superficiales y subacuáticos, splays y planicies de marea. También hay marismas marginales por encima del nivel medio de la marea, bancos de arena de marea e islas con sus redes de canales de marea, barras distales subacuáticas y arcillas proto-delta y sedimentos limosos. El suelo de los Sundarbans varía de 0,9 a 2,11 metros (3,0 a 6,9 pies) sobre el nivel del mar. [20]
Los factores bióticos aquí juegan un papel importante en la evolución costera física, y para la vida silvestre se ha desarrollado una variedad de hábitats que incluyen playas, estuarios, pantanos permanentes y semipermanentes, llanuras de marea , arroyos de marea , dunas costeras, dunas traseras y diques. La vegetación de los manglares en sí ayuda a la formación de nuevas masas de tierra y la vegetación intermareal juega un papel importante en la morfología de los pantanos. Las actividades de la fauna de los manglares en las marismas intermareales desarrollan características micromorfológicas que atrapan y retienen los sedimentos para crear un sustrato para las semillas de los manglares. La morfología y evolución de las dunas eólicas está controlada por una abundancia de plantas xerófitas y halófitas . Enredaderas, pastos y juncos estabilizan las dunas de arena y los sedimentos no compactados. Las marismas de Sunderbans (Banerjee, 1998) se encuentran en el estuario y en las islas deltaicas donde ocurre la baja velocidad del río y la corriente de las mareas. Las planicies están expuestas en mareas bajas y sumergidas en mareas altas, por lo que cambian morfológicamente incluso en un ciclo de mareas. Las mareas son tan grandes que aproximadamente un tercio de la tierra desaparece y reaparece todos los días. [21] Las partes interiores de las marismas sirven como un hogar perfecto para los manglares.
Ecorregiones
Sundarbans presenta dos ecorregiones : "Bosques pantanosos de agua dulce de Sundarbans" (IM0162) y "Manglares de Sundarbans" (IM1406). [22]
Bosques pantanosos de agua dulce de Sundarbans
Los bosques pantanosos de agua dulce de Sundarbans son una ecorregión de bosques tropicales húmedos de hoja ancha de Bangladesh. Representa los bosques pantanosos salobres que se encuentran detrás de los manglares de Sundarbans , donde la salinidad es más pronunciada. La ecorregión de agua dulce es un área donde el agua es ligeramente salobre y se vuelve bastante fresca durante la temporada de lluvias, cuando las columnas de agua dulce de los ríos Ganges y Brahmaputra empujan el agua salada intrusa hacia afuera y traen un depósito de limo. Cubre 14.600 kilómetros cuadrados (5.600 millas cuadradas) del vasto delta del Ganges-Brahmaputra , que se extiende desde la parte norte del distrito de Khulna y termina en la desembocadura de la Bahía de Bengala con porciones dispersas que se extienden hasta el estado de Bengala Occidental de la India . Los bosques pantanosos de agua dulce de Sundarbans se encuentran entre los bosques caducifolios húmedos de las llanuras del Ganges inferior y los manglares de Sundarbans de agua salobre que bordean la Bahía de Bengala. [23]
Víctima de la limpieza y asentamiento a gran escala para mantener a una de las poblaciones humanas más densas de Asia, esta ecorregión se encuentra bajo una gran amenaza de extinción. Cientos de años de habitación y explotación han cobrado un alto precio en el hábitat y la biodiversidad de esta ecorregión. Hay dos áreas protegidas: Narendrapur (110 km 2 ) y Ata Danga Baor (20 km 2 ) que cubren apenas 130 km 2 de la ecorregión. La pérdida de hábitat en esta ecorregión es tan extensa, y el hábitat restante está tan fragmentado, que es difícil determinar la composición de la vegetación original de esta ecorregión. Según Champion y Seth (1968), los bosques pantanosos de agua dulce se caracterizan por Heritiera minor , Xylocarpus molluccensis , Bruguiera conjugata , Sonneratia apetala , Avicennia officinalis y Sonneratia caseolaris , con Pandanus tectorius , Hibiscus tiliaceus y Nipa fruticans a lo largo de los fruticans . [23]
Manglares de Sundarbans
La ecorregión de los manglares de Sundarbans en la costa forma la franja hacia el mar del delta y es el ecosistema de manglares más grande del mundo, con 20,400 kilómetros cuadrados (7,900 millas cuadradas) de un área cubierta. Las especies de mangle dominantes Heritiera fomes es conocido localmente como sundri o sundari . Los manglares no albergan una gran variedad de plantas. Tienen un dosel espeso y la maleza es principalmente plántulas de manglares. Además del sundari , otras especies de árboles en el bosque incluyen Avicennia , Xylocarpus mekongensis , Xylocarpus granatum , Sonneratia apetala , Bruguiera gymnorhiza , Ceriops decandra , Aegiceras corniculatum , Rhizophora mucronata y Nypa fruticans palms. [24] Veintiséis de las cincuenta especies de manglares que se encuentran en el mundo crecen bien en los Sundarbans. Los tipos de vegetación comúnmente identificables en los densos bosques de manglares de Sundarbans son bosque mixto de agua salada, matorral de manglar, bosque mixto de agua salobre, bosque litoral, bosque húmedo y bosques de pastos aluviales húmedos. La vegetación de manglares de Bangladesh de los Sundarbans difiere mucho de otros bosques de manglares costeros no deltaicos y asociaciones de bosques de tierras altas. A diferencia de las primeras, las Rhizophoraceae son de menor importancia. [25]
Sucesión ecológica
La sucesión ecológica se define generalmente como la ocupación sucesiva de un sitio por diferentes comunidades vegetales. [26] En una marisma creciente, la comunidad exterior a lo largo de la secuencia representa la comunidad pionera que es reemplazada gradualmente por la siguiente comunidad que representa las etapas seriales y finalmente por una comunidad clímax típica de la zona climática. [27] Robert Scott Troup sugirió que la sucesión comenzó en la tierra recién acumulada creada por depósitos frescos de suelo erosionado. La vegetación pionera en estos sitios recientemente acumulados es Sonneratia , seguida de Avicennia y Nypa . A medida que el suelo se eleva como resultado de la deposición del suelo, aparecen otros árboles. La más prevalente, aunque una de las especies tardías en aparecer, es Excoecaria . A medida que el nivel de la tierra aumenta a través de la acreción y la tierra solo se inunda ocasionalmente por las mareas, comienza a aparecer Heritiera fomes . [28]
Flora
David Prain registró un total de 245 géneros y 334 especies de plantas en 1903. [29] Si bien la mayoría de los manglares en otras partes del mundo se caracterizan por miembros de Rhizophoraceae , Avicenneaceae o Combretaceae , los manglares de Bangladesh están dominados por el Malvaceae y Euphorbiaceae . [17]
La flora de Sundarbans se caracteriza por la abundancia de sundari ( Heritiera fomes ), gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ), goran ( Ceriops decandra ) y keora ( Sonneratia apetala ), todos los cuales se encuentran de manera prominente en toda la zona. El árbol característico del bosque es el sundari ( Heritiera littoralis ), del que probablemente se derivó el nombre del bosque. Produce una madera dura, que se utiliza para construir casas y fabricar barcos, muebles y otras cosas. Las nuevas acumulaciones de bosques suelen estar claramente dominadas por keora ( Sonneratia apetala ) y bosques de mareas. Es una especie indicadora de los bancos de lodo recientemente acumulados y es una especie importante para la vida silvestre, especialmente el ciervo manchado ( eje Axis ). Hay abundancia de dhundul o passur ( Xylocarpus granatum ) y kankra ( Bruguiera gymnorhiza ) aunque la distribución es discontinua. Entre las palmeras, Poresia coaractata , Myriostachya wightiana y golpata ( Nypa fruticans ), y entre las gramíneas, se encuentran bien distribuidas las gramíneas ( Imperata cylindrica ) y khagra ( Phragmites karka ).
Las variedades de bosques que existen en Sundarbans incluyen matorrales de manglar, bosque litoral , bosque mixto de agua salada , bosque mixto de agua salobre y bosque pantanoso . Además del bosque, hay extensas áreas de agua salobre y agua dulce pantanos , intermareales marismas , bancos de arena , dunas de arena con vegetación de dunas típica, abierta pastizales en suelos arenosos y áreas elevadas que soportan una gran variedad de arbustos y árboles terrestres. Desde el informe de Prain, se han producido cambios considerables en el estado de varias especies de manglares y una revisión taxonómica de la flora del manglar. [30] Sin embargo, se ha realizado muy poca exploración de la naturaleza botánica de los Sundarbans para mantenerse al día con estos cambios. Las diferencias en la vegetación se han explicado en términos de influencias de agua dulce y baja salinidad en el noreste y variaciones en el drenaje y la sedimentación . El Sundarbans ha sido clasificado como un bosque tropical húmedo que muestra un mosaico completo de seres , que comprende la colonización primaria en nuevas acumulaciones a bosques de playa más maduros. Históricamente, los tipos de vegetación se han reconocido en una amplia correlación con diversos grados de salinidad del agua, descarga de agua dulce y fisiografía.
Fauna
The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks, were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps, an improved methodology that yields more accurate results.[31][32][33] Tiger attacks are frequent in the Sundarbans, with up to 50 people being killed each year.[citation needed]
Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores, which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country.[34] Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered.[35] The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds[36] and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.[37]
The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times[17] and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).[38]
Mammals
The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris).[39] The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat (Felis chaus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), and leopard cat (P. bengalensis).[40]
Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the chital deer (Axis axis), Indian muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). It is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers[31] and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers regularly attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, with human deaths ranging from 30 to 100 per year.[41]
Avifauna
The forest is also rich in bird life, with 286 species including the endemic brown-winged kingfishers (Pelargopsis amauroptera) and the globally threatened lesser adjutants (Leptoptilos javanicus) and masked finfoots (Heliopais personata) and birds of prey such as the ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) and grey-headed fish eagles (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus). Some more popular birds found in this region are open billed storks, black-headed ibis, water hens, coots, pheasant-tailed jacanas, pariah kites, brahminy kites, marsh harriers, swamp partridges, red junglefowls, spotted doves, common mynahs, jungle crows, jungle babblers, cotton teals, herring gulls, Caspian terns, gray herons, brahminy ducks, spot-billed pelicans, great egrets, night herons, common snipes, wood sandpipers, green pigeons, rose-ringed parakeets, paradise flycatchers, cormorants, white-bellied sea eagles, seagulls, common kingfishers, peregrine falcons, woodpeckers, Eurasian whimbrels, black-tailed godwits, little stints, eastern knots, curlews, golden plovers, pintails, white-eyed pochards and lesser whistling ducks.[citation needed]
Aquafauna
The Sundarbans National Park is home to olive ridley turtle, hawksbill turtle, green turtle, sea snake, dog-faced water snake, estuarine crocodile, chameleon, king cobra, Russell's viper, house gecko, monitor lizard, pythons, common krait, green vine snake, checkered keelback and rat snake. The river terrapin, Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata), peacock soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx hurum), yellow monitor, Asian water monitor, and Indian python. Fish and amphibians found in the Sundarbans include sawfish, butter fish, electric ray, common carp, silver carp, barb, river eels, starfish, king crab, fiddler crab, hermit crab, prawn, shrimps, Gangetic dolphins, skipper frogs, common toads and tree frogs. One particularly interesting fish is the mudskipper, a gobioid that climbs out of the water into mudflats and even climbs trees.[citation needed]
Especies en peligro de extinción y extintas
Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari (Heritiera spp.) and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983.[42][43] Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining".[17]
The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), olive ridley sea turtle, Gangetic dolphin, ground turtles, hawksbill sea turtles and king crabs (horse shoe). Some species such as hog deer (Axis porcinus), water buffalos (Bubalus bubalis), barasingha or swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British.[35] There are other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur (Semnopithecus pileatus), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) and large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha).
Impacto del cambio climático
The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.
In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo-tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-centimetre (18 in) rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves.[44] Already, Lohachara Island and New Moore Island/South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea, and Ghoramara Island is half submerged.[45]
In a study conducted in 2012, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres (660 ft) in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17,179 hectares (42,450 acres) of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7,554 hectares (18,670 acres).
Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated the annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres (0.31 in) in 2010. It had doubled from 3.14 millimetres (0.124 in) recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7,500 hectares (19,000 acres) of forest areas. This, coupled with an around 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction.
Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with the same.[46][self-published source?][47][self-published source?][48] This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010.[49]
A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heiderberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing the flight of human capital from the region[49][50]
Peligros
Natural hazards
According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007.[51]
Man made hazards
In August 2010, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India's state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016.[52][53] The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land, is situated 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans.[54] This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants.[55] Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention.[56][57] The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect the world's largest mangrove forest.[58]
On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named Southern Star VII,[59] carrying 358,000 litres (79,000 imp gal; 95,000 US gal) of furnace oil,[60][61] was sunk in the Sela river[62] of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel.[59][61] The oil spread over 350 km2 (140 sq mi) area after the clash, as of 17 December.[63] The slick spread to a second river and a network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline.[64] The event was very threatening to trees, plankton, vast populations of small fishes and dolphins.[65] The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area, home to rare Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.[66] Until 15 December 2014 only 50,000 litres (11,000 imp gal; 13,000 US gal) of oil from the area were cleaned up by local residents, Bangladesh Navy and the government of Bangladesh.[60][67] Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife.[62] On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River.[68]
Economía
The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as a storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists. The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists.
The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country.[69] A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone-prone Bangladesh.
Agriculture
Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop (kharif crop) is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However, the lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops (Rabi crops) can be grown here.[70]
Habitation
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million[71] but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980.
Administración
The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing.[citation needed] As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways.
The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers.
The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund.
A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks.
Áreas protegidas
The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini (Satkhira District) and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks.[13] There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas.
Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, in West Bengal, Sundarbans East, Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh.[24]
In May 2019, the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell.
Sundarban National Park
The Sundarban National Park is a National Park, Tiger Reserve, and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta, and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger. It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile. The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park.
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and dense stands of Goran (Ceriops tagal), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (Phoenix paludosa) on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of the sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are wild boar, chital horin (spotted deer), Indian otter and macaque monkey. Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present – the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python.[72]
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 31,227 hectares (77,160 acres). Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Aglaia cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran (Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) is widespread along drainage lines.
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 36,970 hectares (91,400 acres). There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran (Ceriops tagal) and sometimes Passur.
Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary
Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a 362-square-kilometre (140 sq mi) area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India. It is mainly mangrove scrub, forest and swamp. It was set up as a sanctuary in 1976. It is home to a rich population of different species of wildlife, such as water fowl, heron, pelican, spotted deer, rhesus macaques, wild boar, tigers, water monitor lizards, fishing cats, otters, olive ridley turtles, crocodiles, batagur terrapins, and migratory birds.
En la cultura popular
The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like Bonbibi and Dakshin Rai) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like Manasa and Chand Sadagar). The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine Behula's quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life.
The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g. The Mystery of the Black Jungle). Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize winning novel, Midnight's Children is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of Kunal Basu's short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent film adaptation. Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel, The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans. The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption".[73] Manik Bandopadhyay's Padma Nadir Majhi was made into a movie by Goutam Ghose.
The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans,[74] as well as numerous non-fiction books, including The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award. In Up The Country, Emily Eden discusses her travels through the Sunderbans.[75] Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production Shining Bright about the Bengal tiger. The acclaimed BBC TV series Ganges documents the lives of villagers, especially honey collectors, in the Sundarbans.
Ver también
- Sundarbans Tiger Project
- Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
- Sangu Wildlife Sanctuary
- Environmental impact of development in the Sundarbans
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Fuentes
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sundarbans". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Laskar Muqsudur Rahman, The Sundarbans: A Unique Wilderness of the World; at USDA Forest Reserve; McCool, Stephen F.; Cole, David N.; Borrie, William T.; O'Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. 2000. Wilderness science in a time of change conference, Volume 2: Wilderness within the context of larger systems; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL-2. Ogden, UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
- Terminal Report, Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest: Project Findings and Recommendations, Food and Agriculture Organization (acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme), United Nations, Rome, 1998 (prepared for the Government of Bangladesh)
- Blasco, F. (1975). The Mangroves of India. Institut Francis de Pondichéry, Travaux de las Section Scientifique et Technique, Tome XIV, Facicule 1. Pondicherry, India.
- Jalais, Annu. (2005). "Dwelling on Morichjhanpi: When Tigers Became 'Citizens', Refugees 'Tiger-Food'"; Economic and Political Weekly, 23 April 2005, pp. 1757 – 1762.
- Jalais, Annu. (2007). "The Sundarbans: Whose World Heritage Site?", Conservation and Society (vol. 5, no. 4).
- Jalais, Annu. (2008). "Unmasking the Cosmopolitan Tiger", Nature and Culture (vol. 3, no. 1), pp. 25–40.
- Jalais, Annu. (2008). "Bonbibi: Bridging Worlds", Indian Folklore, serial no. 28, Jan 2008.
- Jalais, Annu. (2009). "Confronting Authority, Negotiating Morality: tiger prawn seed collection in the Sundarbans", International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, Yemaya, 32, Nov. [2]; Also in French: http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-8148.html
- Jalais, Annu. (2010). "Braving Crocodiles with Kali: Being a prawn-seed collector and a modern woman in the 21st century Sundarbans", Socio-Legal Review, Vol. 6.
- Montgomery, Sy (1995). Spell of the Tiger: The Man-Eaters of Sundarbans. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
- Rivers of Life: Living with Floods in Bangladesh. M. Q. Zaman. Asian Survey, Vol. 33, No. 10 (October 1993), pp. 985–996
- Allison, M. A.; Kepple, E. B. (September 2001). "Modern sediment supply to the lower delta plain of the Ganges-Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh". Geo-Marine Letters. 21 (2): 66. Bibcode:2001GML....21...66M. doi:10.1007/s003670100069. S2CID 140636544.
- Sundarbans on United Nations Environment Programme
- Brammer, H. (July 1990). "Floods in Bangladesh: II. Flood Mitigation and Environmental Aspects". The Geographical Journal. 156 (2): 158–165. doi:10.2307/635323. JSTOR 635323.
- Environmental classification of mangrove wetlands of India. V. Selvam. Current Science, Vol. 84, No. 6, 25 March 2003.
- Green, M.J.B.; Centre, W.C.M.; Parks, I.C.o.N.; Areas, P. (1990). Iucn Directory of South Asian Protected Areas. IUCN-The World Conservation Union. ISBN 978-2-8317-0030-4.
enlaces externos
- Sundarbans travel guide from Wikivoyage
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre: The Sundarbans
- UNESCO: Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Information
- World Heritage Site: The Sundarbans
- United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Programme: The Sundarbans
- The Sundarban of Bangladesh: A Rich Biodiversity of the World's Largest Mangrove Ecosystem
- Greenpeace: Sinking Sundarbans – Climate voices
- Tiger Conservation Project in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans
- Research on water management and control in the Sunderbans, West Bengal, India
- Finfishes of Sundarbans
- Nasa images: set 01 and set 2