La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Supervisión de la Tregua ( ONUVT ) es una organización fundada el 29 de mayo de 1948 [1] [2] [3] para el mantenimiento de la paz en Oriente Medio . Establecido en medio de la guerra árabe-israelí de 1948 , su tarea principal fue inicialmente proporcionar la estructura de mando militar a las fuerzas de mantenimiento de la paz en el Medio Oriente para permitir que el personal de mantenimiento de la paz observara y mantuviera el alto el fuego y ayudara a las partes de los Acuerdos de Armisticio en el Supervisión de la aplicación y observancia de los términos de dichos Acuerdos. [3]La estructura y el papel de la organización han evolucionado con el tiempo como resultado de los diversos conflictos en la región y, en ocasiones, el personal del ONUVT se ha utilizado para desplegarse rápidamente en otras zonas del Oriente Medio en apoyo de otras operaciones de las Naciones Unidas. La estructura de mando del ONUVT se mantuvo para cubrir las últimas organizaciones de mantenimiento de la paz de la Fuerza de las Naciones Unidas de Observación de la Separación (FNUOS) y la Fuerza Provisional de las Naciones Unidas en el Líbano (FPNUL) a las que el ONUVT sigue proporcionando observadores militares .
Abreviatura | ONUVT |
---|---|
Formación | Mayo de 1948 |
Tipo | Mission para mantener la paz |
Estatus legal | Activo |
Sede | Jerusalén |
Organización matriz | Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU |
Sitio web | mantenimiento de la paz |
Fondo
El 29 de noviembre de 1947, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas adoptó la Resolución 181 sobre "la futura constitución y gobierno de Palestina" que establece un "Plan de Partición con Unión Económica". El resultado de la votación fue 33 a favor, 13 en contra y 10 abstenciones. [Nota 1] El informe constaba de cuatro partes: futura constitución y gobierno de Palestina; límites; ciudad de Jerusalén; y capitulaciones. Pidió la creación de estados árabes y judíos a más tardar el 1 de octubre de 1948, con Jerusalén como corpus separatum bajo un régimen internacional que sería administrado por la ONU, siendo el Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria el organismo designado a este respecto. El plan también incluía medidas que se tomarían antes de la independencia, incluidas las cuestiones de ciudadanía, tránsito, unión económica entre los dos estados, acceso a lugares sagrados y derechos religiosos y de las minorías. La resolución 181 (II) también estableció la Comisión Palestina de las Naciones Unidas para llevar a cabo el plan. El Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria administraría Palestina durante diez años. [5] [6] [7]
A medida que la guerra civil en Palestina comenzó a escalar, el Consejo de Seguridad votó y adoptó la Resolución 42 (1948) del 5 de marzo de 1948, en la que se hizo un llamamiento a todos los gobiernos y pueblos, particularmente en Palestina y sus alrededores, para que tomen todas las medidas posibles para prevenir o reducir tales desórdenes. como estaban ocurriendo en Palestina. [8] El Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria decidió el 10 de marzo de 1948 en la resolución 32 (II) [9] "que el estatuto de Jerusalén estaba en forma satisfactoria y acuerda que la cuestión de su aprobación formal, junto con el nombramiento de un gobernador de la ciudad , se tratará en una reunión posterior que se celebrará a más tardar una semana antes del 29 de abril de 1948 ", fecha límite dada al Consejo por la Asamblea. El 21 de abril de 1948, el Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria transmitió la Resolución junto con el proyecto de estatuto a la Asamblea General. [10]
La situación en Palestina se estaba volviendo aún más caótica cuando el Consejo de Seguridad se reunió el 1 de abril de 1948 y adoptó la Resolución 43 (1948), pidiendo una "tregua inmediata en Palestina" y por "la Agencia Judía para Palestina y el Alto Comité Árabe poner representantes a disposición del Consejo de Seguridad con el fin de concertar una tregua entre las comunidades árabe y judía de Palestina; y destaca la gran responsabilidad que recaería sobre cualquier parte que no respete dicha tregua ". [11] El Consejo de Seguridad adoptó la Resolución 44 (1948), invocando el Artículo 20 de la Carta de la ONU el 1 de abril de 1948, donde el Consejo de Seguridad solicitó al Secretario General que convocara una sesión especial de la Asamblea General para considerar más el futuro del gobierno. de Palestina. [12]
El 17 de abril de 1948, la situación en Palestina se había deteriorado aún más y el Consejo de Seguridad adoptó la Resolución 46 (1948), en la que se instaba a todas las personas y organizaciones de Palestina a que pusieran fin de inmediato a todas las actividades militares, así como a los actos de violencia, terrorismo y sabotaje; Abstenerse de cualquier acción que ponga en peligro la seguridad de los Santos Lugares de Palestina y abstenerse de importar o adquirir o ayudar o alentar la importación o adquisición de armas y materiales de guerra ( embargo de armas ). También solicitó al gobierno del Reino Unido, como Potencia Obligatoria, que supervise la ejecución de esas medidas y mantenga informados al Consejo de Seguridad ya la Asamblea General sobre la situación en Palestina. [13]
A continuación, la Asamblea General se reunió para su segundo período extraordinario de sesiones entre el 16 de abril y el 14 de mayo de 1948, durante el cual examinó un documento de trabajo presentado por los Estados Unidos (EE.UU.) sobre la cuestión de la "Administración fiduciaria de Palestina", al que se opuso la Unión. de las Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas (URSS) y de la Agencia Judía. [14] La Asamblea aprobó la resolución 185 (S-2) de 26 de abril de 1948, en la que se pidió al Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria que estudiara medidas para la protección de Jerusalén y sus habitantes y presentara propuestas a la Asamblea General. [15]
El 14 de mayo de 1948, la Asamblea adoptó la Resolución 186 (S-2), que afirmó su apoyo a los esfuerzos del Consejo de Seguridad para asegurar una tregua en Palestina. La Asamblea también decidió nombrar un Mediador de la ONU para Palestina y especificó las funciones del Mediador, liberando a la Comisión Palestina de un mayor "ejercicio de responsabilidades" en virtud de la resolución 181 (II). Bernadotte fue nombrado Mediador. Luego de recibir propuestas del Consejo de Administración Fiduciaria, la Asamblea adoptó la Resolución 187 (S-2), recomendando al Poder Mandatario el nombramiento de un Comisionado Municipal Especial para Jerusalén. [dieciséis]
El estado judío de Israel fue proclamado el 14 de mayo de 1948, y entró en vigor a la medianoche de ese día, ya que el mandato británico expiraba al día siguiente. [17] Estados Unidos había propuesto el establecimiento de una administración fiduciaria para Palestina; [18] sin embargo, el gobierno de los Estados Unidos reconoció al estado judío al igual que la URSS. [19] La guerra árabe-israelí de 1948 estalló poco después cuando Líbano, Siria, Jordania y Egipto atacaron al recién proclamado estado. [20]
Historia
Según las Naciones Unidas, "tras las guerras de 1948, 1956, 1967 y 1973, las funciones [del ONUVT] ... [han evolucionado] ... a la luz de las circunstancias cambiantes, pero [han] permanecido en la zona, actuando como intermediarios para las partes hostiles y como el medio por el cual los incidentes aislados podrían ser contenidos y evitar que se conviertan en grandes conflictos ". [21]
Establecimiento
En respuesta a una solicitud del conde Folke Bernadotte , el mediador sueco de las Naciones Unidas para Palestina , el secretario general de las Naciones Unidas , Trygve Lie , envió a 50 miembros de la fuerza de guardia de las Naciones Unidas desde el lago Success para ayudar al mediador a supervisar la tregua. en el antiguo Mandato Británico de Palestina en 1948, [22] las Naciones Unidas establecieron la primera operación de mantenimiento de la paz. Todos los miembros del partido eran funcionarios públicos internacionales experimentados con antecedentes de servicio en la Secretaría de las Naciones Unidas en la Sede. Mientras estaban de servicio en Palestina, debían seguir usando uniformes de guardia de las Naciones Unidas. Los observadores militares de las Naciones Unidas (UNMO) permanecen en el Medio Oriente para monitorear el alto el fuego, supervisar los acuerdos de armisticio, evitar que se intensifiquen incidentes aislados y ayudar a otras operaciones de mantenimiento de la paz de la ONU en la región. Esta resolución formó la base para el establecimiento de la primera operación de mantenimiento de la paz de la ONU que se conoció como Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Supervisión de la Tregua (ONUVT). [23]
Antes de esto, en noviembre de 1947, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas aprobó un plan para la partición del entonces Mandato Británico de Palestina, que preveía la creación de un Estado árabe y un Estado judío , con Jerusalén en custodia con estatus internacional. . El plan no fue aceptado por los árabes palestinos y los Estados árabes y solo parcialmente aceptado por la Agencia Judía de Palestina. [Nota 2] El 14 de mayo de 1948, el Reino Unido renunció a su mandato sobre Palestina y se proclamó el Estado de Israel . Al día siguiente, los Estados árabes invadieron. [17]
La Asamblea General adoptó la Resolución 186 (S-2) el 14 de mayo de 1948. Esta afirmó su apoyo a los esfuerzos del Consejo de Seguridad para asegurar una tregua en Palestina, y decidió nombrar un Mediador de la ONU. Bernadotte fue designado y enviado a Palestina. [25] El 22 de mayo de 1948, el Consejo de Seguridad adoptó la Resolución 49 (1948) , pidiendo la abstención de cualquier acción militar hostil en Palestina. La resolución también instó a las partes a facilitar la tarea del Mediador de la ONU. [26] El 22 de mayo de 1948, Thomas C. Wasson , cónsul de Estados Unidos y miembro de la Comisión de Tregua de la ONU, fue asesinado en Jerusalén. [27]
El 29 de mayo de 1948, la Resolución 50 (1948) del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU pidió el cese de las hostilidades en Palestina y decidió que la tregua debería ser supervisada por Bernadotte con la ayuda de un grupo de observadores militares. El primer grupo de observadores militares, que luego se conoció como ONUVT, llegó a la región en junio de 1948, [28] cuando el Consejo de Seguridad amenazó con la intervención del Capítulo VII. Para hacer cumplir la primera de dos treguas, que duró cuatro semanas, las Naciones Unidas establecieron una formación de observadores, con miembros procedentes de Bélgica, Francia y Estados Unidos. [29] El 6 de julio, los observadores de la ONU tuvieron su primera baja con la muerte del comandante observador francés René de Labarriere , que resultó herido cerca del área de Afoula y luego murió en el Hospital Judío de Afoula. Fue herido mientras investigaba una presunta violación de las disposiciones de la tregua por parte de las fuerzas judías. [30]
El Mediador recibió instrucciones el 29 de mayo de 1948 de crear una tregua de un mes en Palestina. El concepto de Mediador se asoció con la Comisión de Tregua para la supervisión supervisora del Plan de Tregua. La tregua de un mes entró en vigor el 11 de junio de 1948. [31] El mismo día, el primer grupo de 36 observadores llegó a través de El Cairo , Egipto, y continuó llegando durante los siguientes tres días. La primera tregua no duró mucho debido a la violencia generalizada. Como resultado, los observadores fueron retirados el 9 de julio de 1948. [32] La segunda tregua, de duración indefinida, fue convocada por el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas el 15 de julio de 1948. Esta declaración debía entrar en vigor el 18 de julio de 1948. Fue a partir de la Resolución 54 [33] del Consejo de Seguridad que se instruyó al Mediador a supervisar el cumplimiento de la tregua y establecer procedimientos para examinar las presuntas infracciones de la tregua desde el 11 de junio de 1948, y autorizó al Mediador a ocuparse de las infracciones en la medida en que estaba dentro de la capacidad del Mediador para hacerlo mediante la acción local apropiada. La Resolución 54 del Consejo de Seguridad también solicitaba al Mediador que mantuviera informado al Consejo de Seguridad sobre el funcionamiento de la tregua y, cuando fuera necesario, que tomara las medidas apropiadas. Durante el otoño de 1948, el ONUVT se restableció con un aumento de tamaño para supervisar la Segunda Tregua. El primer grupo de observadores que sirvió en Palestina bajo el mediador de la ONU, Bernadotte, llegó a Rodas el 20 de julio. Incluía a 41 estadounidenses y unos 25 belgas y se desplegó el 21 de julio de 1948. [34] El grupo inicial se expandió rápidamente a 93 en total debido a la gran área que tenía que cubrirse. A medida que aumentó el número de personal, la Secretaría de las Naciones Unidas (de Personal) apoyó la creación de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Supervisión de la Tregua (ONUVT), la misma organización a la que están asignados los Observadores Militares de las Naciones Unidas en la actualidad. Inicialmente, el comando estaba encabezado por un Jefe de Estado Mayor (un oficial general de uno de los países participantes) de acuerdo con la dirección personal del Mediador (un civil). [35]
El 17 de septiembre de 1948, el mediador de la ONU, el conde Folke Bernadotte, y el coronel André Serot , mientras realizaban un viaje oficial a Jerusalén, fueron asesinados "a sangre fría ... en el barrio de Katamon de Jerusalén por asaltantes judíos". Después del asesinato, las conversaciones entre las partes en conflicto comenzaron bajo la supervisión del mediador interino Ralph Bunche . Bunche, Jefe de la Misión de la ONU en Palestina, en su carta al Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores israelí Moshe Shertok escribió que el incidente fue "un ultraje contra la comunidad internacional y una violación indecible de la moralidad elemental. Su seguridad [Bernadotte], por lo tanto, y que de sus Lugartenientes bajo las normas ordinarias del orden público era responsabilidad del Gobierno Provisional de Israel, cuyas fuerzas armadas y representantes controlan y administran la zona. El acto constituye una violación de la tregua de la máxima gravedad por la que el Gobierno Provisional de Israel debe asumir toda la responsabilidad ". [36] El Gobierno Provisional de Israel no presentó el informe al Consejo de Seguridad ni al Mediador Interino sobre el progreso de la investigación sobre el asesinato del Conde Bernadotte. [37]
Los Acuerdos de Armisticio General (GAA) surgieron de las conversaciones presididas por el Mediador. El 11 de agosto de 1949, el Consejo de Seguridad decidió que la función de mediador había sido completada y que la función de observar el alto el fuego debía transferirse al Jefe de Estado Mayor del ONUVT. [38] En 1949, los observadores militares del ONUVT se quedaron para supervisar los Acuerdos de Armisticio de 1949 entre Israel y sus vecinos árabes , que fueron durante muchos años la base principal de la difícil tregua en toda la zona. Las actividades del ONUVT se han extendido y aún se extienden por territorios de cinco Estados y, por lo tanto, mantiene relaciones con cinco países anfitriones: Egipto , Israel, Jordania , Líbano y la República Árabe Siria . Desde entonces, el ONUVT también ha supervisado los Acuerdos de Armisticio General de 1949 y la observación del alto el fuego en el área del Canal de Suez después de la Crisis de Suez de 1956, y los Altos del Golán después de la Guerra de los Seis Días de junio de 1967 y la Guerra de Yom Kippur de 1973. [21]
1949 hasta 1956
El período comprendido entre agosto de 1949 y junio de 1956 fue inicialmente caótico, pero rápidamente se convirtió en una rutina de quejas en los frentes jordano, egipcio, sirio y libanés. Inicialmente, el personal de la ONU pudo ocuparse de las denuncias de violaciones de la "tregua" a nivel de los comandantes locales. A medida que pasaba el tiempo, surgió una cultura de reclamo y contrarreclamación por parte de las partes participantes y, independientemente del trabajo y la intención del ONUVT, la intensidad de los incidentes violentos aumentó. Los GAA se habían preparado apresuradamente en previsión de una paz temprana según las líneas del Plan de Partición de 1947 y la principal preocupación era poner fin al derramamiento de sangre lo antes posible. [39] Como resultado, las líneas del armisticio habían establecido límites temporales sin pensar en los límites existentes de las aldeas o los derechos de agua. Los acuerdos de armisticio fueron de carácter puramente militar, destinados a proporcionar una etapa de transición entre la tregua y una paz definitiva. Constituían, en efecto, acuerdos de no agresión de duración ilimitada, pero no contenían en sí mismos ninguna disposición para el establecimiento de relaciones normales entre los países vecinos. Las líneas del armisticio no siguieron las líneas de combate en todos los casos, especialmente la línea del armisticio sirio. En el caso de la línea del armisticio egipcio, las fuerzas israelíes continuaron con un empujón hacia el sur [40] y llegaron a Umm Rashrash (Eilat) en marzo [41] después de la GAA egipcio-israelí del 24 de febrero de 1949. Esto provocó fricciones al establecer la "tregua líneas". La contribución a la fundación de una existencia pacífica por parte de las Comisiones Mixtas de Armisticio (MAC) estuvo limitada por las sanciones que pudieron aplicar las MAC (una condena formal por parte del Consejo de Seguridad). Durante aproximadamente 18 años (desde 1949 hasta después de la guerra de 1967), la falta de armonía dentro de los MAC fue típica de la relación existente entre los países. Con la excepción del MAC israelí-libanés, las luchas y la discordia se hicieron comunes. [35]
The MACs were very different from one another, bringing about four unique peacekeeping missions under the head of the UNTSO. Disputes on the Israel/Syria Mixed Armistice Commission (ISMAC) centred on the most precious Middle Eastern commodity: water and sovereignty of the DMZ.[42][43] Contentious issues in the HKJIMAC principally concerned the divided city of Jerusalem,[44] the Israeli Mount Scopus enclave, the Latrun salient (sovereignty of the DMZ), Arab infiltration across the armistice demarcation line and large scale Israeli military incursions into Jordanian territory.[45][46] The troubles were followed by infiltration from displaced Arabs, followed by raids of reprisal and intimidation by the Israelis, which heightened tensions around the borders.[47] The infiltration by Palestinians initially consisted of unarmed groups crossing to regain possessions, harvest their crops or visit relatives, but later infiltrations included armed individuals and then later developed into small retaliatory raids.[48]
Israeli infiltration into Jordanian territory at this time included retaliatory raids by military units at Qibya[49] and Nahhalin.[50] Israel's frustration with the UN and the other parties led to their withdrawal from ISMAC in 1951 and HKJIMAC in 1954. The functioning of the Israel-Lebanon MAC remained smooth due to the more relaxed attitude of the Israeli patrols towards returnees and infiltrators.[51] Disputes with Egypt, who banned Israel-bound shipping from the Suez Canal[52][53] and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba,[54] pertained to the al-Auja DMZ. By 1955,[55] Egypt's sponsorship of Palestinian fedayeen (self-sacrificer) raids caused Israel to cease attending the Egyptian MAC and to step up raids into the Gaza Strip and Sinai, which resulted in Egypt arming the fedayeen. From 21 September 1955, the Egypt/Israel demilitarized zone was occupied by Israel armed forces. In response, Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld and the Chief of Staff UNTSO attempted to secure the implementation of a plan for withdrawal of Israeli armed forces and the removal of Egyptian forces from prohibited positions. Articles VII and VIII of the Egypt-Israel GAA established a Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) centred on El-Auja and forbade the presence of armed forces. It also prohibited Egypt from maintaining positions in an adjoining area west of the demilitarized zone, and limited the arms and troops in the Defensive Areas on both sides of the Line. Both Egypt and Israel had indicated to the Secretary-General their willingness to comply fully with these two articles, within the framework of a return to full compliance with the Armistice Agreement. The Israeli Government gave assurances of its complete acceptance in principle of the plan. The agreed withdrawal, however, never took place.[56] The 1956 invasion of Egypt by British, French and Israeli forces, followed Egypt's decision on 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal.[57]
Suez Crisis to Six Day War
After the 1956 War (often referred to as the Suez Crisis),[58] UNTSO greatly assisted the establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF); in large measure the result of diplomatic efforts of the UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld and a proposal from Canadian minister of external affairs Lester Pearson, by providing a group of trained military personnel for peacekeeping and emergency operations to UNEF.[59]
Israel, after the 1956 war, subsequently ceased all cooperation/participation in its Israeli-Egyptian MAC. On 8 November, the Israeli representative informed the Secretary-General that his Government would withdraw its forces from Egypt immediately after the conclusion of satisfactory arrangements with the United Nations in connection with the Emergency International Force.[Note 3] As a result, according to the United Nations, arrangements were made through which, "without any change of the legal structure or status of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, the functions of UNTSO in the Gaza area were placed under the operational control of UNEF".[61] A close co-operation between UNTSO and UNEF was to be maintained.[62]
The General Assembly, on 19 January 1957, noted "with regret and concern the failure of Israel to withdraw from Egyptian territory".[63] Later, on 2 February 1957, the Council deplored the" non-compliance of Israel with regard to completion of its withdrawal and called upon Israel to complete its withdrawal without delay". On 6 March 1957, General Burns was able to report to the Secretary-General of the UN that the "United Nations Emergency Force troops are now in position in all camps and centres of population in Gaza Strip".[64] The staged withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip, with the exception of an Israel troop unit at Rafah camp, at 0400 GMT on 7 March 1957 was carried out according to plan and without incidents. By agreement, that last Israel element was withdrawn by 1600 GMT on 8 March and a full Israeli withdrawal from the Sharm al Shaikh area was effected at the same time.[65] In the following years, the Israel-Egypt MAC remained inactive, with only Egyptians and UN personnel taking part.[66]
In this period, the Lebanese sector was relatively calm compared to subsequent events in that area. The Israel-Lebanon MAC met regularly and had developed a routine for handling incidents that occurred.[67] In the Jordanian and Syrian sectors were the scene of frequent and often serious incidents and both the Israel-Jordan and the Israel-Syria MAC's were quite active in pursuance of their mandate in responding to issues, with several incidents evolving regarding land use around Jerusalem and in the Hula area, and the movement of supply convoys to the Israeli enclave at Mount Scopus. During one of these incidents around Mount Scopus, a military observer, Canadian Lieutenant Colonel George Flint, was killed.[68][69][70][71]
In response to Israeli activities in the DMZ between the armistice demarcation lines in the Government House area in Jerusalem, Jordan complained to UN. This resulted in the Security Council adopting Resolution 127 (1958) on 22 January 1958, noting that the status of the zone is affected by the provisions of the Israel-Jordan GAAs and that neither Israel nor Jordan enjoys sovereignty over any part of the zone and directing the Chief of Staff of UNTSO in Palestine to regulate activities in the zone.[72]
In June 1958, UNTSO personnel were used to quickly raise the United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon, a short lived mission that was sent to Lebanon over the period June – December 1958 during the 1958 Lebanon crisis.[73]
On 17 March 1961, the Israelis undertook a dress rehearsal for a military parade in the Israeli-occupied part of the Jerusalem, in which heavy military armaments were displayed. In response, Jordan complained to the MAC. On 20 March 1961, the Mixed Armistice Commission decided that "this act by Israel is a breach of the General Armistice Agreement". The MAC also condemned the parade and called upon the Israeli authorities to take the strongest measures to prevent a recurrence of such a breach of the GAA and to refrain in the future from bringing to Jerusalem any equipment that was in excess of that allowed for under the terms of the GAA. The Israeli authorities still contemplated holding the full dress military parade on 20 April 1961 in the Israeli-occupied part of Jerusalem. The Security Council, on 11 April 1961, adopted Resolution 162 (1961); this endorsed the 20 March 1961 decision of the MAC; relating to the military parade contemplated for 20 April 1961 in the Israel-occupied part of Jerusalem, and urged Israel to comply with the decision of the MAC made on 20 March 1961.[74]
The Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement provided for a demilitarized zone (DMZ) in the Hula Lake area at the foot of the Golan Heights, a zone which encompassed the area of Palestine as defined in the League of Nations Mandate occupied by Syrian forces at the time of the armistice. Civilian construction and land use in the DMZ caused numerous incidents around this time due to disputes over land ownership even though UNTSO was tasked with attempting to regulate activities leading to such disputes in the zone.[71] After heavy fighting broke out between Israel and Syria in the DMZ, the Security Council in Resolutions 92 (1951) and 93 (1951) of 8 and 18 May 1951 called upon the parties to cease fighting and endorsed the request of the Chief of Staff of UNTSO that the Israeli company involved be instructed to cease all operations in the DMZ until such time as an agreement is arranged through the Chairman of the MAC for continuing its project.[75][76] In Resolution 111 (1956) of 19 January 1956, the Security Council dealt with the confrontation which had escalated following interference by the Syrian authorities with legitimate Israeli activities on Lake Tiberias. It condemned as "in no way justified" the Israeli action taken in response to that interference in the form of an attack by Israeli regular army forces against Syrian regular army forces on Syrian territory. It also noted that in violation of the provisions of the General Armistice Agreement concerning the DMZ, the Zone had been crossed by the Israeli forces that entered Syria.[77]
Following a prolonged military confrontation between the parties, the Security Council was again involved in the Israel – Syria situation in 1962 in the light of a report by the Chief of Staff of UNTSO on the military activities in the Lake Tiberias area and in the DMZ. The Council in Resolution 171 (1962) of 9 April 1962 noted with satisfaction that a cease fire had been achieved. It deplored the hostile exchanges which had taken place and called upon the Governments concerned to comply with the General Armistice Agreement. It determined that an Israeli attack on 16–17 March had been a flagrant violation of the previous resolution (111), and called on Israel scrupulously to refrain from such action in the future. It also called upon both parties to abide scrupulously by the cease fire arranged by the Chief of Staff of UNTSO, and called specifically for strict observance of the article of the GAA which provides for the exclusion of armed forces from the demilitarized zone, and of the annex to the GAA which sets limits on forces in the defensive area.[78]
On 7 June 1967, during the Six Day War, Comdt Thomas Wickham of the Irish Defense Forces was shot dead in Syria.[79]
Six Day War to Yom Kippur War (1967 to 1973)
The period between the Six-Day War of June 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of October 1973, UNTSO performed a vital function of helping to establish and supervise ceasefire agreements which included new boundaries between the countries. Even though there was no change to UNTSO's mission, the execution of its original mission became nearly impossible with the advent of the newly drawn ceasefire lines between Israel and Egypt-Jordan-Syria respectively.[80]
Additionally, UNTSO did not have the MACs to supervise since Israel abrogated its initial agreement to the Armistice as conceived. Realizing the changing political situation, the UN Security Council added some new tasks to the UNTSO Charter on the first few months following the 1967 ceasefire. Specifically, in the Egypt-Israel and Israel-Syria fronts, UNTSO established observation posts (OPs):[80] a total of 15 were established along the Suez, while 16 were established in the Golan Heights.[81] These posts remained in effect until the Yom Kippur War of October 1973. The UN offices established in Amman and Gaza (before the 1967 War) were allowed to continue to function as Liaison Offices, even though the MAC concept had become defunct.[80]
At the urging of the Lebanese government, UNTSO created an observation operation along the Lebanese border (1949 Armistice Demarcation line) in the spring of 1972. Due to the Palestinian activity in South Lebanon and the potential Israeli reprisal against their encampments, UNTSO felt the potential for further conflict warranted the additional OPs.[80] At this time, posts were established at El Khiam, Maroun Er Ras, and at Naquora.[81]
Yom Kippur to the Israel–Lebanon War
As a result of the Yom Kippur War, the positions occupied by the UN military observers in the Middle East were drastically affected. A total of eight OPs were abandoned at this time;[81] however, most OPs are still located in the same place today. In the Egyptian-Israeli sector, UNTSO personnel were structured around the Observer "Group" concept and placed under the UN Peace-Keeping Forces that occupied the region. Observer Group Sinai was formed and attached to the Second United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF II). The Charter for UNEF II expired on 24 July 1979 which only left UNTSO's presence. The observers were then restructured on new OPs which were located on vantage points throughout the Sinai peninsula. For the Sinai Group, their main office was located in Cairo (in 1993 it was moved to Ismailia, closer to the OPs). On the Israeli-Syria border, UNTSO's ceasefire observation and supervision mission continued but with a readjusted ceasefire line. Observer Groups Damascus and Golan (Syrian sector) were established as a result of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF).[80][81]
Shortly after the 1973 war, U.S. participation in UNTSO expanded to twenty-five officers. The U.S. Marine Corps portion was six. Approximately the same period, the Soviets made a surprise move and announced their support of UNTSO and likewise wanted to provide observers. To keep a balanced presence between the East-West Superpowers—the Soviet participation was set at the same level as the United States (which was twenty-five each at that time). Subsequent to the 1973 agreement, the number of observers for all countries participating increased. As a result, the number of personnel to be provided by Soviet Union and the United States was re-established at thirty-six each. Since U.S. personnel were not allowed in Lebanon (a limitation set forth by U.S. Secretary of Defence Frank Carlucci, due to the threat to U.S. personnel), at this time there was a move to reduce U.S. participation to UNTSO. As a corollary, this also required a reduction in the numbers of Soviet observers. This reduction was delayed due to a lengthy diplomatic process.[80][Note 4]
After the Lebanon War
The Israeli-Lebanese conflict commenced in the late 1970s, ending the relative stability of the demarcation line along that front.[83] It provided the latest major change to UNTSO's structure. After the outbreak of the Civil War in Lebanon and the Israeli invasion of Southern Lebanon (March 1978), the United Nations established the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).[83] UNTSO's observers were thus reorganized into Observer Group Lebanon (OGL) to assist UNIFIL. September 1982 saw a low point for UNTSO with the deaths of four of its unarmed officer observers—one Finn, one Irishman,[84] and two Americans[85]—in a landmine explosion just outside Beirut. As the Israelis advanced north, the position of Observer Group Lebanon was adjusted. In the early 1980s, the headquarters of the Israel-Lebanon Mixed Armistice Commission (ILMAC) which was already located in Beirut, was also tasked with being the United Nations Liaison Office Beirut (UNLOB). Under the close supervision of UNTSO's Chief-of-Staff, UNLOB/ILMAC functioned as a dual purpose headquarters/ liaison office for both UNTSO and UNIFIL.[80]
With the establishment of the non-UN Multinational Force and Observers mission in the Sinai in 1981, UNTSO's Observer Group Sinai was retained to maintain a UN presence in the area.[86]
Four unarmed UN peacekeepers from Austria, China, Finland and Canada were killed during an Israeli air strike on 25 July 2006, which struck a UN OP at Khiam.[87][83]
Sede
Cairo was the initial headquarters of UNTSO. This was moved, shortly after its creation, to Haifa (a British enclave in this time), in late June 1948. The Haifa HQ was evacuated on 9 July due to renewed fighting. With the return of UN peacekeeping forces to Israel on 21 July 1948, UNTSO headquarters was moved again on 7 October 1948 for the third and final time to the former British High Commissioner's headquarters in Jerusalem.[88][89]
UNTSO also has offices in Beirut, Ismailia and Damascus.[90]
Países contribuyentes
Military personnel allocated to UNTSO have come from many nations over the course of the mission's history. The United States, Belgium and France provided the initial groups of observers until 1953, but as the Cold War developed the number of personnel committed by the US and France was reduced. From 1953, other nations began contributing observers. Notably, Sweden has provided the most number of chiefs of staff. The Soviet Union first deployed personnel after the 1973 Arab–Israeli war.[91] In 2020, the following nations contributed personnel: Argentina, Australia,[92] Austria, Bhutan, Belgium, Canada, Chile, the People's Republic of China, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Fiji, Gambia, Ireland,[93] India, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.[94] Britain is the only permanent member of the Security Council that does not currently provide personnel to the mission.[83]
Hoy
UNTSO personnel have also been available at short notice to form the nucleus of other peacekeeping operations. The availability of UNTSO's military observers for almost immediate deployment after the Security Council had acted to create a new operation has been an enormous contributory factor to the success of those operations.[35][95]
According to the United Nations, "the military observers are unarmed and they carry out their jobs by observing and reporting violations of the agreements of ceasefire, disengagement etc. that are relevant to their area of operations. All military observers are seasoned officers of the rank of captain or major coming from all branches of service in their respective countries armed forces. The military observers work in multi-national teams, so that any observations will always be confirmed by at least two observers from different nations, as a measure to ensure impartiality".[96]
UNTSO currently provides military observers to three different UN missions in the area: Observer Group Lebanon (OGL), supporting UNIFIL in Southern Lebanon; Observer Group Golan (OGG), supporting UNDOF in the Golan Heights; and Observer Group Egypt (OGE) in the Sinai Peninsula.[62]
OGG, who has its headquarters co-located with UNDOF HQ in Camp Faouar in Syria, is split into two outstations; OGG-D (Observer Group Golan – Damascus) based in Damascus, Syria and OGG-T (Observer Group Golan – Tiberias) based in Tiberias, Israel.[62] Each outstation maintains "a number of observation posts on each side of the Area of Separation (AOS) that was put in place as part of the 1974 Disengagement Agreement between Syria and Israel following the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The military observers carry-out fortnightly inspections inside the Area of Limitations (AOL) to verify, that both sides adhere to the limitations on troop levels and military equipment within 10, 20 and 25 km zones from the AOS as prescribed by the 1974 Disengagement Agreement".[96]
OGL HQ are co-located with UNIFIL HQ in Naqoura, Southern Lebanon.[62] OGL occupies several patrol bases along the "Blue Line" – a demarcation line between Israel and Lebanon.[96]
OGE is based in Ismalia by the Suez Canal in Egypt. OGE conducts short and long-range patrols in the Sinai Peninsula.[62]
Día internacional del personal de mantenimiento de la paz de las Naciones Unidas
The United Nations has designated 29 May as the "International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers" by the United Nations. On that day in 2008 the sixtieth anniversary of the first United Nations Peacekeeping Forces being deployed was celebrated. In a press release, the UN announced:[97]
Sixty years ago on that date, the United Nations Security Council established the first peacekeeping operation, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), based in the Middle East. In 2001, the General Assembly proclaimed 29 May as the International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers to pay tribute to the men and women who serve in United Nations peacekeeping operations and honour the memory of those who have lost their lives in the cause of peace.
Comandantes (Jefe de Estado Mayor) del ONUVT
Start Date | End Date | Name | Rank | Country | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
May 1948 | July 1948 | Thord Bonde | Colonel | Sweden | [98] |
July 1948 | September 1948 | Åge Lundström | Major General | Sweden | [98] |
September 1948 | June 1953 | William E. Riley | Lt. General | USA | [98] |
June 1953 | September 1954 | Vagn Bennike | Major General | Denmark | [98] |
August 1954 | November 1956 | E.L.M. Burns | Lt. General | Canada | [98] |
November 1956 | March 1958 | Byron V. Leary | Colonel | USA | [98] |
March 1958 | July 1960 | Carl von Horn | Lt. General | Sweden | [98] |
July 1960 | December 1960 | R.W. Rickert | Colonel | USA | [98] |
Jan 1961 | May 1963 | Carl von Horn | Lt. General | Sweden | [98] |
May 1963 | July 1970 | Odd Bull | Lt. General | Norway | [98] |
July 1970 | October 1973 | Ensio Siilasvuo | Lt. General | Finland | [98] |
October 1973 | March 1974 | Richard Bunworth | Colonel | Ireland | [98] |
March 1974 | August 1975 | Bengt Liljestrand | Major General | Sweden | [98] |
September 1975 | December 1975 | Keith D. Howard | Colonel | Australia | [98] |
January 1976 | March 1978 | Emmanuel Erskine | Major General | Ghana | [98] |
April 1978 | June 1979 | William O'Callaghan | Lt. General | Ireland | [98] |
June 1979 | January 1980 | Olof Forsgren | Colonel | Sweden | [98] |
February 1980 | February 1981 | Erkki R. Kaira | Major General | Finland | [98] |
February 1981 | May 1986 | Emmanuel Erskine | Major General | Ghana | [98] |
May 1986 | June 1987 | William O'Callaghan | Lt. General | Ireland | [98] |
June 1987 | October 1990 | Martin O. Vadset | Lt. General | Norway | [98] |
October 1990 | October 1992 | Hans Christensen | Major General | Finland | [98] |
October 1992 | December 1993 | Krisna Thapa | Major General | Nepal | [98] |
December 1993 | April 1994 | John Fisher | Colonel | New Zealand | [98] |
April 1994 | June 1995 | Luc Bujold | Colonel | Canada | [98] |
June 1995 | September 1995 | Jaakko Oksanen | Colonel | Finland | [98] |
October 1995 | March 1998 | Rufus Kupolati | Major General | Nigeria | [98] |
April 1998 | March 2000 | Tim Ford | Major General | Australia | [98] |
April 2000 | March 2002 | Franco Ganguzza | Major General | Italy | [98] |
March 2002 | Sept 2004 | Carl Dodd | Major General | Ireland | [98] |
November 2004 | November 2006 | Clive Lilley | Major General | New Zealand | [99] |
November 2006 | February 2008 | Ian Gordon | Major General | Australia | [100] |
February 2008 | April 2011 | Robert Mood | Major General | Norway | [101] |
May 2011 | June 2013 | Juha Kilpiä | Major General | Finland | [102] |
July 2013 | 31 July 2015 | Michael Finn | Major General | Ireland | [103] |
1 September 2015 | June 2017 | Dave Gawn | Major General | New Zealand | [104] |
6 October 2017 | Present | Kristin Lund | Major General | Norway | [105] |
Referencias
Notes
- ^ "A vote was taken by roll-call. The result of the vote was as follows: In favour: Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Canada, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, Liberia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Sweden, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Union of South Africa, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela. Against: Afghanistan, Cuba, Egypt, Greece, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen. Abstained: Argentina, Chile, China, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Honduras, Mexico, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia. The report was adopted by 33 votes to 13, with 10 abstentions."[4]
- ^ Dr Able Hillel Silver, Chairman of the American Section of the Jewish Agency made the case for a Jewish state to the ad hoc committee on Palestine at the UN on 2 October 1947. The Jewish Agency announced acceptance of 10 of the 11 unanimous recommendations of the UN partition plan and rejection of the minority report. Of the majority report (the Partition Plan areas), Silver vacillated saying that he was prepared to "recommend to the Jewish people acceptance subject to further discussion of the constitutional and territorial provisions".[24]
- ^ Norman G. Finkelstein alludes to Brian Urquhart's memoir, A Life in Peace and War (ISBN 0-06-015840-9), where Urquhart, describing the aftermath of the 1956 Suez Crisis, recalls how Israel refused to allow the UNEF to be stationed on the Israeli side of the line, and labels the Israeli rejection as a "grave weakness for a peacekeeping force."[60]
- ^ By 31 December 2004, there were three US officers assigned to UNTSO as military observers.[82]
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Bibliografía
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(help) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. - Congress of the United States (1967). "Report of the Special Study Mission to the Near East: Annex F – The Mixed Armistice Commissions". Sixteenth Annual Report of the Activities of the Joint Committee on Defense Production. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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- Paik, Roger F. (1982). Nuclear Proliferation in the Middle East: Implications for the Superpowers. National Security Affairs Monograph Series 82-1. Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington DC: National Defense University Press.
- Pappé, Ilan (2015). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-85168-555-4.
- Theobald, Andrew (2015). "The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)". In Koops, Joachim; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–132. ISBN 978-0-19-968604-9.
enlaces externos
- Berthoud, Paul (2008), A Professional Life Narrative, worked with UNTSO and offers testimony from the inside.
- Records of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) (1947–present) at the United Nations Archives
- Official website
- UNTSO: Transfer of computers via Israel normal
Coordinates: 31°45′16″N 35°14′10″E / 31.75444°N 35.23611°E / 31.75444; 35.23611