Lista de dígrafos de escritura latina

Wikipedia list article

Este artículo o sección debe especificar el idioma de su contenido que no sea inglés, usando {{ lang }} o {{ transl }} (o {{ IPA }} o similar para transcripciones fenéticas), con un código ISO 639 apropiado . Vea por qué . ( Noviembre de 2019 )

Esta es una lista de dígrafos utilizados en varios alfabetos latinos . Las mayúsculas implican solo la primera letra ( ch se convierte en Ch ) a menos que se indique lo contrario ( ij se convierte en IJ ).

Este artículo contiene transcripciones fonéticas en el Alfabeto Fonético Internacional (IPA) . Para obtener una guía introductoria sobre los símbolos IPA, consulte Ayuda: IPA . Para la distinción entre [] , / / y  ⟨⟩, consulte IPA § Corchetes y delimitadores de transcripción .

Las letras con diacríticos están ordenadas alfabéticamente según su base: ⟨å⟩ se ordena alfabéticamente con ⟨a⟩, no al final del alfabeto, como estaría en danés , noruego y sueco . Cartas sustancialmente modificados, tales como ⟨ s  ⟩ (una variante de ⟨s⟩) y ⟨ɔ⟩ (basado en ⟨o⟩), se colocan en el extremo.

Apóstrofe ^[1]

⟨ 'B ⟩ (capital ⟨ 'B se utiliza en el⟩) alfabeto Bari para / ɓ / .

⟨ Había ⟩ (capital ⟨ había ⟩) se utiliza en el alfabeto de Bari / ɗ / .

⟨ 'Y ⟩ (capital ⟨ 'y ⟩) se utiliza en el alfabeto de Bari / ʔʲ / . También se usa para este sonido en el idioma Hausa en Nigeria, pero en Níger, Hausa ⟨ʼy⟩ se reemplaza por ⟨ƴ⟩.

A

⟨ A' ⟩ se utiliza en Taa ortografía, donde se representa la glotalizadas o chirriante en voz vocal / a / .

⟨ Aa ⟩ se utiliza en las ortografías del holandés , finlandés y otras lenguas con las vocales largas fonológicas para / a / . También se utiliza en las ortografías de algunos dialectos ingleses y escoceses, como Northumbrian y Shetlandic , para representar / aː / . Se utiliza anteriormente en danés y noruego (y sigue siendo en algunos nombres propios) para representar una sola vocal, que en danés es a menudo [ɔ] o [ʌ] , hasta que fue reemplazada con la letra ⟨ å ⟩. Hay una ligadura ⟨ Ꜳ ⟩.

⟨ Ae ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa , donde representa / E / entre dos "amplia" ( velarizada consonantes), por ejemplo Gael / ɡˠeːlˠ / ( 'a Gael ').

En la ortografía latina , ⟨ae⟩ originalmente representaba el diptongo / ae / , antes de que fuera monoftonificado en el período del latín vulgar a / ɛ / ; en los manuscritos medievales, el dígrafo con frecuencia se sustituye por la ligadura ⟨ æ ⟩.

En inglés moderno, los préstamos latinos con ⟨ae⟩ generalmente se pronuncian con / iː / (por ejemplo, Caesar ), lo que llevó a Noah Webster a acortarlo a ⟨e⟩ en su reforma ortográfica de 1806 para el inglés americano .

En la ortografía alemana , ⟨ae⟩ es una variante de ⟨ ä ⟩ se encuentra en algunos nombres propios o en contextos en los ⟨ä⟩ no está disponible.

En el alfabeto holandés , ⟨ae⟩ es una antigua variante ortográfica del dígrafo ⟨aa⟩, pero ahora solo aparece en nombres de personas o (con menos frecuencia) lugares y en algunos préstamos del griego y el latín.

En Zhuang , ⟨ae⟩ se usa para / a / (⟨a⟩ se usa para / aː / ).

En la romanización revisada del coreano , ⟨ae⟩ se usa para / ɛ /.

⟨ AE ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ / .

⟨ Ah ⟩ se utiliza en Taa ortografía, donde se representa la entrecortada o murmullo / a / . En alemán e inglés , normalmente representa una vocal larga / ɑː / .

⟨ De ia ⟩ se utiliza en muchos idiomas , típicamente representa el diptongo / aɪ / . En inglés , como resultado del gran cambio de vocales , la vocal de ⟨ai⟩ ha cambiado de este valor a / eɪ / como en el dolor y la lluvia , mientras que puede tener un sonido de / ə / en sílabas átonas como ganga y ciertos (ly) , o / ɛ / en la sílaba acentuada de again (st) (AmE), según la palabra; mientras que en francés , un cambio diferente, la monoftonificación, ha ocurrido, dando como resultado el dígrafo que representa / ɛ / . Un cambio similar también se ha producido durante el desarrollo de griego , resultando en ⟨αι⟩ y la ⟨ varepsilon ⟩ teniendo ambos el mismo sonido; originalmente / ɛ / , más tarde / e / . En la ortografía alemana , representa / aɪ / como en Kaiser (que deriva del latín césar ). Sin embargo, la mayoría de las palabras alemanas usan ⟨ei⟩ para / aɪ / . En la ortografía estándar de Kernowek de Cornualles , representa / eː / , principalmente en préstamos del inglés como paint . ^[1]

⟨ Aí ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / i / entre una amplia y una consonante delgado.

⟨ AI ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía francesa de / ɛː / , como en aînesse / ɛːnɛs / o maître / mɛːtʁ / .

⟨ Ái ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / a / entre una amplia y una consonante delgado.

⟨ AI ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ / . Tiene, por lo tanto, el mismo valor que ⟨ AE ⟩, pero este último es mucho más común.

⟨ Am ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐũ̯ / al final de una palabra, / ɐ / ante consonante y / am / antes de una vocal; y en la ortografía francesa para / ɑ̃ / ( / am / antes de una vocal).

⟨ Âm ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía del portugués por un estresado / ɐ / ante consonante.

⟨ Un ⟩ se utiliza en muchos idiomas para escribir una vocal nasal . En la ortografía portuguesa se usa para / ɐ̃ / antes de una consonante, en francés representa / ɑ̃ / y en muchos idiomas de África occidental representa / ã / . En bretón, este dígrafo representa / ɑ̃n / .

⟨ Ân ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía del portugués por un estresado / ɐ / ante consonante.

⟨ Än ⟩ se utiliza en tibetano Pinyin para / ɛ / . Está escrito alternativamente ⟨ ain ⟩.

⟨ AN ⟩ se utiliza en la lengua valona , para la nasal vocal / ɔ / .

⟨ AN ⟩ se utiliza en Lakhota para la nasal vocal / a /

⟨ Ao ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / i / o / e / , dependiendo de dialecto, entre amplios consonantes. En la ortografía francesa , se encuentra en unas pocas palabras como paonne que representa / a / . En malgache , representa / o / , y en piamontés , / au̯ / . En Wymysorys , representa / a / (también escrito å⟩). ^[2]

⟨ Ão ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐũ̯ / .

⟨ Aq ⟩ se utiliza en Taa ortografía, para la pharyngealized vocal / a / .

⟨ Au ⟩ en Inglés es el resultado de varios cambios lingüísticos de Inglés medio, habiendo pasado de los * / au / a / ɔː / . En varios dialectos, esto se ha fusionado con / ɑː / . Ocasionalmente representa el diptongo / aʊ / , como en flautista . Otras pronunciaciones son / æ / en inglés norteamericano tía y risa , / eɪ / en gauge , / oʊ / como en gauche y chofer , y / ə / como en espuma de mar y restaurante..

En alemán y holandés , se usa para los diptongos / au / y / ʌu / respectivamente ( / au / en algunos dialectos del norte y / ɔu / en algunos del sur de Holanda y algunos dialectos flamencos).

En la ortografía francesa , ⟨au⟩ representa / o / o, a veces, / ɔ / . Aparece con mayor frecuencia en la terminación flexiva que marca los plurales de ciertos tipos de palabras como cheval ('caballo') o canal ('canal'), respectivamente, que tienen un plural en chev au x y can au x .

En la ortografía islandesa , representa / œy / .

En la ortografía estándar de Kernowek de Cornualles , ⟨au⟩ significa larga / ɔː / o corta / ɔ / , como en caul ('repollo') o dauncya ('bailar'). ^[1]

⟨ Au ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía alemana para el diptongo / ɔɪ / en la declinación de las palabras nativas con au ; en otras partes, / ɔɪ / se escribe como ⟨ eu ⟩. En palabras donde ä | u se separa en dos sílabas, la mayoría de origen latino, ⟨äu⟩ se pronuncia como /ɛ.ʊ/ , como en Matthäus (una forma alemana de Mateo ).

⟨ Au ⟩ se utilizó en la ortografía francesa , pero ha sido sustituido por el eau trigraph.

⟨ Aw ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés en formas que paralelamente ⟨au⟩ Inglés, aunque aparece con más frecuencia al final de una palabra. En Cornualles , ⟨aw⟩ representa el diptongo / aʊ / o / æʊ / . ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]} En la ortografía galesa , ⟨aw⟩ representa el diptongo / au / .

⟨ Ay ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés en formas que son paralelos a ⟨ai⟩ Inglés, aunque aparece con más frecuencia al final de una palabra. A diferencia de ⟨ai⟩, ⟨ay⟩ funciona casi igual que ⟨ey⟩ (el sonido / i: / en clave ) al final de las variantes ortográficas de nombres como Lindsay y Ramsay .

En la ortografía francesa , generalmente se usa para representar / ɛj / antes de una vocal (como en ayant ) y /ɛ.i/ antes de una consonante (como en pays ).

En Cornualles , ⟨ay⟩ representa los sonidos / aɪ / , / əɪ / , / ɛː / o / eː / . ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]}

⟨A ... e⟩ (un dígrafo dividido ) indica una 'a larga' en inglés , históricamente / a: / pero ahora se realiza más comúnmente como / eɪ / .

B

⟨ Bb ⟩ se utiliza en Pinyin para / b / en idiomas como Yi , donde b significa / p / . En inglés, duplicar una letra indica que la vocal anterior es corta (entonces bb representa / b / ). En coreano romanizado ISO , se usa para el sonido fortis / p͈ / , de lo contrario se escribe ⟨pp⟩; un ejemplo es hobbang . En Hadza es el raro ejective / pʼ / . En varios idiomas africanos es implosivo / ɓ / . En árabe chipriota es / bʱ / .

⟨ Bd ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés de / d / en unas pocas palabras de origen griego, como bdellatomy. Cuando no es inicial, representa / bd / , como en abdicar.

⟨ Bf ⟩ se utiliza en Baviera y varias lenguas africanas para el / BV / .

⟨ Bh ⟩ se utiliza en transcripciones de lenguas indo-arios para un murmurado oclusiva bilabial sonora ( / b / ), y para los sonidos equivalentes en otros idiomas. En Juǀʼhoan , se utiliza para la oclusiva / b͡pʰ / aspirada con presonido similar . En la ortografía irlandesa , representa los fonemas / w / y / vʲ / , por ejemplo mo bhád / mə waːd̪ˠ / ('mi barco'), bheadh / vʲɛx / ('sería'). En la ortografía usada en Guinea antes de 1985 , ⟨bh⟩ se usó en Pular (un Fula ) para la implosiva bilabial sonora / ɓ / , mientras que en Xhosa , Zulu y Shona , ⟨b⟩ representa la implosiva y ⟨bh⟩ representa la / b / oclusiva .

⟨ Bm ⟩ se utiliza en Cornish para un opcionalmente pre-ocluido / m / ; es decir, se pronuncia / m / o / mː / (en cualquier posición); / ᵇm / (antes de una consonante o finalmente); o / bm / (antes de una vocal); ejemplos son mabm ('madre') o hebma ('esto'). ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]}

⟨ Pb ⟩ se utiliza en Sandawe y romanized tailandés para / p / , y en irlandés que representa / b / .

⟨ Bv ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto General de Camerún Idiomas para el expresaron labiodental affricate / BV / .

⟨ BZ ⟩ se utiliza en el idioma shona para un silbido sibilante cúmulo / BZ / .

C

⟨ Cc ⟩ se usa en el español andino de préstamos del quechua o aymara con / q / , como en Ccozcco (moderna Qusqu) ( ' Cuzco '). En muchos idiomas europeos, ⟨cc⟩ antes de las vocales iniciales representa una secuencia como / ks / , por ejemplo , éxito en inglés , occire francés , accidente en español (dialectalmente / ks / o / kθ / ); este no es el caso del italiano , donde una ⟨cc⟩ antes de una vocal anterior representa una / tʃ / geminada , como enlacci /ˈlat.tʃi/ . En piamontés y lombardo , ⟨cc⟩ representa el sonido / tʃ / al final de una palabra. En Hadza es el clic glotalizado / ᵑǀˀ / . Recientemente, en Inglés, se ha convertido en un meme para reemplazar las letras ⟨ ck ⟩ o ⟨ ct ⟩ con ⟨ cc ⟩ al final de las palabras. Los ejemplos notables incluyen thick / thicc, protect / protecc y attack / attacc , así como "suck / succ". ^{[6] [se necesita una mejor fuente ]}

⟨ Cg ⟩ se utilizó para [ddʒ] o [gg] en Inglés Antiguo ( ECG en Inglés Antiguo sonaba como 'borde' en Modern Inglés, mientras que frocga sonaba como 'froga'), donde ambos son largos consonantes . Se utiliza para el clic / ǀχ / en Naro , y en la ortografía Tindall de Khoekhoe para el clic dental sordo / ǀ / .

⟨ Ch ⟩ se utiliza en varios idiomas. En inglés, puede representar / tʃ / , / k / , / ʃ / , / x / o / h / . Ver artículo.

⟨ CH ⟩ se utiliza en la Isla de Man gaélico para / tʃ / , como una distinción de ⟨ ch ⟩ que se utiliza para / x / .

⟨ Ch ⟩ se utiliza en Romani ortografía y la chechena alfabeto latino para la / tʃ / . En el alfabeto latino de Ossete , se usó para / tʃʼ / .

⟨ Ci ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto italiano para la / tʃ / antes de la ⟨a letras vocales no delanteras, o, u⟩. En la ortografía inglesa , generalmente representa / ʃ / siempre que precede a cualquier vocal que no sea ⟨i⟩. En la ortografía polaca , representa / t͡ɕ / siempre que precede a una vocal, y / t͡ɕi / siempre que precede a una consonante (o al final de la palabra), y se considera una variante gráfica de ć que aparece en otras situaciones.

⟨ Cj ⟩ se utiliza en friulano para / tɕ / como en las palabras cjocolate / tɕokolate / . También se usa en las ortografías locales de Lombard para representar / tʃ / derivado del latín ⟨cl⟩.

⟨ Ck ⟩ se utiliza en muchos idiomas germánicas en lugar de ⟨kk⟩ o ⟨cc⟩ para indicar o bien una geminada / k / o un / k / con un (históricamente) que precede vocal corta . Este último es el caso de tack , deck , pick , lock y buck ingleses (compare backer con baker ). En la ortografía alemana , ⟨ck⟩ indica que la vocal anterior es corta. Antes de la reforma ortográfica alemana de 1996, fue reemplazado por ⟨kk⟩ para silabeo. Las nuevas reglas ortográficas solo permiten la silabetación del ⟨ck⟩ como un todo:

• Ortografía antigua: Säcke : Säk-ke ('sacos')
• Nueva ortografía: Säcke : Sä-cke

Entre las lenguas germánicas modernas, ⟨ck⟩ se utiliza principalmente en alsaciano , inglés , alemán , luxemburgués , escocés , sueco y otras lenguas germánicas occidentales en Austria , Alemania y Suiza . De manera similar, ⟨kk⟩ se usa con el mismo propósito en afrikáans , danés , holandés , islandés , noruego y otros idiomas germánicos occidentales en los Países Bajos y Bélgica . Compare la palabra níquel, que es el mismo en muchos de estos idiomas excepto por la ortografía habitual ⟨ck⟩ o ⟨kk⟩. La palabra es níquel en inglés y sueco, níquel en alemán y nikkel en afrikáans, danés, holandés, islandés y noruego.

También se usó en la ortografía de Tindall de Khoekhoe para el clic dental sordo / ǀ / (equivalente a ⟨cg⟩).

También se usa en Cornualles para / k / al final de una sílaba después de una vocal corta; sólo en préstamos (en su mayoría del inglés) en el formato escrito estándar (SWF), ^[5] más ampliamente en el estándar Kernowek . ^[1]

⟨ Cn ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés de / n / en unas pocas palabras de origen griego, como los cnidarios . Cuando no es inicial, representa / kn / , como en el acné.

⟨ CO ⟩ se utiliza en la Seri alfabeto para un labializada velar oclusiva , / k / . Se sitúa entre ⟨ C ⟩ y ⟨ E ⟩ en orden alfabético .

⟨ Cr ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto General de Camerún Idiomas de / ʈʂ / .

⟨ Cs ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto húngaro para una africada postalveolar sorda , / tʃ / . Se considera una letra distinta, llamada CSE , y se coloca entre ⟨ C ⟩ y ⟨ D ⟩ en orden alfabético . Ejemplos de palabras con cs incluyen csak ('solo'), csésze ('taza'), cső ('tubería'), csípős ('picante').

⟨ Ct ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés de / t / en unas pocas palabras de origen griego, como ctenoid. Cuando no es inicial, representa / kt / , como en act .

⟨ Cu ⟩ se utiliza en las ortografías para lenguas como el náhuatl (es decir, basado en español o ortografía del portugués ) para / k / . En náhuatl, ⟨cu⟩ se usa antes de una vocal, mientras que ⟨uc⟩ se usa después de una vocal.

⟨ Cw ⟩ se utiliza en ediciones académicas modernas del Inglés Antiguo para el sonido / kw / , que fue escrito ⟨ cƿ ⟩, ⟨ CUU ⟩ o ⟨ cu ⟩ en los manuscritos. En Inglés Medio éstas eran todas sustituye por América ⟨ qu ⟩.

⟨ Cx ⟩ se utiliza en Esperanto ortografía como un sustituto no oficial de ⟨ ĉ ⟩, que representa / tʃ / .

⟨ Cz ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía polaca de / ʈ͡ʂ / como en cz ESC ( ayuda · info ) ( 'hola'). En casubio , ⟨cz⟩ representa / tʃ / . Este dígrafo alguna vez fue común en toda Europa (lo que explica la ortografía del checo en inglés ), pero ha sido reemplazado en gran medida. En francés y catalán , ⟨cz⟩ histórica contratada para la ligadura ⟨ ç ⟩, y representa el sonido / s / . En húngaro , se usaba anteriormente para el sonido / ts / , que ahora se escribe ⟨c⟩.

D

⟨ DC ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía de Naro por el clic / ᶢ| / y en Ju|'hoan para la prevoiced ejective / d͡tʃ' / .

⟨ Dd ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés para indicar una / d / con un (históricamente) de corto vocal precedente (por ejemplo obsoleta / dʒeɪdɨd / tiene una "durante mucho tiempo un" mientras escalera / lædər / tiene un "corto a"). En la ortografía galesa , ⟨dd⟩ representa una fricativa dental sonora / ð / . Se trata como una letra distinta, llamada EDD , y se coloca entre ⟨ D ⟩ y ⟨ E ⟩ en orden alfabético . En la romanización ISO del coreano , se usa para el sonido fortis / t͈ / , de lo contrario se escribe ⟨tt⟩; ejemplos sonddeokbokki y bindaeddeok . En el alfabeto vasco , representa un oclusivo palatino sonoro / ɟ / , como en onddo , ('hongo'). En varios idiomas africanos es implosivo / ɗ / .

⟨ Dg ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés para / dʒ / en ciertos contextos, tales como con juicio y de cobertura

⟨ Dh ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto de Albania , alfabeto Swahili , y la ortografía de la reavivado idioma Cornish ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]} para la voz fricativa dental / d / . Los primeros ejemplos de este dígrafo son de los Juramentos de Estrasburgo , el texto francés más antiguo, donde denota el mismo sonido / ð / desarrollado principalmente a partir del latín intervocálico - t -. ^[7] En Cornualles temprano ⟨ȝ⟩ ( yogh ), y más tarde ,th⟩, se utilizaron para este propósito. Edward Lhuydse le atribuye la introducción del grafema a la ortografía de Cornualles en 1707 en su Archaeologia Britannica . En la ortografía irlandesa representa la fricativa velar sonora / ɣ / o la aproximante palatina sonora / j / ; al comienzo de una palabra muestra la lenición de / d̪ˠ / , por ejemplo mo dhoras / mˠə ɣoɾˠəsˠ / ('mi puerta' cf. doras / d̪ˠorˠəsˠ / 'puerta').

En la ortografía de Guinea anterior a 1985 , ⟨dh⟩ se usaba para el implosivo alveolar sonoro / ɗ / en pular , una lengua fula . Actualmente está escrito ⟨ɗ⟩. En la ortografía de Shona es lo opuesto: ⟨dh⟩ representa / d / y ⟨d⟩ / ɗ / . En la transcripción de los idiomas aborígenes australianos , ⟨dh⟩ representa una parada dental, / t̪ / .

Además, ⟨dh⟩ se utiliza en varios sistemas de romanización. En las transcripciones de lenguas indo-arias , por ejemplo, representa la oclusiva dental con voz murmurada / d̪ʱ / , y para sonidos equivalentes en otros idiomas. En Ju|'hoan , se utiliza para el similares prevoiced aspirado oclusiva / DT / . En la romanización del árabe , denota ⟨ Ð ⟩, que representa a / d / en árabe estándar moderno .

⟨ Dj ⟩ se utiliza en el feroés , francés y muchos ortografías con sede en Francia para / dʒ / . En la transcripción de idiomas aborígenes australianos como Warlpiri , Arrernte y Pitjantjatjara , representa una parada postalveolar como / ṯ / o / ḏ / ; este sonido también se escribe ⟨dy⟩, ⟨tj⟩, ⟨ty⟩ o ⟨c⟩. También se usaba anteriormente en indonesio como / d͡ʒ / .

⟨ Dl ⟩ se utiliza en el lenguaje Hmong 's romanizada populares alfabeto de / t / . En la ortografía del idioma navajo , representa / tɬ / , y en la ortografía de Xhosa representa / ɮ̈ / . En Hadza es ejective / cʎʼ / .

⟨ Dl ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto Tlingit para tɬ / / (en Alaska, ⟨dl⟩ se utiliza en su lugar).

⟨ Dm ⟩ se utiliza en YELI Dnye de Papúa Nueva Guinea para doblemente articulado y por vía nasal liberada / t͡pn͡m / .

⟨ Dn ⟩ se utiliza en YELI Dnye de Papúa Nueva Guinea para lanzado por vía nasal / tn / . En Cornualles , se utiliza para una / n / opcionalmente preocluida ; es decir, se pronuncia / n / o / nː / (en cualquier posición); / ᵈn / (antes de una consonante o finalmente); o / dn / (antes de una vocal); los ejemplos son pedn ('cabeza') o pednow ('cabezas'). ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]}

⟨ Dp ⟩ se utiliza en YELI Dnye de Papúa Nueva Guinea para doblemente articulado / TP / .

⟨ Dq ⟩ se utiliza para el clic / ᶢ! / en la ortografía de Naro .

⟨ Dr ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía de Madagascar para / ɖʐ / . Ver ⟨ tr ⟩.

⟨ Ds ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía de Ju|'hoan para la prevoiced ejective / d͡ts' / .

⟨ Dt ⟩ se utiliza en alemán , sueco , y Sandawe ortografía, así como la romanización del tailandés de / t / . En la ortografía irlandesa representa / d / .

⟨ Dv ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto General de Camerún Idiomas para la africada dental voz / DD / .

⟨ Dx ⟩ se utiliza en las ortografías de algunas lenguas zapotecas para una postalveolar sonora fricativa / ʒ / . (Se coloca entre ⟨ D ⟩ y ⟨ E ⟩ en orden alfabético .) En Ju|'hoan se utiliza para la prevoiced uvularized oclusiva / d͡tᵡ / .

⟨ Dy ⟩ se utiliza en el idioma xhosa la ortografía de / d / . En el alfabeto Shona , representa / dʒɡ / . Es la ortografía del tagalo que se usa para / dʒ / . En la transcripción de idiomas aborígenes australianos como Warlpiri , Arrernte y Pitjantjatjara , representa una parada postalveolar como / ṯ / o / ḏ / . Este sonido también se escribe ⟨tj⟩, ⟨dj⟩, ⟨ty⟩, ⟨c⟩ o ⟨j⟩.

⟨ Dz ⟩ se utiliza en varios idiomas, a menudo para representar / dz / . Ver artículo.

⟨ DZ ⟩ se utiliza en el polaco y sorabos alfabetos para / d͡ʑ / , la africada alveolo-palatal sonora , como en dźwięk / d͡ʑvʲɛŋk / . ⟨Dź⟩ nunca se escribe antes de una vocal (en su lugar se usa ⟨dzi⟩, como en dziecko / d͡ʑɛt͡skɔ / 'child').

⟨ DZ ⟩ se utiliza en el alfabeto polaco para un expresaron retrofleja affricate / d͡ʐ / (por ejemplo, DZ em ( ayuda · info ) 'mermelada'). 

⟨ Dž ⟩ se utiliza en los SERBOCROATA y eslovacos idiomas para representar / dʒ / . Ver artículo.

E

⟨E ′ ⟩ se usa en la ortografía del idioma Taa , donde representa la vocal glotalizada o crujiente / ḛ / .

⟨ Ea ⟩ se utiliza en muchos idiomas . En la ortografía inglesa , ⟨ea⟩ generalmente representa el monophthong / i / como en la carne ; debido a un cambio de sonido que ocurrió en inglés medio, también suele representar la vocal / ɛ / como en el sudor . Ocurren pronunciaciones raras, como / eɪ / en just break , great , steak y yea , y / ɔː / en el arcaico ealdorman . Cuando seguido de r, puede representar los resultados estándar de las tres vocales mencionadas anteriormente en este entorno: / ɪər / como en barba , / ɜːr / como en oído y / ɛər / como en oso , respectivamente; como otra excepción, / ɑr / aparece en las palabras escuchar , corazón y hogar . A menudo representa dos vocales independientes, como /eɪ.ɑː/ ( sesión ), /i.æ/ ( realidad ), /i.eɪ/ ( crear ) y /i.ɪ/ o /i.ə/ (linaje ). Sin estrés, puede representar / jə / ( océano ) y / ɪ / o / ə / ( Eleanor ). En el alfabeto rumano , representa el diptongo / e̯a / como en beată ('mujer borracha'). En la ortografía irlandesa , ⟨ea⟩ representa / a / entre una consonante delgada y una amplia. En inglés antiguo , representa el diptongo / æɑ̯ / . ⟨Ea⟩ es también la transliteración de la runa ⟨ᛠ⟩ del Futhorc anglo-frisón .

⟨ EA ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / a / entre un delgado y una amplia consonante.

⟨ Éa ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / e / entre un delgado y una amplia consonante.

⟨ Ee ⟩ representa una vocal larga mediados en varios idiomas. En la ortografía inglesa , ⟨ee⟩ representa / iː / como en adolescente . En los alfabetos holandés y alemán , ⟨ee⟩ representa / eː / (aunque se pronuncia / eɪ / en la mayoría de los dialectos holandeses del norte). En Bouyei , ⟨ee⟩ se usa para / e / simple , ya que ⟨e⟩ significa / ɯ /

⟨ Eh ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía de la lengua Taa para el murmullo de la vocal / e / . En la transliteración Wade-Giles del chino mandarín , se usa para / ɛ / después de una consonante, como en yeh / jɛ / . En el alfabeto alemán , ⟨eh⟩ representa / eː / , como en Reh .

⟨ Ei ⟩ Este dígrafo se hizo cargo del alto alemán medio sistemas de escritura, donde representó / eɪ / . Suele representar un diptongo . En alemán moderno , ⟨ei⟩ predomina en la representación de / aɪ / , como en Einstein , mientras que el dígrafo equivalente ⟨ai⟩ aparece en solo unas pocas palabras. En la ortografía inglesa , ⟨ei⟩ puede representar muchos sonidos, incluyendo / eɪ / , como en vena , / i / como en seize , / aɪ / como en heist , / ɛ / como en vaquilla , / æ /como en enceinte , y / ɪ / o / ə / como en forfeit . Véase también I antes de e excepto después de c . En los dialectos de las Islas Feroe del sur y del oeste , representa el diptongo / aɪ / , mientras que en los dialectos del norte y del este, representa el diptongo / ɔɪ / . En portugués , ⟨ei⟩ representa / ɐj / en el Gran Lisboa , también lo hacen ⟨éi⟩ y ⟨êi⟩, pero / ej ~ e / o / ɛj / en Brasil, Timor Oriental, Macao, resto de Portugal y de habla portuguesa. Países africanos,

En el alfabeto galés , ⟨ei⟩ representa / əi / . En las ortografías gaélica irlandesa y escocesa , representa / ɛ / antes de una consonante delgada. En el alfabeto holandés y el alfabeto afrikáans , ⟨ei⟩ representa / ɛi / . En la ortografía francesa , ⟨ei⟩ representa / ɛ / , como en seiche .

⟨ IE ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía francesa de / ɛː / , como en reître / ʁɛːtʁ / .

⟨ ÉI ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / e / entre consonantes delgadas.

⟨ Ej ⟩ se utiliza en la lengua sueca en algunas palabras cortas, tales como leja / Leja / o Nej / nɛj / .

⟨ Em ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ ~ EI / al final de una palabra y / e / ante consonante. En la ortografía francesa, puede representar / ɑ̃ /.

⟨ Ém ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ ~ EI / al final de una palabra.

⟨ Em ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ ~ EI / al final de una palabra y / e / ante consonante.

⟨ En ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portugués para / ɐĩ̯ ~ EI / al final de una palabra seguida o no de una / s / como en hífen o hifens ; y para / ẽ / antes de una consonante dentro de una palabra. En la ortografía francesa , representa / ɑ̃ / o / ɛ̃ / .

⟨ Én ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / ɐĩ̯ ~ EI / ante consonante.

⟨ Ên ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía portuguesa para / e / ante consonante.

⟨ Eo ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía irlandesa para / o / o de vez en cuando / ɔ / entre un delgado y una amplia consonante. En la romanización Jyutping del cantonés , representa / ɵ / , un alófono de / œː / . En la romanización revisada del coreano , ⟨eo⟩ representa la vocal posterior media abierta no redondeada / ʌ / , y en piamontesa es / ɛu̯ / . En la ortografía inglesa, ⟨eo⟩ es un dígrafo raro sin una sola pronunciación, que representa / ɛ / en feoff , jeopardy, leopardo y el nombre de pila Geoffrey , / iː / en personas , / oʊ / en yeoman y / juː / en el arcaico feodary , mientras que en el nombre originalmente gaélico MacLeod representa / aʊ / . Sin embargo, generalmente representa dos vocales, como /iː.ə/ en leotardo y galeón , /iː.oʊ/ en estéreo y /iː.ɒ/ en geodesia y, únicamente, /uː.iː/ en geoduck .

⟨ Eq ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía de la lengua Taa para la pharyngealized vocal / e / .

⟨ Eu ⟩ se encuentra en muchos idiomas , más comúnmente para el diptongo / eu / . Además, en la ortografía inglesa , ⟨eu⟩ representa / juː / como en neutro (aunque en yod pueden aparecer los acentos / uː / ); sin embargo, la eu en "maniobra / maniobra" siempre representa / uː / incluso en la mayoría de los acentos de retención de yod. En el alfabeto alemán , representa / ɔʏ / como en Deutsch ; y en las ortografías francesa , holandesa , bretona y piamontesa , representa/ ø / como en feu . En Cornualles , representa larga / øː ~ œː / y corta / œ / o larga / eː / y corta / ɛ / . ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]} En la romanización del cantonés en Yale representa / œː / . En las ortografías del sundanés y del aceh , ambos idiomas austronesios , representa / ɤ / como en beureum ('rojo'). En la romanización revisada del coreano , representa / ɯ / .

⟨ Eu ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía francesa de E / S / , como en Jeûne / ʒøn / .

⟨ Ew ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés para / JU / como en unos pocos y voló . Una excepción es la pronunciación / oʊ / en coser , que lleva al heterónimo alcantarillado , ( / ˈsuːər / , 'desagüe') vs alcantarillado ( / ˈsoʊər / , 'el que cose'). En Cornualles , significa / ɛʊ / . ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]}

⟨ EW ⟩ se utiliza en el Kernowek Standard ortografía de Cornish para referirse a un sonido que puede ser o bien / ɛʊ / o / oʊ / . Esta distribución también se puede escribir ⟨ôw⟩. ^[1]

⟨ Ey ⟩ se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés para una variedad de sonidos, incluyendo / eɪ / en ellos , / i / en la llave , y / aɪ / en géiser . En el alfabeto de las Islas Feroe , representa el diptongo / ɛɪ / . En Cornualles , representa el diptongo / ɛɪ / o / əɪ / . ^{[1] [3] [4] [5]}

⟨E ... e⟩ (un dígrafo dividido ) indica una 'e larga' en inglés , históricamente / e: / pero ahora más comúnmente realizada como / i: / .

F

⟨ Ff ⟩ que puede escribirse como la unidad única: ff, se utiliza en la ortografía Inglés y Cornish ^[5] para el mismo sonido que solo ⟨f⟩, / f / . La duplicación se usa para indicar que la vocal precedente es (históricamente) corta, o por razones etimológicas , en latinismos . Muy raramente, ⟨ff⟩ se puede encontrar inicialmente como palabra en inglés, como en los nombres propios (p. Ej., Rose ffrench , Jasper Fforde ). En el alfabeto galés , ⟨ff⟩ representa / f / , mientras que ⟨f⟩ representa / v /. In Welsh, ⟨ff⟩ is considered a distinct letter, and placed between ⟨f⟩ and ⟨g⟩ in alphabetical order. In medieval Breton, vowel nasalisation was represented by a following ⟨ff⟩. This notation was reformed during the 18th century, though proper names retain the former convention, which leads to occasional mispronunciation. For ff as a single unit see: Typographic ligature and Unicode FB00 (U+FB00) in Latin script in Unicode and Unicode equivalence

⟨fh⟩ is used in Irish and Scottish Gaelic orthography for the lenition of ⟨f⟩. This happens to be silent, so that ⟨fh⟩ in Gaelic corresponds to no sound at all. For example, the Irish phrase cá fhad ('how long') is pronounced [kaː ad̪ˠ], where fhad is the lenited form of fad /fɑd/ ('long').

⟨fx⟩ in used in the orthography of Nambikwara for a glottalized /ɸʔ/.

G

⟨gʻ⟩ is used in the Uzbek orthography to represent ɣ.

⟨gb⟩ is used in some African languages for a voiced labial-velar plosive, /ɡ͡b/.

⟨gc⟩ is used in alphabets for languages such as Xhosa and Zulu for the click /ᶢǀ/ . In Irish orthography, it indicates the eclipsis of c and represents /ɡ/.

⟨ge⟩ is used in French orthography for /ʒ/ before ⟨a o u⟩ as in geôle /ʒol/.

⟨gg⟩ is used in English orthography for /ɡ/ before ⟨y⟩, ⟨i⟩ and ⟨e⟩ (exampleː doggy). It is also used in Pinyin for /ɡ/ in languages such as Yi. In the orthography of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, it represents /x/. In Greenlandic orthography, it represents /çː/. In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound /k͈/, otherwise spelled ⟨kk⟩ (e.g. ggakdugi). In Hadza it is ejective /kxʼ/. In Italian, ⟨gg⟩ before a front vowel represents a geminated /dʒ/, as in legge /ˈled.dʒe/. In Piedmontese and Lombard, ⟨gg⟩ is an etymological spelling representing an /tʃ/ at the end of a word which is the unvoicing of an ancient /dʒ/.

⟨gh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can be silent or represent /ɡ/ or /f/. See article.

⟨gi⟩ is used in the Vietnamese alphabet for /z/ in northern dialects and /j/ in the southern ones. In the Italian alphabet, it represents /dʒ/ before the non-front vowel letters ⟨a o u⟩.

⟨gj⟩ is used in the Albanian alphabet for the voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/, though for Gheg speakers it represents /dʒ/. In the Arbëresh dialect, it represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡʲ/. In the Norwegian and Swedish alphabets, ⟨gj⟩ represents /j/ in words like gjorde ('did'). In Faroese, it represents /dʒ/. It is also used in the Romanization of Macedonian as a Latin equivalent of Cyrillic ⟨Ѓ⟩. Also, it's used in Friulian to represent /dʑ/ (whilst /dʒ/ is one of the pronunciations of the letter ⟨z⟩). It can be found in some local orthographies of Lombard to represent /dʒ/ derived from Latin ⟨gl⟩.

⟨gk⟩ is used in Sandawe and the romanization of Thai for /k/; in Limburgish it represents /ɡ/.

⟨gl⟩ is used in Italian and some African languages for /ʎ/.

⟨gm⟩ is used in English orthography for /m/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as phlegm and paradigm. Between vowels, it simply represents /ɡm/, as in paradigmatic.

⟨gn⟩ is used in the Latin orthography, where it represented /ŋn/ in the classical period. Latin velar-coronal sequences like this (and also ⟨cl cr ct gd gl gr x⟩) underwent a palatal mutation to varying degrees in most Italo-Western Romance languages. For most languages that preserve the ⟨gn⟩ spelling (such as Italian and French), it represents a palatal nasal /ɲ/. This was not the case in Dalmatian and the Eastern Romance languages where a different mutation changed the velar component to a labial consonant as well as the spelling to ⟨mn⟩.

In English orthography, ⟨gn⟩ represents /n/ initially (see /gn/ reduction) and finally (i.e. gnome, gnu, benign, sign). When it appears between two syllables, it represents /ɡn/ (e.g. signal). In the Norwegian and Swedish alphabets, ⟨gn⟩ represents /ŋn/ in monosyllabic words like agn, and between two syllables, tegne. Initially, it represents /ɡn/, e.g. Swedish gnista /ˈɡnɪsta/.

⟨gñ⟩ was used in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific for /ŋ/. It is one of several variants of the digraph ⟨ñg⟩, and is preserved in the name of the town of Sagñay, Philippines.

⟨go⟩ is used in the Piedmontese alphabet for /ɡw/.

⟨gq⟩ is used in alphabets for languages such as Xhosa and Zulu for the click /ᶢǃ/. In the orthography of the Taa language, it represents /ɢ/.

⟨gr⟩ is used in the orthography for Xhosa for /ɣ̈/.

⟨gu⟩ is used in the English, Spanish, French, Portuguese and Catalan orthographies for /ɡ/ before front vowels ⟨i e⟩ (⟨i e y⟩ in English and French) where a "soft g" pronunciation (English /dʒ/; Spanish /x/; French, Portuguese and Catalan /ʒ/) would otherwise occur. In English, it can also be used to represent /ɡw/. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it is used for /ɡʷ/.

⟨gü⟩ is used in the Spanish and Catalan orthographies for /ɡw/ before front vowels ⟨i e⟩ where the digraph ⟨gu⟩ would otherwise represent /ɡ/.

⟨gv⟩ is used for /kʷ/ in Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed affricate /ɡ͡bɣ͡β/.

⟨gw⟩ is used in various languages for /ɡʷ/, and in the orthography for Dene Suline it represents /kʷ/.

⟨ǥw⟩, capital ⟨Ǥw⟩ (or ⟨G̱w⟩), is used in Alaskan Tlingit for /qʷ/; in Canada, this sound is represented by ⟨ghw⟩.

⟨gx⟩ is used in alphabets for languages such as Xhosa and Zulu for the click /ᶢǁ/. In Esperanto orthography, it is an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ĝ⟩, which represents /dʒ/.

⟨gy⟩ is used in the Hungarian alphabet for a voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/. In Hungarian, the letter's name is gyé. It is considered a single letter, and acronyms keep the digraph intact. The letter appears frequently in Hungarian words, such as the word for "Hungarian" itself: magyar. In the old orthography of Bouyei, it was used for /tɕ/.

⟨gǃ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced alveolar click /ᶢǃ/.

⟨gǀ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced dental click /ᶢǀ/.

⟨gǁ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced lateral click /ᶢǁ/.

⟨gǂ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the voiced palatal click /ᶢǂ/.

H

⟨hh⟩ is used in the Xhosa language to write the murmured glottal fricative /ɦ̤/, though this is often written h. In the Iraqw language, hh is the voiceless epiglottal fricative /ʜ/, and in Chipewyan it is a velar/uvular /χ/. In Esperanto orthography, it is an official surrogate of ⟨ĥ⟩, which represents /x/.

⟨hj⟩ is used in the Italian dialect of Albanian for /xʲ/. In Faroese, it represents either /tʃ/ or /j/. In Icelandic it is used to denote /ç/.

⟨hl⟩ is used for /ɬ/ or /l̥/ in various alphabets, such as the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong (/ɬ/) and Icelandic (/l̥/). See also reduction of Old English /hl/.

⟨hm⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /m̥/.

⟨hn⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /n̥/. It is also used in Icelandic to denote the same phoneme. See also reduction of Old English /hn/.

⟨hr⟩ is used for /ɣ/ in Bouyei. In Icelandic it is used for /r̥/. See also reduction of Old English /hr/.

⟨hs⟩ is used in the Wade-Giles transcription of Mandarin Chinese for the sound /ɕ/, equivalent to Pinyin x.

⟨hu⟩ is used primarily in the Classical Nahuatl language, in which it represents the /w/ sound before a vowel; for example, Wikipedia in Nahuatl is written Huiquipedia. After a vowel, ⟨uh⟩ is used. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, hu was used for /ʁʷ/, similar to French roi. The sequence hu is also found in Spanish words such as huevo or hueso; however, in Spanish this is not a digraph but a simple sequence of silent h and the vowel u.

⟨hv⟩ is used Faroese and Icelandic for /kv/ (often /kf/), generally in wh-words, but also in other words, such as Faroese hvonn. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed fricative /ɣ͜β/.

⟨hw⟩ is used in modern editions of Old English for /hw/, originally spelled ⟨huu⟩ or ⟨hƿ⟩ (the latter with the wynn letter). In its descendants in modern English, it is now spelled ⟨wh⟩ (see there for more details). It is used in some orthographies of Cornish for /ʍ/.^[4][5]

⟨hx⟩ is used in Pinyin for /h/ in languages such as Yi (⟨h⟩ alone represents the fricative /x/), and in Nambikwara it is a glottalized /hʔ/. In Esperanto orthography, it is an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ĥ⟩, which represents /x/.

I

⟨i′⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the glottalized or creaky vowel /ḭ/.

⟨ie⟩ is found in English, where it usually represents the /aɪ/ sound as in pries and allied or the /iː/ sound as in priest and rallied. Followed by an r, these vowels follow the standard changes to /aɪə/ and /ɪə/, as in brier and bier. Unique pronunciations are /ɪ/ in sieve, /ɛ/ in friend and /eɪ/ in lingerie. Unstressed it can represent /jə/, as in spaniel and conscience, or /ɪ/ or /ə/ as in mischief and hurriedly. It also can represent many vowel combinations, including /aɪə/ in diet and client, /aɪɛ/ in diester and quiescent, /iːə/ in alien and skier, /iːɛ/ in oriental and hygienic, and /iːʔiː/ in British medieval.

In Dutch, ⟨ie⟩ represents the tense vowel /i/. In German, it may represent the lengthened vowel /iː/ as in Liebe (love) as well as the vowel combination /iə/ as in Belgien (Belgium). In Latvian and Lithuanian, the ⟨ie⟩ is considered two letters for all purposes and represents /iæ̯/, commonly (although less precisely) transcribed as /i̯e/. In Maltese, ⟨ie⟩ is a distinct letter and represents a long close front unrounded vowel, /iː/) or /iɛ/. In Pinyin it is used to write the vowel /e/ in languages such as Yi, where e stands for /ɛ/. In Old English ⟨ie⟩ was one of the common diphthongs, the umlauted version of "ea" and "eo". Its value is not entirely clear, and in Middle English it had become /e/.

⟨îe⟩ is used in Afrikaans for /əːə/.

⟨ig⟩ is used in Catalan for /t͡ʃ/ in the coda.

⟨ih⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the breathy or murmured vowel /i̤/. It is also used in Tongyong Pinyin and Wade-Giles transcription for the fricative vowels of Mandarin Chinese, which are spelled i in Hanyu Pinyin.

⟨ii⟩ is used in many languages (Finnish (example:Riikka, Niinistö, Siitala, Riikkeli), Italian (example:Riina), Estonian (example:Riik), Scots (example:Auld Nii, Iisay), with phonemic long vowels for /iː/.

⟨ij⟩ is used in Dutch for /ɛi/. See article.

⟨il⟩ is used in French for /j/, historically /ʎ/, as in ail /aj/ "garlic".

⟨im⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ĩ/.

⟨ím⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨in⟩ is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese orthography before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is /ĩ/, while in French it is /ɛ̃/.

⟨ín⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨în⟩ is used in French to write a vowel sound /ɛ̃/ that was once followed by a historical s, as in vous vîntes /vu vɛ̃t/ "you came".

⟨iŋ⟩ is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel /ĩ/.

⟨io⟩ is used in Irish for /ɪ/, /ʊ/, and /iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨ío⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iq⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, it represents the pharyngealized vowel /iˤ/.

⟨iu⟩ is used in Irish for /ʊ/ between a slender and a broad consonant. In Mandarin pinyin, it is /i̯ou̯/ after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled you.)

⟨iú⟩ is used in Irish for /uː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iw⟩ is used in Welsh and Cornish for the diphthong /iʊ/ or /ɪʊ/.^[3][4][5]

⟨ix⟩ is used in Catalan for /ʃ/ after a vowel.

⟨i...e⟩ (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long i', historically /i:/ but now most commonly realised as /aɪ/.

J

⟨jh⟩ is used in Walloon to write a sound that is variously /h/ or /ʒ/, depending on the dialect. In Tongyong pinyin, it represents /tʂ/, written zh in standard pinyin. Jh is also the standard transliteration for the Devanāgarī letter झ /dʒʱ/. In Esperanto orthography, it is an official surrogate of ⟨ĵ⟩, which represents /ʒ/.

⟨jj⟩ is used in Pinyin for /dʑ/ in languages such as Yi. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound /tɕ͈/. In Hadza it is ejective /tʃʼ/.

⟨jö⟩ is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized velar fricative, /xʷ/. It is placed between J and L in alphabetical order.

⟨jr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ɖʐ/.

⟨jx⟩ is used in Esperanto orthography as an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ĵ⟩, which represents /ʒ/.

K

⟨kg⟩ is used for /kχ/ in southern African languages such as Setswana. For instance, the Kalahari is spelled Kgalagadi /kχalaχadi/ in Setswana.

⟨kh⟩, in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages, represents the aspirated voiceless velar plosive (/kʰ/). For most other languages,^{[better source needed]} it represents the voiceless velar fricative /x/, for example in transcriptions of the letter ḫāʾ (خ‎) in standard Arabic, standard Persian, and Urdu, Cyrillic Х, х (kha), Spanish j, as well as the Hebrew letter kaf (כ‎) in instances when it is lenited. When used for transcription of the letter ḥet (ח‎) in Sephardic Hebrew, it represents the voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/. In Canadian Tlingit it represents /qʰ/, which in Alaska is written k. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for /kʼ/.

⟨kj⟩ is used Swedish and Norwegian for /ɕ/ or /ç/. See also ⟨tj⟩. In Faroese, it represents /tʃ/.

⟨kk⟩ is used in Icelandic and Faroese for the pre-aspirated sound /ʰk/, in romanized Korean for the fortis sound /k͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective /kʼ/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /kʰː/.

⟨kl⟩ is used in the Zulu language to write a sound variously realized as /kʟ̥ʼ/ or /kxʼ/.

⟨km⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated and nasally released /k͡pŋ͡m/.

⟨kn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound /n/ (formerly pronounced /kn/) in some words of Germanic origin, such as knee and knife. It is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for nasally released /kŋ/.

⟨kp⟩ is used as a letter in some African languages, where it represents a voiceless labial-velar plosive /k͡p/.

⟨kr⟩ is used in the Xhosa language for /kxʼ/.

⟨ks⟩ is used in the Cornish language for either /ks/ or /ɡz/.^[4][5]

⟨ku⟩ is used in Purépecha for /kʷ/. It also had that value in the Ossete Latin alphabet.

⟨kv⟩ is used for /k^wh/ in some dialects of Zhuang.

⟨kw⟩ is used in various languages for the labialized velar consonant /kʷ/, and in Dene Suline (Chipewyan) for /k^wh/. Used informally in English for phonemic spelling of qu, as in kwik (from quick), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European */kʷ/.

⟨ḵw⟩ is used in Alaskan Tlingit for /q^wh/, which in Canada is written khw.

⟨kx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /kʔ/, and in Juǀʼhoan for the ejective /kxʼ/.

⟨ky⟩ is used in Tibetan Pinyin for /tʃʰ/.

L

⟨lh⟩, in Occitan, Gallo, and Portuguese, represents a palatal lateral approximant /ʎ/. In many Indigenous languages of the Americas it represents a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages it represents a dental lateral, /l̪/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial ⟨lh⟩ indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in /l/, which is otherwise spelled ⟨l⟩. In Middle Welsh it was sometimes used to represent the sound /ɬ/ as well as ⟨ll⟩, in modern Welsh it has been replaced by ⟨ll⟩. In Tibetan, it represents the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant, as in Lhasa.

⟨lj⟩ is a letter in some Slavic languages, such as the Latin orthographies of Serbo-Croatian, where it represents a palatal lateral approximant /ʎ/. For example, the word ljiljan is pronounced /ʎiʎan/. Ljudevit Gaj first used the digraph ⟨lj⟩ in 1830; he devised it by analogy with a Cyrillic digraph, which developed into the ligature ⟨љ⟩. In Swedish It represents /j/ such as in Ljus.

The sound /ʎ/ is written ⟨gl⟩ in Italian, in Castilian Spanish and Catalan as ⟨ll⟩, in Portuguese as ⟨lh⟩, in some Hungarian dialects as ⟨lly⟩, and in Latvian as ⟨ļ⟩. In Czech and Slovak, it is often transcribed as ⟨ľ⟩; it is used more frequently in the latter language. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01C7 (LJ), U+01C8 (Lj) and U+01C9 (lj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Љљ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

⟨ll⟩ and ⟨l·l⟩ are used in several languages. See article.

⟨ḷḷ⟩ is used in Asturian for a sound that was historically /ʎ/ but which is now an affricate, [t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ].

⟨lr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ɭ /.

⟨lv⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated /l͜β/.

⟨lw⟩ is used for /lʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨lx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀl/.

⟨ly⟩ is used in Hungarian. See article.

M

⟨mb⟩, in many African languages, represents /mb/ or /ᵐb/. It is used in Irish to indicate the eclipsis of b and represents /mˠ/; for example ár mbád /ɑːɾˠ mˠɑːdˠ̪/ "our boat" (cf. /bˠɑːd̪ˠ/ "boat"). The Irish digraph is capitalized mB, for example i mBaile Átha Cliath "in Dublin". In English, mb represents /m/ when final, as in lamb (see reduction of /mb/) or /mb/ as in bomb. In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei, ⟨mb⟩ is used for /ɓ/.

⟨md⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated and prenasalized /n͡mt͡p/.

⟨mf⟩, in many African languages, represents /mf/ or /ᵐf/.

⟨mg⟩ is used in Pinyin for /ŋɡ/ in languages such as Yi, where the more common digraph ⟨ng⟩ is restricted to /ŋ/. It is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated and prenasalized /ŋ͡mk͡p/.

⟨mh⟩, in Irish, stands for the lenition of ⟨m⟩ and represents /v/ or /w/; for example mo mháthair /mə ˈwɑːhəɾʲ/ or /mˠə ˈvˠɑːhəɾʲ/ "my mother" (cf. máthair /ˈmˠɑːhəɾʲ/ "mother"). In Welsh it stands for the nasal mutation of ⟨p⟩ and represents /m̥/; for example fy mhen /və m̥ɛn/ "my head" (cf. pen /pɛn/ "head"). In both languages it is considered a sequence of the two letters ⟨m⟩ and ⟨h⟩ for purposes of alphabetization. In Shona, Juǀʼhoan and several other languages, it is used for a murmured /m̤/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial mh- indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in /m/, which is otherwise spelled m-. In several languages, such as Gogo, it's a voiceless /m̥/.

⟨ml⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /mˡ/.

⟨mm⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀm/. It is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded /m/; that is, it is pronounced either /m/ or /mː/ (in any position); /ᵇm/ (before a consonant or finally); or /bm/ (before a vowel); examples are mamm ('mother') or hemma ('this').^[3][4][5]

⟨mn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound /n/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as mnemonic. When final, it represents /m/, as in damn, and between vowels it represents /m/ as in damning, or /mn/ as in damnation (see /mn/-reduction). In French it represents /n/, as in automne and condamner.

⟨mp⟩, in many African languages, represents /mp/ or /ᵐp/. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraph μπ for /b/, as β is used for /v/. In Mpumpong of Cameroon, ⟨mp⟩ is a plain /p/.

⟨mq⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for a pharyngealized or perhaps creaky /m̰/.

⟨mt⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated and prenasalized /n̪͡mt̪͡p/.

⟨mv⟩, in many African languages, represents /mv/ or /ᵐv/.

⟨mw⟩ is used for /mʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨mx⟩ is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀm/.

N

⟨nʼ⟩ is used in the Xhosa and Shona languages for /ŋ/. Since ⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in either language, ⟨nʼ⟩ is not technically a digraph.

⟨nb⟩ is used in Pinyin for /mb/ in languages such as Yi. It is also used in Fula in Guinea for /ᵐb/ (written as mb in other countries).

⟨nc⟩ is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound /ɲɟ/. In Tharaka it is /ntʃ/. In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click /ᵑǀ/.

⟨nd⟩, in many African languages, represents /nd/ or /ⁿd/, and capitalized ⟨Nd⟩. It is used in Irish for the eclipsis of ⟨d⟩, and represents /n/, for example in ár ndoras /ɑːɾˠ ˈnˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "our door" (cf. doras /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "door"). In this function it is capitalized ⟨nD⟩, e.g. i nDoire "in Derry". In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei, ⟨nd⟩ is used for /ɗ/.

⟨nf⟩, equivalent to ⟨mf⟩ for /mf/ or /ᵐf/. In Rangi nf is /ᵐf/ while mf is /m.f/.

⟨ng⟩, in Sino-Tibetan languages,^[8] as in English and several other European and derived orthographies (for example Vietnamese),^[9] generally represents the velar nasal /ŋ/.^[10][11] It is considered a single letter in many Austronesian languages (Māori, Tagalog, Tongan, Gilbertese, Tuvaluan, Indonesian, Chamorro),^[12] the Welsh language, and Rheinische Dokumenta, for velar nasal /ŋ/; and in some African languages (Lingala, Bambara, Wolof) for prenasalized /ɡ/ (/ⁿɡ/).^[13][14]

For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see NG-coalescence and G-dropping.

The Finnish language uses the digraph 'ng' to denote the phonemically long velar nasal /ŋː/ in contrast to 'nk' /ŋk/, which is its "strong" form under consonant gradation, a type of lenition. Weakening /k/ produces an archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding /ŋ/, producing /ŋː/. (No /ɡ/ is involved at any point, despite the spelling 'ng'.) The digraph 'ng' is not an independent letter, but it is an exception to the phonemic principle, one of the few in standard Finnish.

In Irish ng is used word-initially as the eclipsis of g and represents /ŋ/, e.g. ár ngalar /ɑːɾˠ ˈŋɑɫəɾˠ/ "our illness" (cf. /ˈɡɑɫəɾˠ/). In this function it is capitalized nG, e.g. i nGaillimh "in Galway".

In Tagalog and other Philippine languages, ng represented the prenasalized sequence /ŋɡ/ during the Spanish era. The velar nasal, /ŋ/, was written in a variety of ways, namely "n͠g", "ñg", "gñ" (as in Sagñay), and—after a vowel—at times "g̃". During the standardization of Tagalog in the early part of the 20th century, ng became used for the velar nasal /ŋ/, while prenasalized /ŋɡ/ came to be written ngg. Furthermore, ng is also used for a common genitive particle pronounced /naŋ/, to differentiate it from an adverbial particle nang.

In Uzbek, it is considered as a separate letter, being the last (twenty-ninth) letter of the Uzbek alphabet. It is followed by the apostrophe (tutuq belgisi).

⟨ńg⟩ is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik to write the voiceless nasal sound /ŋ̊/.

⟨ñg⟩, or more precisely ⟨n͠g⟩, was a digraph in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific, such as that of Tagalog^[15] and Chamorro,^[16] where it represented the sound /ŋ/, as opposed to ng, which originally represented /ŋɡ/. An example is Chamorro agan͠gñáijon (modern agangñaihon) "to declare". Besides ñg, variants of n͠g include gñ (as in Sagñay), ng̃, and a g̃, that is preceded by a vowel (but not a consonant). It has since been replaced by the trigraph ⟨ngg⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ (see above).

⟨ngʼ⟩ is used for /ŋ/ in Swahili and languages with Swahili-based orthographies. Since ⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in Swahili, ⟨ngʼ⟩ is technically a digraph, not a trigraph.

⟨nh⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨ni⟩ in Polish orthography, it usually represents ɲ whenever it precedes a vowel, and ɲi whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ń appearing in other situations. (In some cases it may represent also ɲj before a vowel; for a better description, when, see the relevant section in the article on Polish orthography).

⟨nj⟩ is a letter present in the Latin orthographies of Albanian, Serbo-Croatian. Ljudevit Gaj, a Croat, first used this digraph in 1830. In all of these languages, it represents the palatal nasal /ɲ/. For example, the Croatian and Serbian word konj (horse) is pronounced /koɲ/. The digraph was created in the 19th century by analogy with a digraph of Cyrillic, which developed into the ligature ⟨њ⟩. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01CA (NJ), U+01CB (Nj) and U+01CC (nj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Њњ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

In Faroese, it generally represents /ɲ/, although in some words it represent /nj/, like in banjo. It is also used in some languages of Africa and Oceania where it represents a prenazalized voiced postalveolar affricate or fricative, /ⁿdʒ/ or /ⁿʒ/. In Malagasy, it represents /ⁿdz/.

Other letters and digraphs of the Latin alphabet used for spelling this sound are ⟨ń⟩ (in Polish), ⟨ň⟩ (in Czech and Slovakian), ⟨ñ⟩ (in Spanish), ⟨nh⟩ (in Portuguese and Occitan), ⟨gn⟩ (in Italian and French), and ⟨ny⟩ (in Hungarian, among others).

⟨nk⟩ is used in the orthography of many Bantu languages like Lingala, Tshiluba, and Kikongo, for /ŋk/ or /ᵑk/.^[17] In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it distinguishes a prenasalized velar stop, /ŋ͡k ~ ŋ͡ɡ/, from the nasal /ŋ/.

⟨nm⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated /n͡m/.

⟨ńm⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated /n̪͡m/.

⟨nn⟩ is used in Irish orthography for the Old Irish "fortis sonorants" /Nˠ/ ("broad", i.e. non-palatalized or velarized) and /Nʲ/ ("slender", i.e. palatalized) in non-initial position. In modern Irish, the "broad" sound is /n̪ˠ/, while the slender sound can be any of /nʲ/, /n̠ʲ/, or /ɲ/, depending on dialect and position in the word. In Spanish historical ⟨nn⟩ has contracted to the ligature ⟨ñ⟩ and represents the sound /ɲ/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nn indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in /n/, which is otherwise spelled -n. It is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀn/. In Piedmontese, it is /ŋn/ in the middle of a word, and /n/ at the end. In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded /n/; that is, it is pronounced either /n/ or /nː/ (in any position); /ᵈn/ (before a consonant or finally); or /dn/ (before a vowel); examples are penn ('head') or pennow ('heads').^[3][4][5]

⟨np⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /mb/.

⟨nq⟩ is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound /ɴɢ/. In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click /ᵑǃ/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nq indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in /ŋ/, which is otherwise spelled -ng.

⟨nr⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /ɳɖ/. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is /ɳ /.

⟨ns⟩, in many African languages, represents /ns/ or /ⁿs/.

⟨nt⟩ is a letter present in many African languages where it represents /nt/ or /ⁿt/ .

⟨nv⟩, equivalent to ⟨mv⟩ for /mv/ or /ᵐv/.

⟨nw⟩ is used in Igbo for /ŋʷ/, and in Arrernte for /nʷ/.

⟨nx⟩ is used for the click /ᵑǁ/ in alphabets such as Xhosa and Zulu, and in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀn/.

⟨ny⟩ is used in several languages for /ɲ/. See article.

⟨nz⟩, in many African languages, represents /nz/ ~ /ⁿz/, /ndz/ ~ /ⁿdz/, /nʒ/ ~ /ⁿʒ/, or /ndʒ/ ~ /ⁿdʒ/.

⟨nǃ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the alveolar nasal click /ᵑǃ/.

⟨nǀ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the dental nasal click /ᵑǀ/.

⟨nǁ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the lateral nasal click /ᵑǁ/.

⟨nǂ⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the palatal nasal click /ᵑǂ/.

⟨n-⟩ is used for medial /ŋ/ in Piedmontese.

O

⟨o′⟩ is used for /o/ and /ø/ in Uzbek, with the preferred typographical form being ⟨oʻ⟩ (Cyrillic ⟨ў⟩). Technically it is not a digraph in Uzbek, since ⟨ʻ⟩ is not a letter of the Uzbek alphabet, but rather a typographic convention for a diacritic. In handwriting the letter is written as ⟨õ⟩.

It is also used in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the glottalized or creaky vowel /o̰/.

⟨oa⟩ is used in English, where it commonly represents the /oʊ/ sound as in road, coal, boast, coaxing, etc. In Middle English, where the digraph originated, it represented /ɔː/, a pronunciation retained in the word broad and derivatives, and when the digraph is followed by an "r", as in soar and bezoar. The letters also represent two vowels, as in koala /oʊ.ɑː/, boas /oʊ.ə/, coaxial /oʊ.æ/, oasis /oʊ.eɪ/, and doable /uː.ə/. In Malagasy, it is occasionally used for /o/.

⟨oe⟩ is found in many languages. In English, it represents the /oʊ/ sound as in hoe and sometimes the /uː/ sound as in shoe. It may also represent the /ɛ/ sound in AmE pronunciation of Oedipus, (o)esophagus (also in BrE), and (o)estrogen, /eɪ/ in boehmite (AmE) and surnames like Boehner and Groening (as if spelled Bayner and Gray/Greyning respectively), and /iː/ in foetus (BrE and CoE) and some speakers' pronunciation of Oedipus and oestrogen. Afrikaans and Dutch oe is /u/, as in doen. Ligatured to ⟨œ⟩ in French, it stands for the vowels /œ/ (as in œil /œj/) and /e/ (as in œsophage /ezɔfaʒ ~ øzɔfaʒ/). It is an alternative way to write ⟨ö⟩ in German when this character is unavailable. In Cantonese Pinyin it represents the vowel /ɵ ~ œː/, and in Zhuang it is used for /o/ (⟨o⟩ is used for /oː/). In Piedmontese, it is /wɛ/. In the Kernewek Kemmyn orthography of Cornish, it is used for a phoneme which is [oː] long, [oˑ] mid-length, and [ɤ] short.^[18]

⟨oê⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /wa/ in a few words before what had historically been an s, mostly in words derived from poêle /pwal/ "stove". The diacriticless variant, ⟨oe⟩, rarely represents this sound except in words related to moelle /mwal/ (rarely spelt moëlle).

⟨ôe⟩ is used in Afrikaans for the vowel /ɔː/.

⟨õe⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /õĩ̯/. It is used in plural forms of some words ended in ⟨ão⟩, such as anão–anões and campeão–campeões.

⟨oh⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the breathy or murmured vowel /o̤/.

⟨oi⟩ is used in various languages. In English, oi represents the /oɪ̯/ sound as in coin and join. In French, it represents /wa/, which was historically – and still is in some cases – written "oy." In Irish it is used for /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɪ/, /əi̯/, /iː/, /oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant. In Piedmontese, it is /ui̯/.

⟨oí⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨oî⟩ is used in French to write /wa/ before what had historically been an s, as in boîtier or cloître.

⟨ói⟩ is used in Irish for /oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨òi⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /oi̯/.

⟨om⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /õ/, and in French to write /ɔ̃/.

⟨ôm⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /õ/ before a consonant.

⟨on⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /õ/ before a consonant, and in French to write /ɔ̃/.

⟨ôn⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /õ/ before a consonant.

⟨ön⟩ is used in Tibetan Pinyin for /ø̃/. It is alternately written oin.

⟨oo⟩ is used in many languages. In English, oo commonly represents two sounds: /uː/ as in "moon" and "food", and /ʊ/ as in "wood" and "foot". Historically, both derive from the sound /oː/, which is also the digraph's pronunciation in most other languages. In German and Dutch, the digraph represents /oː/. In Cornish, it represents either /oː/ or /uː/.^[1][3][4][5]

⟨oq⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the pharyngealized vowel /oˤ/.

⟨or⟩, in Daighi tongiong pingim, represents mid central vowel /ə/ or close-mid back rounded vowel /o/ in Taiwanese Hokkien.^[19][20]

⟨ou⟩ is used in English for the diphthong /aʊ/, as in out /aʊt/. This spelling is generally used before consonants, with ⟨ow⟩ being used instead before vowels and at the ends of words. Occasionally ou may also represent other vowels – /ʌ/ as in trouble, /oʊ/ as in soul, /ʊ/ as in would, /uː/ as in group, or /juː/ as in the alternate American pronunciation of coupon. The ou in out originally represented /uː/, as in French, and its pronunciation has mostly changed as part of the Great Vowel Shift. However, the /uː/ sound was kept before p.

In Dutch ⟨ou⟩ represents /ʌu/ in the Netherlands or /oʊ/ in Flanders. In Cornish, it represents [uː], [u], or [ʊ].^[1][3][4][5] In French, it represents the vowel /u/, as in vous /vu/ "you", or the approximant consonant /w/, as in oui /wi/ "yes".

In Portuguese this digraph stands for the close-mid back rounded vowel /o/ or for the falling diphthong /ou/, according to dialect.

⟨oû⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /u/ before what had historically been an s, as in soûl /su/ "drunk" (also spelt soul).

⟨ow⟩, in English, usually represents the /aʊ/ sound as in coward, sundowner, and now or the /oʊ/ sound, as in froward, landowner, and know. An exceptional pronunciation is /ɒ/ in knowledge and rowlock. There are many English heteronyms distinguished only by the pronunciation of this digraph, like: bow (front of ship or weapon), bower (a dwelling or string player), lower (to frown or drop), mow (to grimace or cut), row (a dispute or line-up), shower (rain or presenter), sow (a pig or to seed), tower (a building or towboat). In Cornish, this represents the diphthong /ɔʊ/^[5] or /oʊ/;^[1][3][4] before vowels, it can also represent /uː/.^[1][3][4][5]

⟨ôw⟩ is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either /ɛʊ/ or /oʊ/. This distribution can also be written ⟨êw⟩.^[1]

⟨oy⟩ is found in many languages. In English and Faroese, oy represents the diphthong /ɔɪ/. Examples in English include toy and annoy. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong /oɪ/^[1][3][4]~/ɔɪ/^[5]; in the words oy ('egg') and moy ('much'), it can also be pronounced /uɪ/^[1][3][4]~/ʊɪ/^[5].

⟨oŷ⟩ is an obsolete digraph once used in French.

⟨øy⟩ is used in Norwegian for /øʏ/.

⟨o...e⟩ (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long o', historically /ɔ:/ but now most commonly realised as /oʊ/.

P

⟨pf⟩ in German represents a labial affricate /pf/. It can be initial (Pferd, 'horse'), medial (Apfel, 'apple'), or final (Knopf, 'button'). Where it appears in English, usually in names or words recently derived from German, it is ordinarily simplified to /f/.

⟨ph⟩, in English and some other languages, represents /f/, mostly in words derived from Greek. The Ancient Greek letter phi ⟨Φ, φ⟩ originally represented /pʰ/ (an aspirated p sound), and was thus transcribed into Latin orthography as ⟨PH⟩, a convention that was transferred to some other Western European languages. The Greek pronunciation of ⟨φ⟩ later changed to /f/, and this was also the sound adopted in other languages for the relevant loanwords. Exceptionally, in English, ⟨ph⟩ represents /v/ in the name Stephen and some speakers' pronunciations of nephew.

⟨pl⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /pˡ/.

⟨pm⟩ is used for /ᵖm/ in Arrernte.

⟨pn⟩ is used in English for an initial sound /n/ in words of Greek origin such as pneumatic. When not initial, it represents the sequence /pn/, as in apnea.

⟨pp⟩ is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound /p͈/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /pʰː/.

⟨pq⟩ is used in the Nobiin language.

⟨ps⟩ is used in English for an initial sound /s/ in words of Greek origin such as psyche. When not initial, it represents the sequence /ps/, as in ellipse. It is also used in the Shona language to write a whistled sibilant cluster /ps͎/.

⟨pt⟩ is used in several languages for /t/ in words of Greek origin, where it was /pt/. An example in English is pterosaur /ˈtɛrəsɔr/, and an exception is ptarmigan /ˈtɑːrmɪɡən/, which is Gaelic, not Greek. When not initial, pt represents the sequence /pt/, as in apt.

⟨pw⟩ is used for /pʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨py⟩ is used in Cypriot Arabic for /pc/.

Q

⟨qg⟩ is used to write the click /ǃχ/ in Naro. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click /ǃ/.

⟨qh⟩ is used in various alphabets. In Quechua and the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound /qʰ/. In Xhosa, it represents the click /ǃʰ/.

⟨qk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless alveolar click /ǃ/ (equivalent to ⟨qg⟩).

⟨qo⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /kw/.

⟨qq⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective /qʼ/. In Hadza it is the glottalized click /ᵑǃˀ/.

⟨qu⟩ is used in Catalan, French, Galician, Occitan, Portuguese and Spanish orthographies for /k/ before the vowel letters e, i, where the letter c represents the sound /θ/ (Castilian Spanish and most of Galicia) or /s/ (Catalan, French, American Spanish, Occitan and Portuguese). This dates to Latin qu, and ultimately the Proto-Indo-European labialized velar consonant */kʷ/; in English this sound instead became written primarily as wh, due to Grimm's law changing kʷ > xʷ (written hw), and Middle English spelling change switching hw to wh. In English, it represents /k/ in words derived from those languages (e.g., quiche), and /kw/ in other words, including borrowings from Latin (e.g., quantity). In German, where the /w/ sound evolved into /v/, it is used to represent /kv/ in both native Germanic words and Latin borrowings. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for /qʷ/. In Vietnamese it is used to represent the /kw/ or /w/ sound. In Cornish, it represents the /kw/ sound.^[21]

⟨qv⟩ is used for glottalized /ˀw/ in Bouyei.

⟨qw⟩ is used in some languages for the sound /qʷ/. In Mi'kmaq it is used for /xʷ/. In the Kernowek Standard and Standard Written Form orthographies for Revived Cornish, and in William Jordan's 1611 Creation of the World, it is used for /kw/.^[1][3][5]

⟨qy⟩ is used for glottalized /ˀj/ in Bouyei.

R

⟨rd⟩ is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara for a retroflex stop, /ʈ/. In Norwegian and Swedish it represents voiced retroflex plosive, [ɖ].

⟨rh⟩ is found in English language with words from the Greek language and transliterated through the Latin language. Examples include "rhapsody", "rhetoric" and "rhythm". These were pronounced in Ancient Greek with a voiceless "r" sound, /r̥/, as in Old English ⟨hr⟩. The digraph may also be found within words, but always at the start of a word component, e.g., "polyrhythmic". German, French, and the auxiliary language Interlingua use rh in the same way. ⟨Rh⟩ is also found in the Welsh language where it represents a voiceless alveolar trill (r̥), that is a voiceless "r" sound. It can be found anywhere; the most common occurrence in the English language from Welsh is in the slightly respelled given name "Rhonda". In Wade-Giles transliteration, ⟨rh⟩ is used for the syllable-final rhotic of Mandarin Chinese. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial rh- indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in /ʐ/, which is otherwise spelled r-. In Purépecha, it is a retroflex flap, /ɽ/.

⟨rl⟩ is used in the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex lateral, written /ɭ/ in the IPA. In the Greenlandic language, it represents /ɬː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rm⟩ is used in Inuktitut for /ɴm/.

⟨rn⟩ represents the retroflex nasal /ɳ/ in Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara (see transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages), as well in Norwegian and Swedish. In the Greenlandic language, it represents /ɴ/. In Inuktitut, it represents /ɴn/.

⟨rp⟩ is used in the Greenlandic language for /pː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rr⟩ is used in English language for ⟨r⟩, depending on etymology. It normally appears in words of Latin or Romance origin, and "rrh" in words of ancient Greek origin. It is quite a common digraph, found in words as diverse as arrest, carry, and sorry. Some words with "rr" are relatively recent loanwords from other languages; examples include burro from Spanish. It is often used in impromptu pronunciation guides to denote either an alveolar tap or an alveolar trill. It is a letter in the Albanian alphabet.

In several European languages, such as Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese or Albanian, "rr" represents the alveolar trill /r/ (or the voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ in Portuguese) and contrasts with the single "r", which represents the alveolar tap /ɾ/ (in Catalan and Spanish a single "r" also represents the alveolar trill at the beginning of words or syllables). In Italian or Finnish, "rr" is furthermore a geminate (long) consonant /rː/. In Central Alaskan Yup'ik it is used for /χ/. In Cornish, it can represent either /rː/, /ɾʰ/, or /ɹ/.^[5]

⟨rs⟩ was equivalent to ⟨rz⟩ and stood for /r̝/ (modern ř) in medieval Czech. In the Greenlandic language, it represents /sː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component. In Norwegian and Swedish, it represents voiceless retroflex fricative, [ʂ].

⟨rt⟩ is used in Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex stop /ʈ/.

⟨rw⟩ is used for /ɻʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨rz⟩ is used in Polish and Kashubian for a voiced retroflex fricative /ʐ/, similar to English zh as in Zhivago. Examples from Polish are marzec (help·info) "March" and rzeka (help·info) "river". ⟨Rz⟩ represents the same sound as ⟨ż⟩, which evolved from a *g (while ⟨rz⟩ is descended from a palatalized r). ⟨Rz⟩ usually corresponds to Czech ⟨ř⟩, though the pronunciations are different. When preceded by a voiceless consonant (ch, k, p, t) or end of a word, ⟨rz⟩ devoices to [ʂ], as in przed (help·info) ("before", [ˈpʂɛt]).

S

⟨sc⟩ is used in Italian for /ʃː/ before the front vowel letters e, i. It is used for /s/ in Catalan, Spanish, French, English, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese (e.g. French/English reminiscence, Spanish reminiscencia, Brazilian Portuguese reminiscência, Catalan reminiscència, Occitan reminiscéncia); in European Portuguese this changed to /ʃs/ in the early 20th cent. In Old English it usually represented /ʃ/.

⟨sç⟩ is used in French for /s/ in a few verb forms such as simple past acquiesça /akjɛsa/. It is also used in Portuguese as in the imperative/conjunctive form of verbs ending with scer: crescer cresça. Still pronounced /s/ in Brazilian Portuguese, in European Portuguese this changed to /ʃs/ in the early 20th century.

⟨sg⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /ʒ/.

⟨sh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it represents /ʃ/. See separate article. See also ſh below, which has the capitalized forms SH and ŞH.

⟨si⟩ is used in English for /ʒ/ in words such as fusion (see yod-coalescence). In Polish orthography, it represents /ɕ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and /ɕi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ś appearing in other situations. In Welsh ⟨si⟩ is used for the sound /ʃ/ as in siocled /ʃɔklɛd/ ('chocolate').

⟨sj⟩ is used Swedish to write the sje sound /ɧ/ (see also ⟨sk⟩) and in Faroese, Danish, Norwegian and Dutch to write Voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/.

⟨sk⟩ is used in Swedish to write the sje sound /ɧ/. It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels (e, i, y, ä and ö) word or root initially (as in sked (spoon)), while normally representing /sk/ in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to write voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ (only in front of i, y, ei and øy/oy).

⟨sl⟩ is used in the Iraqw and Bouyei languages to write the lateral fricative /ɬ/. (Sl is used in the French tradition to transcribe /ɬ/ in other languages as well, as in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages.)

⟨sp⟩ is used in German for /ʃp/ as in Spaß /ʃpaːs/ instead of using schp.

⟨sr⟩ is used in Kosraean for /ʂ/.

⟨ss⟩ is used in Pinyin for /z/ in languages such as Yi. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles → Empty rime. In English, ⟨ss⟩ typically represents /z/ in the first ss of possess and its derivatives possessed, possession, possessive and possessor, brassiere, dessert, dissolve, Missoula (County), Missouri(an), scissors, and pronunciations of Aussie outside the United States. In other languages, such as Catalan, Cornish,^[5] French, Italian, Occitan, Portuguese and Central Alaskan Yup'ik, where ⟨s⟩ transcribes /z/ between vowels (and elsewhere in the case of Yup'ik), ⟨ss⟩ is used for /s/ in that position (/sː/ in Italian and also in some cases in Cornish^[5]). In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound /s͈/. In Cypriot Arabic it is used for /sʰː/.

Also to note, there are spellings of words with ⟨ss⟩ as opposed to them with just one ⟨s⟩, varied in different types of English. For the word focus, in British English the 3rd person singular, the past participle and the present participle are spelled with ⟨ss⟩ (i.e. focusses, focussed and focussing) whereas in American English and usually Canadian and Australian English they are spelled with one ⟨s⟩ (i.e. focuses, focused and focusing).

⟨st⟩ is used in German for /ʃt/ as in Stadt /ʃtat/ instead of using scht (or cht). In some parts of northern Germany, the pronunciation /st/ (as in English) is still quite common in the local dialect.

⟨sv⟩ is used in the Shona language to write the whistled sibilant /s͎/. This was written ȿ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨sx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /sʔ/, and in Esperanto orthography it is an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ŝ⟩, which represents /ʃ/.

⟨sy⟩ is used to write the sound /ʃ/ in Malay and Tagalog.

⟨sz⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨s-c⟩ and ⟨s-cc⟩ are used in Piedmontese for the sequence /stʃ/.

⟨s-g⟩ and ⟨s-gg⟩ are used in Piedmontese for the sequence /zdʒ/.

T

⟨tc⟩ is used for the palatal click /ǂ/ in the orthography of Naro, and to write the affricate /tʃ/ in Sandawe, Hadza and Juǀʼhoan.

⟨tf⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiceless dental affricate /t͡θ/

⟨tg⟩ is used for /tχ/ in the orthography of Naro. In the Catalan spelling, it represents /d͡ʒ/.

⟨th⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can represent /ð/, /θ/ or /t/. See article. See also: Pronunciation of English th.

⟨ti⟩, before a vowel, is usually pronounced /sj/ in French and /tsj/ in German.

⟨tj⟩ is used in Norwegian and Faroese words like tjære/tjøra ('tar') for /ç/ (Norwegian) and /tʃ/ (Faroese). In the closely related Swedish alphabet, it represents /ɕ/, as in tjära /ˈɕæːɾa/. It is also the standard written form of the /tʃ/ sound in Dutch and was likewise used in Dutch-based orthographies that used to apply for languages in Indonesia and Surinam. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as /ṯ/ or /ḏ/ depending on voicing. This sound is also written ⟨dj⟩, ⟨ty⟩, ⟨dy⟩, ⟨c⟩, or ⟨j⟩. In Catalan orthography it represents /d͡ʒ/. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate /tʃʼ/.

⟨tk⟩ is used in Juǀʼhoan for the uvularized ejective /tᵡʼ/.

⟨tl⟩ is used in various orthographies for the affricate /tɬ/.

⟨tł⟩ is used in the transcription of Athabascan languages for a lateral affricate /tɬ/ or /tɬʰ/.

⟨tm⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated and nasally released /t̪͡pn̪͡m/. In Catalan, it's used to represent /mː/, that can result not geminated as well, /m/, as in setmana (pronounced /səˈmːanə/ in standard Catalan and /seˈmana/ in Valencian).

⟨tn⟩ is used for a prestopped nasal /ᵗn/ in the orthography of Arrernte, and for the similar /t̪n̪/ in Yélî Dnye.

⟨tp⟩ is used in Yélî Dnye of Papua New Guinea for doubly articulated /t̪͡p/.

⟨tr⟩ generally represents a sound like a retroflex version of English "ch" in areas of German influence, such as Truk lagoon, now spelled ⟨chuuk⟩. For instance, in the orthography of Malagasy it represents /tʂ/. In southern dialects of Vietnamese, ⟨tr⟩ represents a voiceless retroflex affricate /tʂ/. In the northern dialects, this sound is pronounced /tɕ/, just like what ⟨ch⟩ represents. ⟨tr⟩ was formerly considered a distinct letter of the Vietnamese alphabet, but today is not.

⟨ts⟩ is used in the orthography of Basque, where it represents an apical voiceless alveolar affricate /t̺s̺/. It contrasts with ⟨tz⟩, which is laminal /t̻s̻/. In the orthography of Hausa, ⟨ts⟩ represents an alveolar ejective fricative /sʼ/ or affricate /tsʼ/), depending on dialect. It is considered a distinct letter, and placed between ⟨t⟩ and ⟨u⟩ in alphabetical order. It is also used in the Catalan spelling for /t͡s/. It is also used in Hausa Boko.

The Wade-Giles and Yale romanizations of Chinese use ⟨ts⟩ for an unaspirated voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/. Wade-Giles also uses ⟨ts'⟩ for the aspirated equivalent /tsʰ/. These are equivalent to Pinyin ⟨z⟩ and ⟨c⟩, respectively. The Hepburn romanization of Japanese uses ⟨ts⟩ for a voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/). In native Japanese words, this sound only occurs before ⟨u⟩, but it may occur before other vowels in loanwords. Other romanization systems write /tsu/ as ⟨tu⟩. ⟨Ts⟩ in the orthography of Tagalog is used for /tʃ/. The sequence ⟨ts⟩ occurs in English, but it has no special function and simply represents a sequence of ⟨t⟩ and ⟨s⟩. It occurs word-initially only in some loanwords, such as tsunami and tsar. Most English-speakers do not pronounce a /t/ in such words and pronounce them as if they were spelled ⟨sunami⟩ and ⟨sar⟩ or ⟨zar⟩, respectively.

⟨ts̃⟩ was used in the orthography of medieval Basque for a voiceless postalveolar affricate /t͡ʃ/; this is now represented by ⟨tx⟩.

⟨tt⟩ is used in the orthography of Basque for /c/, and in romanized Kabyle for /ts/. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound /t͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is ejective /tʼ/, and in Cypriot Arabic, it represents /tʰː/.

⟨tw⟩ is used for /tʷ/ in the orthography of Arrernte.

⟨tx⟩ is used in the orthographies of Basque, Catalan, Fataluku in East Timor, as well as some indigenous languages of South America, for a voiceless postalveolar affricate /t͡ʃ/. In the orthography of Nambikwara it represents a glottalized /tʔ/. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the uvularized-release /tᵡ/.

⟨ty⟩ is used in the Hungarian alphabet for /cç/, a voiceless palatal affricate; in Hungarian, digraphs are considered single letters, and acronyms keep them intact. In the orthography of Xhosa, ⟨ty⟩ represents /tʲʼ/ and the similar /tʲʼ/ in the Algonquian Massachusett orthography. In that of Shona, it represents /tʃk/. In the orthography of Tagalog it uses /tʃ/. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop, either voiceless /ṯ/ or voiced /ḏ/. (This sound is also written ⟨tj⟩, ⟨dj⟩, ⟨dy⟩, ⟨c⟩, and ⟨j⟩). In Cypriot Arabic, it represents /c/.

⟨tz⟩ is used in the orthographies of Basque, German and Nahuatl for the voiceless alveolar affricate /t͡s/). In Basque, this sound is laminal and contrasts with the apical affricate represented by ⟨ts⟩. It is also used in Catalan to represent the voiced alveolar affricate /d͡z/. In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the ejective affricate /tsʼ/. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles → Empty rime.

U

⟨u′⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the glottalized or creaky vowel /ṵ/.

⟨uc⟩ is used in Nahuatl for /kʷ/ before a consonant. Before a vowel, ⟨cu⟩ is used.

⟨ue⟩ is found in many languages. In English, ⟨ue⟩ represents /ju/ or /u/ as in cue or true, respectively. In German, it is equivalent to Ü, and as such may appear in proper names of people, representing /ʏ/ or /yː/.

⟨ûe⟩ is used in Afrikaans to represent /œː/.

⟨ug⟩ is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for /ɣʷ/.

⟨uh⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the breathy or murmured vowel /ṳ/. In Nahuatl, it is used for /w/ before a consonant. Before a vowel, ⟨hu⟩ is used.

⟨ui⟩ in Dutch stands for the diphthong /œy/. In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, it is /ɪ/ after a velarized (broad) consonant, and in Irish, it is used for /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /iː/ /uː/ between a broad and a slender consonant. In German, it represents the diphthong /ʊɪ̯/, which appears only in interjections such as "pfui!". In English, it represents the sound /uː/ in fruit, juice, suit and pursuit. However, in many English words, this does not hold. For example, it fails in words where the u in ui functions as a modifier of a preceding g (forcing g to remain /ɡ/ rather than shifting to /dʒ/ in guild, guilt, guilty, sanguine, Guinea, etc.), doing the same with c (in words like circuit and biscuit), or in cases of unusual etymological spelling or syllable separation (e.g. build, suite, and intuition). In Mandarin pinyin, it is /wei̯/ after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled wei.) In French, it is not a digraph, but a predictable sequence /ɥi/, as in huit "eight".

⟨uí⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨úi⟩ is used in Irish for /uː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨um⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ũ/, and in French to write /œ̃/ (only before a consonant and at the end of a word).

⟨úm⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨un⟩ is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese orthography before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is /ũ/, while in French it is /œ̃/, or among the younger generation /ɛ̃/. In pinyin, /u̯ən/ is spelled un after a consonant, wen initially.

⟨ún⟩ is used in Portuguese orthography for /ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨ün⟩ is used in Tibetan Pinyin for /ỹ/.

⟨uŋ⟩ is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel /ũ/.

⟨uo⟩ is used in Pinyin to write the vowel /o/ in languages such as Yi, where o stands for /ɔ/.

⟨uq⟩, in the practical orthography of the Taa language, represents the pharyngealized vowel /uˤ/.

⟨ur⟩ is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for /ʁʷ/, and in Pinyin to write the trilled vowel^{[citation needed]} /ʙ̝/ in languages such as Yi.

⟨uu⟩ is used in Dutch for /y/. In languages with phonemic long vowels, it may be used to write /uː/.

⟨uw⟩ occurs in Dutch, as in ⟨uw⟩ (yours), duwen (to push) . It is used in Cornish for the sound /iʊ/^[1][3][4][5] or /yʊ/.^[5]

⟨uy⟩ is used in Afrikaans orthography for /œy/.

⟨ux⟩ is used in Esperanto orthography as an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ŭ⟩, which represents /u̯/.

⟨u...e⟩ (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long u', historically /u:/ but now most commonly realised as /ju/.

V

⟨vb⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labiodental flap /ⱱ/.

⟨vg⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click /ǂ/.

⟨vh⟩ represents /v/ in the Shona language. It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the aspirated palatal click /ǂʰ/.

⟨vk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless palatal click /ǂ/ (equivalent to ⟨vg⟩).

⟨vn⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the palatal nasal click /ᵑǂ/.

⟨vv⟩ is used in Central Alaskan Yup'ik for /f/.

⟨vr⟩ is used in Quechua.

W

⟨wh⟩ is used in English to represent Proto-Germanic /hw/, the continuation of the PIE labiovelar */kʷ/ (which became ⟨qu⟩ in Latin and the Romance languages). Most English question words begin with this digraph, hence the terms wh-word and wh-question. In Old English, /hw/ was spelled ⟨huu⟩ or ⟨hƿ⟩, and only the former was retained during the Middle English period, becoming ⟨hw⟩ during the gradual development of the letter ⟨w⟩ during the 14th-17th centuries. In most dialects it is now pronounced /w/, but a distinct pronunciation realized as a voiceless w sound, [ʍ], is retained in some areas: Scotland, central and southern Ireland, the southeastern United States, and (mostly among older speakers) in New Zealand. In a few words (who, whose, etc.) the pronunciation used among almost all speakers regardless of geography is /h/. For details, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩. In the Māori language, ⟨wh⟩ represents /ɸ/ or more commonly /f/, with some regional variations approaching /h/ or /hw/. In the Taranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized /wʼ/. In Xhosa, it represents /w̤/, a murmured variant of /w/ found in loan words. In Cornish, it represents /ʍ/.^[1][3][5]

⟨wr⟩ is used in English for words which formerly began /wr/, now reduced to /r/ in virtually all dialects.

⟨wu⟩ is used in Mandarin pinyin to write the vowel /u/ in initial position, as in the name Wuhan. It is sometimes found with this value in Romanized Korean as well, as in hanwu.

⟨ww⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀw/.

⟨wx⟩ is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀw/.

X

⟨xf⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the supposed affricate /x͡ɸ/.

⟨xg⟩ is used to write the click /ǁχ/ in Naro. It was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click /ǁ/.

⟨xh⟩, in Albanian, represents the sound of the voiced postalveolar affricate consonant /dʒ/, as in the surname Hoxha /ˈhɔdʒa/. In Zulu and Xhosa it represents the voiceless aspirated alveolar lateral click /kǁʰ/, for example in the name of the language Xhosa /ˈkǁʰoːsa/. In Walloon to write a sound that is variously /h/ or /ʃ/, depending on the dialect. In Canadian Tlingit it represents /χ/, which in Alaska is written x̱.

⟨xi⟩ is used in English for /kʃ/ in words such as flexion. (It is equivalent to ⟨c⟩ plus the digraph ⟨ti⟩, as in action.)

⟨xk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless lateral click /ǁ/ (equivalent to ⟨xg⟩).

⟨xö⟩ is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized uvular fricative, /χʷ/. It is placed between X and Y in alphabetical order.

⟨xs⟩ is used in Portuguese in the word exsudar /ˌe.su.ˈda(ʁ)/ in Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese this digraph changed to /ʃs/ in the early 20th century and the word came to be pronounced as /ɐjʃ.su.ˈðaɾ/

⟨xu⟩ was used in the Ossete Latin alphabet for /χʷ/.

⟨xw⟩ is used in the Kurdish and the Tlingit language for /xʷ/.

⟨x̱w⟩ is used in Alaskan Tlingit for /χʷ/, which in Canada is written xhw.

⟨xx⟩ is used in Hadza for the glottalized click /ᵑǁˀ/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /χː/.

⟨xy⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /ç/.

Y

⟨ye⟩ used in various languages. In some languages such as English it is used as an /aɪ/ such as in bye or dye. In most languages, it is used as an /jɛ/ sound, such as in yellow.

⟨yh⟩ was used in the pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, for the "ejective y" or palatalized glottal stop (/ʔʲ/) in Pular (a Fula language). In the current orthography it is now written ƴ. In Xhosa it is used for the sound / j̈ /. In a handful of Australian languages, it represents a "dental semivowel".^{[clarification needed]}

⟨yi⟩ is used in Mandarin pinyin to write the vowel /i/ when it forms an entire syllable.

⟨yk⟩ is used in Yanyuwa for a pre-velar stop, /ɡ̟ ~ k̟/.

⟨ym⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /ɛ̃/ (/im/ before another vowel), as in thym /tɛ̃/ "thyme".

⟨yn⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /ɛ̃/ in some words of Greek origin, such as syncope /sɛ̃kɔp/ "syncope".

⟨yr⟩ is used in Pinyin to write the trilled vowel /r̝/ in languages such as Yi.

⟨yu⟩ is used in romanized Chinese to write the vowel /y/. In Mandarin pinyin it is used for /y/ in initial position, whereas in Cantonese Jyutping it is used for /y/ in non-initial position. (See jyu.)

⟨yw⟩ is used for /jʷ/ in Arrernte and for doubly articulated /ɥ/ in Yélî Dnye. It is used in Cornish for the diphthongs /iʊ/,^[1][3][4] /ɪʊ/, or /ɛʊ/.^[5]

⟨yx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀj/.

⟨yy⟩ is used in some languages such as Finnish to write the long vowel /yː/. In Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is glottalized /ˀj/.

⟨y...e⟩ (a split digraph) indicates an English 'long y' (equivalent to ⟨i...e⟩).

Z

⟨zh⟩ represents the voiced postalveolar fricative (/ʒ/), like the ⟨s⟩ in pleasure, in Albanian and in Native American orthographies such as Navajo. It is used for the same sound in some English-language dictionaries, as well as to transliterate the sound when represented by Cyrillic ⟨ж⟩ and Persian ⟨ژ⟩ into English; though it is rarely used for this sound in English words (perhaps the only ones being zhoosh, or the primarily spoken-only abbreviation of "usual" sometimes spelled uzhe). ⟨Zh⟩ as a digraph is rare in European languages using the Latin alphabet; in addition to Albanian it is found in Breton in words that are pronounced with /z/ in some dialects and /h/ in others. In Hanyu Pinyin, ⟨zh⟩ represents the voiceless retroflex affricate /tʂ/. When the Tamil language is transliterated into the Latin script, ⟨zh⟩ represents a retroflex approximant (Tamil ழ, ḻ, [ɻ]).

⟨zi⟩ in Polish orthography represents /ʑ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and /ʑi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ź appearing in other situations.

⟨zl⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced lateral fricative /ɮ/

⟨zr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ʐ/.

⟨zs⟩ is the last (forty-fourth) letter of the Hungarian alphabet. Its name is "zsé" and represents /ʒ/, a voiced postalveolar fricative, similar to J in Jacques and s in vision. A few examples are rózsa "rose" and zsír "fat".

⟨zv⟩ is used in the Shona language to write the whistled sibilant /z͎/. This was written ɀ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨zw⟩ is used in the Dutch language It represent as a (/zʷ/).

⟨zz⟩ is used in Pinyin for /dz/ in languages such as Yi. It is also used with that value in romanized Kabyle. In medieval Czech, it stood for /s/. In Hadza it is ejective /tsʼ/.

Other

⟨ɛn⟩, capital ⟨Ɛn⟩, is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel /ɛ̃/. Ɛ is an "open e".

⟨ɔn⟩, capital ⟨Ɔn⟩, is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel /ɔ̃/. Ɔ is an "open o".

⟨œu⟩, capitalized ⟨Œu⟩, is used in French for the vowels /œ/ and /ø/. The first element of the digraph, œ, is itself is a ligature of o and e, and ⟨œu⟩ may also be written as the trigraph ⟨oeu⟩.

⟨ŋg⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ᵑɡ/.

⟨ŋk⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ᵑk/.

⟨ŋm⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/.

⟨ŋv⟩, capitalized ⟨Ŋv⟩, was used for /ŋʷ/ in the old orthography of Zhuang and Bouyei; this is now spelled with the trigraph ⟨ngv⟩.

⟨ſh⟩, capitalized ⟨SH⟩ or sometimes ⟨ŞH⟩, was a digraph used in the Slovene Bohorič alphabet for /ʃ/. The first element, ⟨ſ⟩, the long s, is an archaic non-final form of the letter ⟨s⟩.

⟨ǃʼ⟩ ⟨ǀʼ⟩ ⟨ǁʼ⟩ ⟨ǂʼ⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four glottalized nasal clicks, /ᵑǃˀ, ᵑǀˀ, ᵑǁˀ, ᵑǂˀ/.

⟨ǃg⟩ ⟨ǀg⟩ ⟨ǁg⟩ ⟨ǂg⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four tenuis clicks, /ǃ, ǀ, ǁ, ǂ/.

⟨ǃh⟩ ⟨ǀh⟩ ⟨ǁh⟩ ⟨ǂh⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four aspirated nasal clicks, /ᵑ̊ǃʰ, ᵑ̊ǀʰ, ᵑ̊ǁʰ, ᵑ̊ǂʰ/, and in Juǀʼhoan for its plain aspirated clicks, /ǃʰ, ǀʰ, ǁʰ, ǂʰ/.

⟨ǃk⟩ ⟨ǀk⟩ ⟨ǁk⟩ ⟨ǂk⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate ejective-contour clicks, /ǃ͡χʼ, ǀ͡χʼ, ǁ͡χʼ, ǂ͡χʼ/.

⟨ǃn⟩ ⟨ǀn⟩ ⟨ǁn⟩ ⟨ǂn⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four plain nasal clicks, /ᵑǃ, ᵑǀ, ᵑǁ, ᵑǂ/.

⟨ǃx⟩ ⟨ǀx⟩ ⟨ǁx⟩ ⟨ǂx⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate pulmonic-contour clicks, /ǃ͡χ, ǀ͡χ, ǁ͡χ, ǂ͡χ/.

See also

• List of Latin-script trigraphs
• List of Latin-script tetragraphs
• Pentagraph
• Hexagraph
• Heptagraph
• List of Latin letters
• List of Cyrillic digraphs

References

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