La vestimenta de los emperadores bizantinos cambió considerablemente durante los mil años del Imperio , pero era esencialmente conservadora. A los bizantinos les gustaba el color y el diseño, y fabricaban y exportaban telas con diseños muy ricos, especialmente seda bizantina , tejidas y bordadas para las clases altas, y teñidas e impresas en resistir para las inferiores. Un borde diferente o un recorte alrededor de los bordes era muy común, y se ven muchas franjas simples a lo largo del cuerpo o alrededor de la parte superior del brazo, que a menudo denotan clase o rango . El gusto por las clases medias y altas siguió la última moda.en la Corte Imperial. Como en Occidente durante la Edad Media, la ropa era muy cara para los pobres, quienes probablemente usaban la misma ropa gastada casi todo el tiempo; [1] esto significaba, en particular, que cualquier disfraz de la mayoría de las mujeres debía ajustarse durante todo el embarazo. [2]
En el cuerpo
En las primeras etapas del Imperio Bizantino, la toga romana tradicional todavía se usaba como vestimenta muy formal u oficial. En la época de Justiniano, esto había sido reemplazado por la túnica , o quitón largo , para ambos sexos, sobre el cual las clases altas usaban otras prendas, como una dalmatica ( dalmática ), un tipo de túnica más pesada y corta, nuevamente usada por ambos sexos, pero principalmente por hombres. Los dobladillos a menudo se curvan hacia abajo hasta un punto afilado. El scaramangion era un abrigo de montar de origen persa, que se abría por la parte delantera y normalmente llegaba a la mitad del muslo, aunque están registrados como usados por los emperadores, cuando parecen ser mucho más largos. En general, a excepción de la vestimenta militar y presumiblemente de montar, los hombres de mayor estatus y todas las mujeres tenían ropa que llegaba hasta los tobillos, o casi. Las mujeres a menudo usaban una capa superior de la estola , para los ricos en brocado . Todos estos, excepto la estola, pueden llevar cinturón o no. Los términos para la vestimenta son a menudo confusos, y cierta identificación del nombre que tenía un artículo representado en particular, o el diseño que se relaciona con una referencia documental en particular, es poco común, especialmente fuera de la Corte.
La chlamys , un manto semicircular sujeto al hombro derecho, continuó durante todo el período. El largo caía a veces sólo hasta las caderas o hasta los tobillos, mucho más largo que la versión comúnmente usada en la Antigua Grecia ; la versión más larga también se llama paludamentum . Además de sus cortesanos, el emperador Justiniano lleva uno, con un enorme broche, en los mosaicos de Rávena. En cada regla, los hombres de la clase senatorial tenían un tablion , un panel de color en forma de rombo en el pecho o el abdomen (en la parte delantera), que también se usaba para mostrar el rango adicional del usuario por el color o tipo de bordado y joyas. usado (compare los de Justiniano y sus cortesanos). Theodosius I y sus co-emperadores se mostraron en 388 con los suyos a la altura de la rodilla en el Missorium de Theodosius I de 387, pero durante las próximas décadas se puede ver que el tablion se mueve más alto en Chlamys , por ejemplo en marfiles de 413-414. . [3] Un paragauda o borde de tela gruesa, que generalmente incluía oro, también era un indicador de rango. A veces se usaba una capa oblonga, especialmente por los militares y la gente común; no fue para ocasiones en la corte. Las capas estaban prendidas en el hombro derecho para facilitar el movimiento y el acceso a una espada.
A menudo se usaban calzas y calzas, pero no son prominentes en las representaciones de los ricos; estaban asociados con bárbaros, ya fueran europeos o persas. Incluso la ropa básica parece haber sido sorprendentemente cara para los pobres. [1] Se muestra que algunos trabajadores manuales, probablemente esclavos, continúan usando, al menos en verano, el traje básico romano que consistía efectivamente en dos rectángulos cosidos en los hombros y debajo del brazo. Otros, cuando están en actividad, se muestran con los lados de la túnica atados a la cintura para facilitar el movimiento.
Vestido iconográfico
Las imágenes más comunes que sobreviven del período bizantino no son relevantes como referencias para el vestido real usado en el período. Cristo (a menudo incluso cuando era un bebé), los Apóstoles , San José , San Juan Bautista y algunos otros casi siempre se muestran con un vestido de fórmula de una gran himación , un gran manto rectangular envuelto alrededor del cuerpo (casi una toga ), sobre una quitón o túnica de mangas sueltas, que llega hasta los tobillos. Las sandalias se usan en los pies. Este disfraz no se ve comúnmente en contextos seculares, aunque posiblemente sea deliberado, para evitar confundir sujetos seculares con divinos. La Theotokos ( Virgen María ) se muestra con un maphorion , un manto con más forma con una capucha y, a veces, un agujero en el cuello. Esto probablemente se acerca a la vestimenta típica real para las viudas y para las mujeres casadas cuando están en público. La ropa interior de la Virgen puede verse, especialmente en las mangas. También hay convenciones para los profetas del Antiguo Testamento y otras figuras bíblicas. Aparte de Cristo y la Virgen, gran parte de la vestimenta iconográfica es blanca o de color relativamente apagado, especialmente en las paredes ( murales y mosaicos ) y en los manuscritos , pero con colores más brillantes en los íconos . Muchas otras figuras en escenas bíblicas, especialmente si no tienen nombre, generalmente se representan con ropa bizantina "contemporánea".
Vestido de mujer
La modestia era importante para todos, excepto para los muy ricos, y la mayoría de las mujeres parecen casi completamente cubiertas por ropas bastante informes, que debían ser capaces de adaptarse a un embarazo completo. La prenda básica en los inicios del Imperio llega hasta los tobillos, con cuello alto y redondo y mangas ajustadas hasta la muñeca. Los flecos y los puños pueden estar decorados con bordados, con una banda alrededor de la parte superior del brazo también. En los siglos X y XI, un vestido con mangas acampanadas, eventualmente muy completo en la muñeca, se vuelve cada vez más popular, antes de desaparecer; las mujeres trabajadoras se muestran con las mangas atadas. En las damas de la corte, esto puede venir con un cuello en V. Normalmente se usaban cinturones, posiblemente con ganchos para sujetar la falda; pueden haber sido de tela más a menudo que de cuero, y se ven algunas fajas con borlas. [4] Las aberturas del cuello probablemente estaban abotonadas a menudo, lo que es difícil de ver en el arte y no se describe en los textos, pero debe haber sido necesario aunque solo sea para amamantar. Directamente hacia abajo, a través o en diagonal son las posibles opciones. [5] Hasta el siglo X, la ropa interior de lino sencillo no estaba diseñada para ser visible. Sin embargo, en este punto, un cuello alto comienza a aparecer sobre el vestido principal. [5]
El cabello está cubierto por una variedad de paños para la cabeza y velos, presumiblemente a menudo retirados dentro de la casa. A veces se usaban gorras debajo del velo y, a veces, la tela se ataba en forma de turbante. Esto puede haberse hecho mientras trabajaba; por ejemplo, las parteras de las escenas de la Natividad de Jesús en el arte suelen adoptar este estilo. Los anteriores se envolvieron en forma de ocho, pero en el siglo XI se adoptó el envoltorio circular, posiblemente cosido en una posición fija. En los siglos XI y XII los paños para la cabeza o velos comenzaron a ser más largos. [6]
Con el calzado, los estudiosos están más seguros, ya que hay un número considerable de ejemplos recuperados por la arqueología de las partes más secas del Imperio. Se encuentra una gran variedad de calzado, con sandalias, pantuflas y botas hasta la mitad de la pantorrilla, todos comunes en ilustraciones de manuscritos y hallazgos excavados, donde muchos están decorados de diversas formas. El color rojo, reservado para el uso imperial en el calzado masculino, es en realidad el color más común para los zapatos de mujer. Los bolsos rara vez son visibles y parecen haber sido hechos de tela a juego con el vestido, o tal vez metidos en la faja. [7]
Los bailarines se muestran con un vestido especial que incluye mangas cortas o vestidos sin mangas, que pueden tener o no una manga más ligera de la ropa interior de abajo. Tienen cinturones anchos y ajustados, y sus faldas tienen un elemento acampanado y de diferentes colores, probablemente diseñado para levantarse mientras giran en los bailes. [8] Un comentario de Anna Komnene sobre su madre sugiere que no mostrar el brazo por encima de la muñeca era un foco especial de modestia bizantina. [9]
Aunque a veces se afirma que el velo facial fue inventado por los bizantinos, [10] el arte bizantino no representa a mujeres con rostros con velo, aunque comúnmente representa a mujeres con cabello con velo. Se supone que las mujeres bizantinas fuera de los círculos de la corte iban bien envueltas en público y tenían relativamente restricciones en sus movimientos fuera de la casa; rara vez se representan en el arte. [11] Las fuentes literarias no son lo suficientemente claras para distinguir entre un velo para la cabeza y un velo para la cara. [9] Estrabón, escribiendo en el siglo I, alude a algunas mujeres persas cubriéndose el rostro con un velo ( Geografía , 11. 9-10). [ verificación fallida ] Además, el escritor cristiano Tertuliano de principios del siglo III , en su tratado El velo de las vírgenes, cap. 17, describe a las mujeres árabes paganas cubriendo todo el rostro excepto los ojos, a la manera de un niqab . Esto muestra que algunas mujeres de Oriente Medio se velaron la cara mucho antes del Islam.
Color
As in Graeco-Roman times, purple was reserved for the royal family; other colours in various contexts conveyed information as to class and clerical or government rank. Lower-class people wore simple tunics but still had the preference for bright colours found in all Byzantine fashions.
The races in the Hippodrome used four teams: red, white, blue and green; and the supporters of these became political factions, taking sides on the great theological issues—which were also political questions—of Arianism, Nestorianism and Monophysitism, and therefore on the Imperial claimants who also took sides. Huge riots took place, in the 4th to 6th centuries and mostly in Constantinople, with deaths running into the thousands, between these factions, who naturally dressed in their appropriate colours. In medieval France, there were similar colours-wearing political factions, called chaperons.
Ejemplo
A 14th-century mosaic (right) from the Kahriye-Cami or Chora Church in Istanbul gives an excellent view of a range of costume from the late period. From the left, there is a soldier on guard, the governor in one of the large hats worn by important officials, a middle-ranking civil servant (holding the register roll) in a dalmatic with a wide border, probably embroidered, over a long tunic, which also has a border. Then comes a higher-ranking soldier, carrying a sword on an untied belt or baldric. The Virgin and St Joseph are in their normal iconographic dress, and behind St Joseph a queue of respectable citizens wait their turn to register. Male hem lengths drop as the status of the person increases. All the exposed legs have hose, and the soldiers and citizens have foot-wrappings above, presumably with sandals. The citizens wear dalmatics with a wide border around the neck and hem, but not as rich as that of the middle-level official. The other men would perhaps wear hats if not in the presence of the governor. A donor figure in the same church, the Grand Logothete Theodore Metochites, who ran the legal system and finances of the Empire, wears an even larger hat, which he keeps on whilst kneeling before Christ (see Gallery).
Sombreros
Many men went bareheaded and, apart from the Emperor, they were normally so in votive depictions, which may distort the record we have. In the late Byzantine period a number of extravagantly large hats were worn as uniform by officials. In the 12th century, Emperor Andronikos Komnenos wore a hat shaped like a pyramid, but eccentric dress is one of many things he was criticised for. This was perhaps related to the very elegant hat with a very high-domed peak, and a sharply turned-up brim coming far forward in an acute triangle to a sharp point (left), that was drawn by Italian artists when the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos went to Florence and the Council of Ferrara in 1438 in the last days of the Empire. Versions of this and other clothes, including many spectacular hats, worn by the visitors were carefully drawn by Pisanello and other artists.[2] They passed through copies across Europe for use in Eastern subjects, especially for depictions of the three kings or Magi in Nativity scenes. In 1159 the visiting Crusader Prince Raynald of Châtillon wore a tiara shaped felt cap, embellished in gold. An Iberian wide brimmed felt hat came into vogue during the 12th century. Especially in the Balkans, small caps with or without fur brims were worn, of the sort later adopted by the Russian Tsars.
Zapatos
Not many shoes are seen clearly in Byzantine Art because of the long robes of the rich. Red shoes marked the Emperor; blue shoes, a sebastokrator; and green shoes a protovestiarios.
The Ravenna mosaics show the men wearing what may be sandals with white socks, and soldiers wear sandals tied around the calf or strips of cloth wrapped round the leg to the calf. These probably went all the way to the toes (similar foot-wrappers are still worn by Russian other ranks).
Some soldiers, including later Imperial portraits in military dress, show boots nearly reaching the knee - red for the Emperor. In the Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Emperors there are shoes or slippers in Byzantine style made in Palermo before 1220. They are short, only to the ankle, and generously cut to allow many different sizes to be accommodated. They are lavishly decorated with pearls and jewels and gold scrollwork on the sides and over the toe of the shoe.[12] More practical footwear was no doubt worn on less formal occasions.
Outside labourers would either have sandals or be barefoot. The sandals follow the Roman model of straps over a thick sole. Some examples of the Roman cuculus or military boot are also seen on shepherds.
Traje militar
This stayed close to the Greco-Roman pattern, especially for officers (see Gallery section for example). A breastplate of armour, under which the bottom of a short tunic appeared as a skirt, often overlaid with a fringe of leather straps, the pteruges. Similar strips covered the upper arms, below round armour shoulder-pieces. Boots came to the calf, or sandals were strapped high on the legs. A rather flimsy-looking cloth belt is tied high under the ribs as a badge of rank rather than a practical item.
Dress and equipment changed considerably across the period to have the most efficient and effective accoutrements current economics would allow. Other ranks' clothing was largely identical to that of common working men. The manuals recommend tunics and coats no longer than the knee.[13] As an army marches first of all on its feet, the manual writers were more concerned that troops should have good footwear than anything else.[14] This ranged from low lace up shoes to thigh boots, all to be fitted with "a few (hob) nails".[15] A head-cloth ("phakiolion" or "maphorion") which ranged from a simple cloth coming from below the helmet (as still worn by Orthodox clergy) to something more like a turban, was standard military headgear in the Middle and Late Empire for both common troops and for ceremonial wear by some ranks;[16] they were also worn by women.
Traje imperial
The distinctive garments of the Emperors (often there were two at a time) and Empresses were the crown and the heavily jewelled Imperial loros or pallium, that developed from the trabea triumphalis, a ceremonial coloured version of the Roman toga worn by Consuls (during the reign of Justinian I Consulship became part of the imperial status), and worn by the Emperor and Empress as a quasi-ecclesiastical garment. It was also worn by the twelve most important officials and the imperial bodyguard, and hence by Archangels in icons, who were seen as divine bodyguards. In fact it was only normally worn a few times a year, such as on Easter Sunday, but it was very commonly used for depictions in art.[17]
The men's version of the loros was a long strip, dropping down straight in front to below the waist, and with the portion behind pulled round to the front and hung gracefully over the left arm. The female loros was similar at the front end, but the back end was wider and tucked under a belt after pulling through to the front again. Both male and female versions changed style and diverged in the middle Byzantine period, the female later reverting to the new male style. Apart from jewels and embroidery, small enamelled plaques were sewn into the clothes; the dress of Manuel I Comnenus was described as being like a meadow covered with flowers. Generally sleeves were closely fitted to the arm and the outer dress comes to the ankles (although often called a scaramangion), and is also rather closely fitted. The sleeves of empresses became extremely wide in the later period.[18]
The superhumeral, worn throughout the history of Byzantium, was the imperial decorative collar, often forming part of the loros. It was copied by at least women of the upper class. It was of cloth of gold or similar material, then studded with gems and heavily embroidered. The decoration was generally divided into compartments by vertical lines on the collar. The edges would be done in pearls of varying sizes in up to three rows. There were occasionally drop pearls placed at intervals to add to the richness. The collar came over the collarbone to cover a portion of the upper chest.
The Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Emperors, kept in the Schatzkammer (Vienna), contains a full set of outer garments made in the 12th century in essentially Byzantine style at the Byzantine-founded workshops in Palermo. These are among the best surviving Byzantine garments and give a good idea of the lavishness of Imperial ceremonial clothing. There is a cloak (worn by the Emperors with the gap at the front), "alb", dalmatic, stockings, slippers and gloves. The loros is Italian and later. Each element of the design on the cloak (see Textiles below) is outlined in pearls and embroidered in gold.
Especially in the early and later periods (approximately before 600 and after 1,000) Emperors may be shown in military dress, with gold breastplates, red boots, and a crown. Crowns had pendilia and became closed on top during the 12th century.
Vestido de corte
Court life "passed in a sort of ballet", with precise ceremonies prescribed for every occasion, to show that "Imperial power could be exercised in harmony and order", and "the Empire could thus reflect the motion of the Universe as it was made by the Creator", according to the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote a Book of Ceremonies describing in enormous detail the annual round of the Court. Special forms of dress for many classes of people on particular occasions are set down; at the name-day dinner for the Emperor or Empress various groups of high officials performed ceremonial "dances", one group wearing "a blue and white garment, with short sleeves, and gold bands, and rings on their ankles. In their hands they hold what are called phengia". The second group do just the same, but wearing "a garment of green and red, split, with gold bands". These colours were the marks of the old chariot racing factions, the four now merged to just the Blues and the Greens, and incorporated into the official hierarchy.
Various tactica, treatises on administrative structure, court protocol and precedence, give details of the costumes worn by different office-holders. According to pseudo-Kodinos, the distinctive colour of the Sebastokrator was blue; his ceremonial costume included blue shoes embroidered with eagles on a red field, a red tunic (chlamys), and a diadem (stephanos) in red and gold.[19] As in the Versailles of Louis XIV, elaborate dress and court ritual probably were at least partly an attempt to smother and distract from political tensions.
However this ceremonial way of life came under stress as the military crisis deepened, and never revived after the interlude of the Western Emperors following the capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204; in the late period a French visitor was shocked to see the Empress riding in the street with fewer attendants and less ceremony than a Queen of France would have had.
Vestido clerical
This is certainly the area in which Roman and Byzantine clothing is nearest to living on, as many forms of habit and vestments still in use (especially in the Eastern, but also in the Western churches) are closely related to their predecessors. Over the period clerical dress went from being merely normal lay dress to a specialized set of garments for different purposes. The bishop in the Ravenna mosaic wears a chasuble very close to what is regarded as the "modern" Western form of the 20th century, the garment having got much larger, and then contracted, in the meantime. Over his shoulder he wears a simple bishop's omophorion, resembling the clerical pallium of the Latin Church, and a symbol of his position. This later became much larger, and produced various types of similar garments, such as the epitrachelion and orarion, for other ranks of clergy. Modern Orthodox clerical hats are also survivals from the much larger and brightly coloured official headgear of the Byzantine civil service.
Cabello
Men's hair was generally short and neat until the late Empire, and often is shown elegantly curled, probably artificially (picture at top). The 9th century Khludov Psalter has Iconophile illuminations which vilify the last Iconoclast Patriarch, John the Grammarian, caricaturing him with untidy hair sticking straight out in all directions. Monk's hair was long, and most clergy had beards, as did many lay men, especially later. Upper-class women mostly wore their hair up, again very often curled and elaborately shaped. If we are to judge by religious art, and the few depictions of other women outside the court, women probably kept their hair covered in public, especially when married.
Textiles
As in China, there were large Byzantine Imperial workshops, apparently always based in Constantinople, for textiles as for other arts like mosaic. Although there were other important centres, the Imperial workshops led fashion and technical developments and their products were frequently used as diplomatic gifts to other rulers, as well as being distributed to favoured Byzantines. In the late 10th century, the Emperor sent gold and fabrics to a Russian ruler in the hope that this would prevent him attacking the Empire.
Most surviving examples were not used for clothes and feature very large woven or embroidered designs. Before the Byzantine Iconoclasm these often contained religious scenes such as Annunciations, often in a number of panels over a large piece of cloth. This naturally stopped during the periods of Iconoclasm and with the exception of church vestments [3] for the most part figural scenes did not reappear afterwards, being replaced by patterns and animal designs. Some examples show very large designs being used for clothing by the great - two enormous embroidered lions killing camels occupy the whole of the Coronation cloak of Roger II in Vienna, produced in Palermo about 1134 in the workshops the Byzantines had established there. [4] A sermon by Saint Asterius of Amasia, from the end of the 5th century, gives details of imagery on the clothes of the rich (which he strongly condemns):[20]
When, therefore, they dress themselves and appear in public, they look like pictured walls in the eyes of those that meet them. And perhaps even the children surround them, smiling to one another and pointing out with the finger the picture on the garment; and walk along after them, following them for a long time. On these garments are lions and leopards; bears and bulls and dogs; woods and rocks and hunters; and all attempts to imitate nature by painting.... But such rich men and women as are more pious, have gathered up the gospel history and turned it over to the weavers.... You may see the wedding of Galilee, and the water-pots; the paralytic carrying his bed on his shoulders; the blind man being healed with the clay; the woman with the bloody issue, taking hold of the border of the garment; the sinful woman falling at the feet of Jesus; Lazarus returning to life from the grave....
Both Christian and pagan examples, mostly embroidered panels sewn into plainer cloth, have been preserved in the exceptional conditions of graves in Egypt, although mostly iconic portrait-style images rather than the narrative scenes Asterius describes in his diocese of Amasya in northern Anatolia. The portrait of the Caesar Constantius Gallus in the Chronography of 354 shows several figurative panels on his clothes, mostly round or oval (see gallery).
Early decorated cloth is mostly embroidered in wool on a linen base, and linen is generally more common than cotton throughout the period. Raw Silk yarn was initially imported from China, and the timing and place of the first weaving of it in the Near Eastern world is a matter of controversy, with Egypt, Persia, Syria and Constantinople all being proposed, for dates in the 4th and 5th centuries. Certainly Byzantine textile decoration shows great Persian influence, and very little direct from China. According to legend agents of Justinian I bribed two Buddhist monks from Khotan in about 552 to discover the secret of cultivating silk, although much continued to be imported from China.
Resist dyeing was common from the late Roman period for those outside the Court, and woodblock printing dates to at least the 6th century, and possibly earlier - again this would function as a cheaper alternative to the woven and embroidered materials of the rich. Apart from Egyptian burial-cloths, rather fewer cheap fabrics have survived than expensive ones. It should also be remembered that depicting a patterned fabric in paint or mosaic is a very difficult task, often impossible in a small miniature, so the artistic record, which often shows patterned fabrics in large-scale figures in the best quality works, probably under-records the use of patterned cloth overall.
Galería
The Caesar Constantius Gallus in a later copy of the Chronography of 354, with one of the best surviving indications of what the pictures on clothes described by Asterius looked like.
Consul Anastasius wearing consular robes akin to imperial ones. From his consular diptych, 517.
Chora Church, the Grand Logothete Theodore Metochites, who ran the legal system and finances of the Empire, wears an enormous hat, like all high officials, and a patterned robe.
Basil II in military dress, early 11th century
Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki, 12th century Greek mosaic from Kiev showing military dress, including the high sash around the ribs, as a badge of rank.
Sketches by Pisanello of the Byzantine delegation at the Council of Florence in 1439
Ver también
- Ottoman clothing
- Sasanian dress
Notas
- ^ a b Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane: The History of Costume, from the Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century, 2nd Edn, p128, HarperCollins, 1992. ISBN 0-06-047141-7
- ^ Dawson (2006), 43
- ^ Kilerich, 275
- ^ Dawson (2006), 50-53;57
- ^ a b Dawson (2006), 53-54
- ^ Dawson (2006), 43-47
- ^ Dawson (2006), 57-59
- ^ Dawson (2006), 59-60
- ^ a b Dawson (2006), 61
- ^ Dawson (2006) 61, gives two examples; Review of Herrin book
- ^ Michael Angold, Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081-1261, pp. 426-7 & ff;1995, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-26986-5
- ^ Photo that does not show the gold embroidery very well. [1] Also see Commons images of the Regalia.
- ^ Dawson (2007), p. 16
- ^ Dawson (2007), p. 18
- ^ Strategikon. Leo, Taktika
- ^ Dawson (2006), 44-45; Phokas, Composition on Warfare, on common troops, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Treatise on Imperial Military Expeditions
- ^ Parani, 18-27
- ^ Parani, 19-27
- ^ Parani, Maria G. (2003). Reconstructing the reality of images: Byzantine material culture and religious. iconography (11th to 15th centuries). BRILL. pp. 63, 67–69, 72. ISBN 978-90-04-12462-2.
- ^ Asterius of Amasia Online English translation - near the start
Referencias
- Robin Cormack, "Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons", 1985, George Philip, London, ISBN 0-540-01085-5
- Dawson, Timothy. Women's Dress in Byzantium, in Garland, Lynda (ed), Byzantine women: varieties of experience 800-1200, 2006, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 0-7546-5737-X, 9780754657378.
- Dawson, Timothy (2007). Byzantine infantryman: Eastern Roman empire c.900-1204. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1846031052.
- Kilerich, Bente, "Representing an Emperor: Style and Meaning on the Missorium of Theodosius I", in Almagro-Gorbea, Álvarez Martínez, Blázquez Martínez y Rovira (eds.), El Disco de Teodosio, 2000, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, ISBN 84-89512-60-4
- Parani, Maria G. (2003). Reconstructing the Reality of Images: Byzantine Material Culture and Religious Iconography (11th–15th Centuries. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004124624.
- Steven Runciman, Byzantine Style and Civilization, 1975, Penguin
- David Talbot-Rice, Byzantine Art, 3rd edn 1968, Penguin Books Ltd
- L Syson & Dillian Gordon, "Pisanello, Painter to the Renaissance Court",2001, National Gallery Company, London, ISBN 1-85709-946-X
Otras lecturas
- Ball, Jennifer L., Byzantine Dress: Representations of Secular Dress, 2006, Macmillan, ISBN 1403967008
- Costello, Angela L., "Material Wealth and Immaterial Grief: The Last Will and Testament of Kale Pakouriane.", 2016. Academia.edu
enlaces externos
- A newer look at Byzantine Clothing.
- Photos of major pieces of extant medieval clothing, some Byzantine (including some of the Imperial Regalia) by Cynthia du Pré Argent
- Exhibition online feature from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY Byzantium, Faith and Power, 1261-1453 - Gallery V in particular; Byzantium: faith and power (1261-1557), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)
- Byzantine fashion
- Some plates from a German 19th-century history of costume
- A blog on Byzantine clothing for historical reenactors.