Encanto numismático chino
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Monedas Yansheng ( chino tradicional :厭 勝 錢; chino simplificado :厌 胜 钱; pinyin : yàn shèng qián ), comúnmente conocidas como amuletos numismáticos chinos , se refieren a una colección de monedas decorativas especiales que se utilizan principalmente para rituales como la adivinación , Supersticiones chinas y feng shui . Se originaron durante la dinastía Han Occidental como una variante de las monedas en efectivo de Ban Liang y Wu Zhu contemporáneas.. A lo largo de los siglos, evolucionaron hasta convertirse en su propia mercancía, con muchas formas y tamaños diferentes. Su uso se revitalizó durante la era de la República de China . Normalmente, estas monedas son financiadas de forma privada y lanzadas por una familia rica para sus propias ceremonias, aunque varios gobiernos u órdenes religiosas han lanzado algunos tipos de monedas a lo largo de los siglos. Los encantos numismáticos chinos suelen contener simbolismos ocultos y juegos de palabras visuales . A diferencia de las monedas de efectivo que generalmente solo contienen dos o cuatro caracteres Hanzi en un lado, los amuletos numismáticos chinos a menudo contienen más caracteres y, a veces, imágenes en el mismo lado.
Aunque los encantos numismáticos chinos no son una forma legal de moneda, solían circular en el mercado chino junto con las monedas emitidas por el gobierno. Los amuletos se consideraban valiosos, ya que a menudo estaban hechos de aleaciones de cobre y las monedas chinas se valoraban por su peso en bronce o latón. En algunos casos, los amuletos estaban hechos de metales preciosos o jade . [1] En ciertos períodos, algunos amuletos se utilizaron como monedas alternativas . Por ejemplo, los templos budistas emitieron "monedas de templo" durante la dinastía Yuan cuando la moneda de cobre era escasa o cuando el gobierno mongol limitó intencionalmente la producción de cobre .
Las monedas Yansheng suelen estar muy decoradas con patrones y grabados complicados. [ cita requerida ] Muchos de ellos se usan como accesorios de moda o amuletos de buena suerte. Las monedas en efectivo de la era de la dinastía Qing tienen inscripciones de los cinco emperadores Shunzhi , Kangxi , Yongzheng , Qianlong y Jiaqing , que se dice que aportan riqueza y buena fortuna a quienes unen estas cinco monedas. [2] [3]
Los talismanes numismáticos chinos han inspirado tradiciones similares en Japón , Corea y Vietnam , y a menudo los talismanes de estos otros países pueden confundirse con los encantos chinos debido a su simbolismo e inscripciones similares. Las monedas en efectivo chinas en sí mismas pueden tratarse como amuletos de la suerte fuera de China.
Etimología
El nombre formal de estas monedas y la pronunciación de la palabra era moneda Yasheng o dinero (chino tradicional:押 胜 钱; chino simplificado:压 胜 钱; pinyin: yā shèng qián ), pero en el uso moderno común Yansheng es la pronunciación y ortografía.
Las monedas de Yansheng también se conocen como "monedas de flores" o "monedas estampadas" (chino tradicional:花錢; chino simplificado:花钱; pinyin: huā qián ). Alternativamente, se les conoce como "monedas de juego" (wanqian, 玩 钱) en China. Históricamente, el término " monedas de Yansheng " fue más popular, pero en la China moderna y Taiwán el término "monedas de flores" se ha convertido en el nombre más común. [4]
Historia y uso
Las monedas Yansheng aparecieron por primera vez durante la dinastía Han Occidental como objetos supersticiosos para comunicarse con los muertos, orar pidiendo deseos favorables, aterrorizar a los fantasmas o usarlos como dinero de la suerte .
En las dinastías Ming y Qing , el gobierno imperial emitía monedas para festivales o ceremonias nacionales como el cumpleaños del emperador. Era común que el sexagésimo cumpleaños del emperador se celebrara emitiendo un amuleto con la inscripción Wanshou Tongbao (萬夀 通寶), porque 60 años simboliza un ciclo completo de los 10 tallos celestiales y las 12 ramas terrenales . [5] [6]
En el caso de estas monedas, "encanto" en este contexto es un término general para los artículos con forma de moneda que no eran dinero oficial (o falso). [7] Sin embargo, estos objetos numismáticos no fueron necesariamente considerados "mágicos" o "afortunados", ya que algunos de estos amuletos numismáticos chinos se pueden usar como " monedas mnemotécnicas ". [7] El término se utiliza además para identificar una serie de fichas de juego basadas en monedas de efectivo chinas o que incorporan tales diseños. [8]
Orígenes
Las primeras monedas chinas tenían inscripciones que describían su lugar de origen durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes y, a veces, su valor nominal. Se incluyeron otras formas de notación, como círculos que representan el sol, medias lunas que representan la luna y puntos que representan las estrellas, así como manchas y líneas. Estos símbolos a veces sobresalían de la superficie de la moneda (chino: 阳 文; Pinyin: yáng wén ) y a veces estaban tallados, grabados o estampados (chino: 阴 文; Pinyin: yīn wén ). Estos símbolos eventualmente evolucionarían hacia amuletos chinos con monedas que originalmente se usaron como amuletos.
Los puntos fueron la primera y más común forma de símbolo que apareció en las monedas de efectivo chinas antiguas, como las monedas de Ban Liang , y aparecieron principalmente durante la dinastía Han . Estos símbolos generalmente estaban en el anverso de las monedas y probablemente fueron tallados como parte del molde, lo que significa que fueron agregados intencionalmente. Los símbolos de la media luna tanto en el anverso como en el reverso de las monedas se agregaron alrededor del mismo período que los puntos. Después de esto, tanto regulares números chinos y números de la vara de conteo comenzaron a aparecer en las monedas de efectivo durante el comienzo de la dinastía Han del Este. Los caracteres chinos comenzaron a aparecer en estas primeras monedas en efectivo, lo que podría significar que estaban destinadas a circular en ciertas regiones o podrían indicar los nombres de quienes lanzaron las monedas.
Las monedas fabricadas bajo el emperador Wang Mang de la dinastía Xin tenían un aspecto distintivo de las monedas de la época de la dinastía Han, y más tarde se utilizaron como base de muchos amuletos y amuletos chinos. [9] [10]
Los textos chinos antiguos se refieren al carácter Hanzi de "estrella" (星) para no referirse exclusivamente a las estrellas que son visibles de noche, sino también para tener un significado adicional de "difundir" y "difundir" (布, bù ). Otras fuentes chinas antiguas afirmaron que el carácter de "estrella" era sinónimo del término "regalar" y "distribuir" (散, sàn ). Sobre la base de estas asociaciones y los vínculos entre la acuñación y el poder, se entendió que las monedas en efectivo deberían ser similares al cielo nocturno lleno de estrellas: generalizadas en circulación, numerosas en cantidad y distribuidas por todo el mundo.
Otra hipótesis sobre por qué aparecieron símbolos de estrellas, luna, nubes y dragones en las monedas de efectivo chinas es que representan el yin y el yang y el wu xing , una creencia fundamental de la época, y específicamente el elemento agua (水). El carácter Hanzi de un " manantial de agua"(泉) también significaba" moneda "en la antigua China. En la mitología china, la luna era un enviado o mensajero de los cielos y el agua era aire frío de energía yin que se acumulaba en la luna. La luna era el espíritu a cargo de agua en la mitología china, y los símbolos de la media luna en las monedas en efectivo podrían indicar que debían circular como el agua, que fluye, brota y se eleva. El simbolismo de "nubes" o "nubes auspiciosas" puede referirse al hecho de que las nubes causan lluvia; el I Ching menciona que el agua aparece en los cielos como nubes, lo que nuevamente implica que las monedas en efectivo deben circular libremente. La aparición de líneas onduladas que representan dragones chinos ocurrió en esta época y también puede haberse basado en el wu xingelemento de agua, ya que se pensaba que los dragones eran animales acuáticos que eran portadores tanto de los vientos como de la lluvia; los dragones representaban a la nación, con una moneda que fluía libremente. En amuletos, amuletos y talismanes chinos posteriores, el dragón se convirtió en un símbolo del emperador chino y del gobierno central de China y de su poder. [11] [12] [13] [14]
Desarrollos posteriores
La mayoría de los amuletos numismáticos chinos producidos desde el comienzo de la dinastía Han hasta el final de las dinastías del Norte y del Sur (206 a. C. - 589 d. C.) eran muy similares en apariencia a las monedas en efectivo chinas que estaban en circulación. El único factor diferenciador que tenían los talismanes chinos en ese momento eran los símbolos en el reverso de estas monedas. Estos símbolos incluían tortugas, serpientes, espadas de doble filo, el sol, la luna, las estrellas, representaciones de personajes famosos y los doce zodiacos chinos. El mayor desarrollo y evolución de los talismanes numismáticos chinos ocurrió durante el período que comenzó a partir de las Seis Dinastías y duró hasta la dinastía Mongol Yuan.. Fue durante esta época que los encantos numismáticos chinos comenzaron a usar inscripciones que deseaban "longevidad" y "felicidad", y estos encantos y amuletos se volvieron extremadamente comunes en la sociedad china. Los amuletos taoístas y budistas también comenzaron a aparecer durante este período, al igual que los amuletos de monedas matrimoniales con imágenes "similares al Kama Sutra ". Los encantos numismáticos chinos también comenzaron a fabricarse con hierro, plomo, estaño, plata, oro, porcelana , jade y papel. Estos encantos también presentaban nuevos scripts y fuentes, como script regular , script de césped , script de sello y Fulu.(Guión taoísta de "escritura mágica"). La asociación de caracteres chinos en formas nuevas y místicas agregó un simbolismo oculto. [15] [16]
Los encantos con inscripciones como fú dé cháng shòu (福德 長壽) y qiān qiū wàn suì (千秋 萬歲, 1,000 otoños, 10,000 años) [17] se lanzaron por primera vez alrededor del final del período de las dinastías del Norte y continuaron hasta el Khitan Liao , Dinastías Jurchen Jin y Mongol Yuan. Durante las dinastías Tang y Song , los encantos de trabajo abierto comenzaron a incluir imágenes de dragones chinos, qilin , flores y otras plantas, peces, ciervos, insectos, fénix chinos, peces y personas. Los amuletos calados de esta época se utilizaron como complementos de vestir, adorno o para decorar caballos. La inscripción de encanto muy comúncháng mìng fù guì (長命 富貴) se introdujo durante las dinastías Tang y Song, cuando el reverso de estos talismanes comenzó a mostrar imágenes taoístas como los símbolos yin-yang, los ocho trigramas y los zodiacos chinos. Durante la dinastía Song, se fundió una gran cantidad de talismanes chinos, especialmente monedas de caballo que se usaban como fichas de juego y piezas de juegos de mesa. Durante el reinado de Khitan Liao se introdujeron amuletos de peces destinados a llevarse alrededor de la cintura. Otros tipos nuevos surgieron durante la dinastía Jurchen Jin, con la influencia de la cultura y las artes de la estepa del pueblo Jurchen.. La dinastía Jin fusionó la cultura Jurchen con la administración china, y los encantos de la dinastía Jin innovaron en los talismanes de la dinastía Song, que utilizaban simbolismos ocultos, alusiones, sugerencias implícitas y homónimos fonéticos para describir un significado. Bajo los Jurchens surgieron nuevos simbolismos: un dragón que representaba al emperador, un fénix que representaba a la emperatriz, tigres que representaban a los ministros, leones que representaban al gobierno en su conjunto y grullas y pinos que simbolizaban la longevidad. El simbolismo oculto como las frutas de azufaifo para "mañana o temprano" y los pollos que simbolizan "tener suerte" también surgieron bajo los Jurchens.
Bajo las dinastías Ming y Manchú Qing , se incrementó la fabricación de amuletos con inscripciones que desean buena suerte y aquellos que celebran eventos. Estos talismanes numismáticos representan lo que se llama los "tres muchos": felicidad, longevidad y tener muchos descendientes. Otros deseos comunes incluían los de riqueza y recibir un alto rango del sistema de examen imperial. Durante este período, más talismanes numismáticos chinos comenzaron a usar significados implícitos y ocultos con juegos de palabras visuales . Esta práctica se amplió particularmente durante la dinastía manchú Qing. [18] [19] [20] [21]
Estilos
A diferencia de las monedas de efectivo chinas emitidas por el gobierno que generalmente solo tienen cuatro caracteres, los amuletos numismáticos chinos a menudo tienen más caracteres y pueden representar imágenes de varias escenas. [22] Pueden venir en varios estilos diferentes:
- tallado o grabado (chino:镂空 品; pinyin: lòukōng pǐn )
- con animal
- con personas
- con plantas
- palabras o caracteres en una moneda (chino:钱 文 品; pinyin: qián wén pǐn )
- oraciones o deseos (chino:吉 语 品; pinyin: jí yǔ pǐn )
- Zodíaco chino (chino:生肖 品; pinyin: shēngxiào pǐn )
- Taoísmo , Bagua (chino:八卦 品; pinyin: bāguà pǐn ), o dioses del budismo (chino:神仙 佛道 品; pinyin: shénxiān fó dào pǐn )
- Caballos o temas militares (chino:打 马格 品; pinyin: dǎ mǎ gé pǐn )
- Estilos anormales o combinados (chino:异形 品; pinyin: yìxíng pǐn )
Los primeros encantos numismáticos chinos tendían a fundirse, hasta que aparecieron monedas acuñadas por máquinas en China durante el siglo XIX.
Una gran cantidad de encantos numismáticos chinos se han lanzado durante un período de más de 2000 años, estos encantos han evolucionado con la cultura cambiante a medida que pasaba el tiempo, lo que se refleja en sus temas e inscripciones. [23] En su obra de 2020 Cast Chinese Amulets, el numismático y autor británico David Hartill había documentado más de 5000 tipos diferentes de encantos numismáticos chinos. [23] Tradicionalmente, los catálogos de estos amuletos se organizan en varios métodos, como la forma, el tamaño, el significado de los amuletos, el nombre del Emperador o cualquier otra característica común. [23]Mientras que otros catálogos evitan deliberadamente tales categorizaciones, ya que no quedaría claro de inmediato para un novato (no experto) si un amuleto chino individual se consideraría del tipo " Afortunado ", " Religioso ", " Familia " o " Moneda ". encanto. [23]
Tipos de amuletos chinos
Por función
Amuletos de buena suerte
Los "amuletos de buena suerte" numismáticos chinos o "amuletos auspiciosos" están inscritos con varios caracteres chinos que representan la buena suerte y la prosperidad. Había una creencia popular en su fuerte efecto y tradicionalmente se usaban en un esfuerzo por ahuyentar al mal y proteger a las familias. Por lo general, contienen cuatro u ocho caracteres que desean buena suerte, buena fortuna, dinero, una larga vida, muchos hijos y buenos resultados en el sistema de exámenes Imperial . [24] Algunos de estos encantos usaban imágenes o juegos de palabras visuales para hacer una declaración de deseo de prosperidad y éxito. Algunos presentan granadas que simbolizan el deseo de tener hijos varones exitosos y hábiles, para fortalecer a la familia y continuar su linaje. [25][26] [27] [28] [29]
Otro tema común en los encantos numismáticos chinos son los rinocerontes . Su representación está asociada con la felicidad, porque las palabras chinas para "rinoceronte" y "felicidad" se pronuncian xi . El rinoceronte se extinguió en el sur de China durante el período antiguo y el animal quedó consagrado en el mito, con leyendas de que las estrellas en el cielo se reflejaban en las venas y patrones de un cuerno de rinoceronte. Se creía que el cuerno del rinoceronte emitía un vapor que podía penetrar los cuerpos de agua, atravesar los cielos y abrir canales para comunicarse directamente con los espíritus. [30] [31] [32]
Varios amuletos de buena suerte contienen inscripciones como téng jiāo qǐ fèng (騰蛟 起 鳳, "un dragón volando y un fénix bailando" que es una referencia a una historia de Wang Bo ), [33] lián shēng guì zǐ (連生 貴子, "Que haya el nacimiento de un hijo honorable tras otro"), [34] y zhī lán yù shù (芝蘭 玉樹, "Un joven talentoso y noble"). [35]
Encantos de viaje seguro
Los amuletos de viaje seguro son una categoría importante de amuletos numismáticos chinos, que se produjeron por una preocupación por la seguridad personal durante los viajes. Por lo general, un lado tendría una inscripción que deseaba que el poseedor del amuleto tuviera un viaje seguro, mientras que el otro tendría temas comunes de talismán, como el Bagua, las armas y las estrellas. Se cree que los boxeadores usaron amuletos de viaje seguro como insignias de membresía durante su rebelión contra la dinastía manchú Qing. [36]
Encantos de la paz
Los amuletos de la paz ( chino tradicional : 天下太平 錢; chino simplificado : 天下太平 钱; pinyin : tiān xià tài píng qián ) tienen inscripciones que desean paz y prosperidad y se basan en monedas chinas que utilizan los caracteres 太平 ( tài píng ). [37] [38] [39] A menudo se considera que estas monedas tienen poderes de encanto.
Un hallazgo arqueológico de la década de 1980 estableció que fueron lanzados por primera vez por el Reino de Shu después del colapso de la dinastía Han. Esta moneda llevaba la inscripción tài píng bǎi qián (太平 百 錢), valía cien monedas chinas en efectivo y tenía un estilo caligráfico que se asemejaba más a los amuletos que a las monedas contemporáneas . Durante la dinastía Song , el emperador Taizong emitió una moneda con la inscripción tài píng tōng bǎo (太平 通寶), y bajo el reinado del emperador Chongzhen apareció una moneda de la dinastía Ming con la inscripción tài píng (太平) en el reverso y chóng zhēn tōng bǎo(崇禎 通寶) en el anverso. Durante la Rebelión de Taiping , el Reino Celestial de Taiping emitió monedas ("monedas sagradas") con la inscripción tài píng tiān guó (太平天囯).
Los amuletos de la paz, que se lanzaron en privado con el deseo de desear la paz, se utilizaron a diario a lo largo de la turbulenta y a menudo violenta historia de China. Bajo la dinastía Qing, los encantos chinos con la inscripción tiān xià tài píng (天下太平) se convirtieron en algo común. Esta frase podría traducirse como "paz debajo del cielo", "paz y tranquilidad debajo del cielo" o "un imperio en paz". Los amuletos de la paz también representan los doce zodiacos chinos y contienen juegos de palabras visuales. [40] [41] [42] [43]
Durante la dinastía Qing, se creó un amuleto de paz tài píng tōng bǎo (太平 通寶) [a] que tenía caracteres adicionales y simbolismo en el borde de la moneda: en los lados izquierdo y derecho del amuleto los caracteres 吉 y 祥, que se puede traducir como "buena fortuna", mientras que en el reverso los caracteres rú yì (如意, "como quieras") se encuentran en la parte superior e inferior del borde. Cuando estos cuatro caracteres se combinan leen rú yì jí xiángque se traduce como "buena fortuna según sus deseos", una expresión popular en China. Este amuleto es un diseño muy raro debido a su borde doble (重 輪), que puede describirse como un borde circular delgado que rodea el borde exterior ancho. Este amuleto específico tiene una inscripción adicional en el área empotrada de la llanta; un ejemplo de una moneda china contemporánea que tuviera estas características sería una moneda xianfeng zhongbao (咸豐 重 寶) de 100 efectivo . En el reverso de este amuleto de la era de la dinastía Qing manchú hay una multitud de inscripciones que tienen significados auspiciosos como qū xié qiǎn shà(驅邪 遣 煞, "expulsar y golpear las influencias malignas muertas"), borlas y espadas que representan una victoria simbólica del bien sobre el mal, dos murciélagos que es un juego de palabras visual ya que la palabra china para murciélago es similar a la palabra china para felicidad, y la inscripción adicional de dāng wàn (當 卍, "Valor diez mil", la supuesta denominación simbólica). [44] [45]
Monedas de entierro
Monedas de entierro chinas ( chino tradicional : 瘞 錢; chino simplificado : 瘗 钱; pinyin : yì qián ) también conocidas como monedas oscuras ( chino tradicional : 冥 錢; chino simplificado : 冥 钱; pinyin : míng qián ) [46] [47] son chinas imitaciones de moneda que se colocan en la tumba de una persona que se va a enterrar. La práctica se remonta a la dinastía Shang cuando se usaban conchas de cauri , en la creencia de que el dinero se usaría en la otra vida como un soborno a Yan Wang (también conocido como Yama) para un destino espiritual más favorable. La práctica cambió a moneda de réplica para disuadir a los ladrones de tumbas , [48] [49] y estas monedas y otras monedas de imitación se denominaron moneda de arcilla (泥 錢) o moneda de barro (陶土 幣). Se han encontrado tumbas chinas con versiones de arcilla de lo que los chinos denominan "moneda baja" (下 幣), como conchas de cauri, Ban Liang , Wu Zhu, Daquan Wuzhu, dinastía Tang Kaiyuan Tongbao, Dinastía Song Chong Ni Zhong Bao, Dinastía Liao Tian Chao Wan Shun, Bao Ning Tong Bao, Da Kang Tong Bao, Dinastía Jurchen Jin Da Ding Tong Bao y Dinastía Qing Qian Long Tong Bao monedas en efectivo. También se han encontrado tumbas de varios períodos con imitaciones de oro y plata "moneda alta" (上 幣), como el dinero en placa de oro del Reino de Chu (泥 ｢郢 稱｣ (楚國 黃金 貨)), yuan jin (爰 金), dinero funerario de seda (絲織品 做 的 冥幣), dinero de tarta de oro (陶質 "金 餅") y otros objetos en forma de pastel (冥器). En el uso moderno, el papel de Joss reemplaza las réplicas de arcilla y se quema en lugar de enterrarlo con el difunto. [50] [51] [52]
Dijes funerarios "Laid to Rest"
Los amuletos funerarios chinos "Laid to Rest" son amuletos o monedas funerarios de bronce que generalmente se encuentran en las tumbas. Miden de 2,4 a 2,45 centímetros (0,94 a 0,96 pulgadas) de diámetro con un grosor de 1,3 a 1,4 milímetros (0,051 a 0,055 pulgadas) y contienen la inscripción en el anverso rù tǔ wéi ān (入土为安) que significa "para ser colocado descansar ", mientras que el reverso está en blanco. Estas monedas se encontraron principalmente en tumbas que datan del período tardío de la dinastía Qing, aunque una se encontró en un tesoro de monedas de la dinastía Song del Norte. El wéi está escrito usando un carácter chino simplificado (为) en lugar de la versión china tradicional del carácter (為). Estas monedas a menudo se excluyen de los libros de referencia numismáticos sobre monedas o talismanes chinos debido a muchos tabúes., ya que fueron colocados en la boca de personas muertas y se consideran desafortunados e inquietantes, y no son deseados por la mayoría de los coleccionistas. [53] [54] [55] [56]
Encantos de matrimonio y educación sexual
Los amuletos matrimoniales chinos ( chino tradicional : 夫婦 和合 花錢; chino simplificado : 夫妇 和合 花钱; pinyin : fū fù hé hé huā qián ) son amuletos o amuletos numismáticos chinos que representan escenas de relaciones sexuales en varias posiciones . Se les conoce por muchos otros nombres, incluidas monedas secretas de juego ( chino tradicional : 秘 戲 錢; chino simplificado : 秘 戏 钱; pinyin : mì xì qián ), [57] monedas secretas divertidas, esconde (evade) el fuego (de la lujuria). ) monedas ( chino tradicional : 避 火 錢; chino simplificado : 避 火 钱; pinyin: bì huǒ qián ), monedas de matrimonio chinas, monedas de amor chinas, dinero de primavera chino ( chino tradicional : 春 錢; chino simplificado : 春 钱; pinyin : chūn qián ), monedas eróticas chinas y monedas de boda chinas. Ilustran cómo debe comportarse la pareja de recién casados en su noche de bodas para cumplir con sus responsabilidades y obligaciones de tener hijos. Pueden representar dátiles y cacahuetes que simbolizan el deseo de reproducción, semillas de loto que simbolizan "nacimientos continuos", castañas que simbolizan la descendencia masculina, granadasque simbolizan la fertilidad, brans que simbolizan a los hijos que tendrán éxito, velas de "dragón y fénix", hojas de ciprés, qilins, espejos de bronce , zapatos, sillas de montar y otras cosas asociadas con las bodas tradicionales chinas .
El nombre "dinero de primavera" es una referencia a un antiguo ritual chino en el que las niñas y los niños cantaban música romántica entre ellos desde el otro lado de un arroyo. Los actos sexuales tradicionalmente solo se representaban escasamente en el arte chino, pero se encontraron tallas de piedra de la dinastía Han que mostraban las relaciones sexuales y los espejos de bronce con varios temas sexuales eran comunes durante la dinastía Tang . También fue durante la dinastía Tang cuando comenzaron a producirse monedas que representaban gráficamente el sexo. Los amuletos de amor chinos a menudo tienen la inscripción "viento, flores, nieve y luna" (風花雪月), que es un verso oscuro que se refiere a un entorno feliz y frívolo, aunque todos los caracteres individuales también pueden usarse para identificar a una diosa china o las " siete hadas". Doncellas"(七 仙女). Otros amuletos de boda chinos a menudo tienen inscripciones como fēng huā yí rén (風 花 宜人), míng huáng yù yǐng (明 皇 禦 影) y lóng fèng chéng yàng (龍鳳 呈 樣). [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] Estos amuletos también podrían usarse en burdeles donde un viajero podría usar las ilustraciones para hacer una solicitud a una prostituta sin conocer el idioma local. [64] [65]
Algunos amuletos matrimoniales chinos contienen referencias al conocido poema del siglo IX Chang hen ge , con figuras ilustradas en cuatro posiciones sexuales diferentes y cuatro caracteres chinos que representan la primavera, el viento, los melocotones y las ciruelas. [66]
Un diseño de amuletos matrimoniales chinos, coreanos y vietnamitas muestra un par de peces en un lado y la inscripción Eo ssang (魚 双, "Par de peces") en el otro lado. [67] [68] En varias culturas orientales, los peces se asocian con abundancia y abundancia. [69] Los peces se caracterizan además por su prolífica capacidad para reproducirse y que, cuando nadan, lo sienten con alegría y, por lo tanto, están asociados con un matrimonio feliz y armonioso. [69] En Feng Shui , un par de peces se asocia con la dicha conyugal y el gozo de estar en una unión matrimonial. [69]
Encantos de la casa
Los encantos de las casas chinas se refieren a los talismanes numismáticos chinos colocados dentro de una casa para traer buena fortuna al lugar o para equilibrar la casa de acuerdo con el Feng shui. Estos amuletos datan de la dinastía Han y se colocaron en las casas incluso mientras el edificio estaba en construcción; también se colocaron en templos y otros edificios. Muchas casas tradicionales chinas tienden a mostrar imágenes del menshen (guardián del umbral). Algunos edificios se construyeron con una "piedra fundamental" (石 敢當), basada en el monte Tai en Shandong, con la inscripción tài shān zài cǐ (泰山 在 此, "El monte Tai está aquí") o tài shān shí gǎn dāng(泰山 石 敢當, "la piedra del monte Tai se atreve a resistir"). Las crestas en los edificios chinos generalmente están pintadas de rojo y están decoradas con papel rojo, pancartas de tela y amuletos de Bagua. A menudo se utilizan cinco hechizos de veneno para disuadir a los visitantes humanos no deseados, así como a las plagas de animales. [ relevante? ] Muchos de los amuletos de las casas chinas son pequeñas estatuas de bronce de ancianos barbudos asignados para proteger la casa de los espíritus malignos, el Dios de la Guerra, Zhong Kui (鍾 馗) y la "Deidad Polar". Los amuletos de la casa tienden a tener inscripciones que invitan a la buena fortuna a entrar en el hogar, como cháng mìng fù guì (長命 富貴, "longevidad, riqueza y honor"), fú shòu tóng tiān (福壽 同 天, "buena fortuna y longevidad en el mismo día" ), zhāo cái jìn bǎo(招財進寶, "atrae riquezas y tesoros"), sì jì píng ān (四季 平安, "paz para las cuatro estaciones"), wǔ fú pěng shòu (五福 捧 壽, "cinco fortunas rodean la longevidad"), shàng tiān yán hǎo shì (上天 言 好事, "asciende al cielo y habla de buenas obras"), y huí gōng jiàng jí xiáng (回宮 降 吉祥, "regresa a tu palacio y trae buena fortuna"). [70] [71] [72]
Monedas de efectivo del palacio
Las monedas en efectivo del palacio a veces se incluyen como una categoría de amuletos numismáticos chinos. [73] Estas monedas especiales, de acuerdo con el Catálogo Estándar de Monedas del Mundo de Krause Publications , fueron producidas específicamente para ser presentadas como obsequios durante el año nuevo chino a las personas que trabajaban en el palacio imperial chino , como guardias imperiales y eunucos , que cuelga estas monedas especiales debajo de las lámparas . [73] En su libro Qing Cash , publicado por la Royal Numismatic Society en el año 2003, David Hartillseñaló que estas monedas en efectivo del palacio solo se produjeron durante el establecimiento de un nuevo título de era de reinado . [73] Las primeras monedas en efectivo de los palacios chinos se produjeron en el año 1736 durante el reinado del emperador Qianlong y tienden a tener entre 30 y 40 milímetros de diámetro. [73] Estas monedas en efectivo del palacio se produjeron hasta el final de la dinastía Qing . [73]
Estas monedas contienen los títulos de reinado Qianlong, Jiaqing , Daoguang , Xianfeng , Tongzhi , Guangxu o Xuantong con "Tongbao" (通寶), o raramente "Zhongbao" (重 寶), en su inscripción anverso y la inscripción inversa "Tianxia Taiping "(天下太平). [74] Estas monedas de efectivo especiales se envolvieron dentro de un trozo de tela rectangular y cada vez que un Emperador moría (o "ascendía a sus antepasados") las monedas se reemplazaban por nuevos títulos de reinado. [74] Algunas monedas en efectivo Tianxia Taiping fueron fabricadas por el Ministerio de Hacienda, mientras que otras fueron producidas por casas de moneda privadas. [74]Las emisiones de palacio tienden a ser más grandes que las monedas en efectivo en circulación con las mismas inscripciones. [75]
Por forma y diseño
La mayoría de los amuletos numismáticos chinos imitaban las monedas redondas con un orificio cuadrado que estaban en circulación cuando aparecieron por primera vez. A medida que los amuletos evolucionaron por separado de las monedas acuñadas por el gobierno, [76] surgieron monedas con forma de espadas, candados, peces, melocotones y calabazas. [77] [78] [79] [80] aunque la mayoría conservó la apariencia de las monedas chinas contemporáneas.
Encantos de calabaza
Los encantos de calabaza ( chino tradicional : 葫蘆 錢; chino simplificado : 葫芦 钱; pinyin : hú lu qián ) tienen forma de calabazas (calabazas de botella). Estos amuletos se utilizan para desear buena salud, ya que la calabaza se asocia con la medicina tradicional china , o para muchos hijos, ya que las enredaderas de calabaza se asocian con los hombres y llevan una miríada de semillas. Como el primer carácter de la calabaza se pronuncia como hú (葫) que suena similar a hù, la pronunciación de la palabra china para "proteger" (護) o para "bendición" (祜), los encantos de calabaza también se utilizan para alejar a los espíritus malignos. Se creía que las calabazas tenían el poder mágico de proteger a los niños de la viruela , y se creía que los amuletos de las calabazas mantenían a los niños sanos. Las calabazas también tienen la forma del número arábigo "8", que es un número de la suerte en China. Una variante del amuleto de calabaza tiene la forma de dos monedas de efectivo apiladas, una más pequeña en la parte superior, para parecerse a una calabaza. Estos amuletos tienen cuatro caracteres y mensajes auspiciosos. [81] [82] [83]
El amuleto de calabaza que se muestra a la derecha, que se compone de dos réplicas de monedas en efectivo de Wu Zhu con un murciélago colocado para ocultar al personaje en su intersección, forma un juego de palabras visual. La palabra china para "murciélago" suena similar a la de "felicidad", el agujero cuadrado en el centro de una moneda de efectivo se conoce como "ojo" (眼, yǎn ), y la palabra china para "moneda" (錢, qián ) tiene casi la misma pronunciación que "antes" (前, qián ). Esta combinación se puede interpretar como "la felicidad está ante tus ojos". [84]
Monedas de protector de bóveda
Las monedas del protector de bóveda ( chino tradicional : 鎮 庫 錢; chino simplificado : 镇 库 钱; pinyin : zhèn kù qián ) eran un tipo de moneda creada por las casas de moneda chinas. Estas monedas eran significativamente más grandes, más pesadas y más gruesas que las monedas de efectivo normales y estaban bien hechas, ya que fueron diseñadas para ocupar un lugar especial dentro del tesoro de la casa de la moneda. La tesorería tenía un salón espiritual para las ofrendas a los dioses del panteón chino , y las monedas del protector de la bóveda se colgarían con seda roja y borlas para el dios chino de la riqueza . Se creía que estas monedas tenían poderes mágicos parecidos a un hechizo que protegerían la bóveda mientras traían riqueza y fortuna al tesoro. [85] [86]
Las monedas protectoras de la bóveda se produjeron durante más de mil años a partir del país del sur de Tang durante el período de las Cinco Dinastías y los Diez Reinos y se produjeron hasta la dinastía Qing . [87] Las monedas protectoras de la bóveda se solían lanzar para conmemorar la apertura de nuevos hornos para lanzar monedas en efectivo . [87]
Encantos de obra abierta
Dinero de trabajo abierto ( chino tradicional : 鏤空 錢; chino simplificado : 镂空 钱; pinyin : lòu kōng qián ) también conocido como dinero "elegante" ( chino tradicional : 玲瓏 錢; chino simplificado : 玲珑 钱; pinyin : líng lóng qián) son tipos de amuletos numismáticos chinos caracterizados por aberturas o agujeros de forma irregular entre los otros elementos de diseño. La mayoría de los dijes de obra abierta tienen diseños reflejados en el reverso, y rara vez aparecen caracteres chinos. Suelen tener un solo agujero redondo grande en el medio de la moneda, o un agujero cuadrado para aquellos que presentan diseños de edificios. En comparación con otros amuletos chinos, los amuletos calados son significativamente más grandes y, con mayor frecuencia, están hechos de bronce que de latón. Aparecieron por primera vez durante la dinastía Han , aunque la mayoría de estos son pequeños especímenes tomados de varios utensilios. Se hicieron más populares durante los reinados de las dinastías Song , Yuan mongol y Ming, pero perdieron popularidad bajo los manchúes.Dinastía Qing . [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93]
Categorías de encantos de obra abierta:
| Categoría | Imagen |
|---|---|
| Encantos de obra abierta con inmortales y personas | |
| Encantos de dragón de obra abierta | |
| Encantos de obra abierta de Phoenix | |
| Dijes de pavo real calados | |
| Encantos de trabajo abierto de Qilin | |
| Dijes de murciélago calados | |
| Encantos de flor de loto | |
| Charms flor y vid calada | |
| Encantos de obra abierta con edificios y templos [b] | |
| Charms calados de pescado | |
| Dijes de ciervo calado | |
| Encantos de león calado | |
| Dijes de tigre calados | |
| Dijes de conejos calados | |
| Encantos de pájaro calado | |
| Encantos de grúa de obra abierta | |
| Charms caballo calado |
24 amuletos de caracteres
Encantos de 24 caracteres "Good Fortune" ( chino tradicional : 二十 四 福 字 錢; chino simplificado : 二十 四 福 字 钱; Pinyin : èr shí sì fú zì qián ) y amuletos de longevidad de 24 caracteres ( chino tradicional : 二十 四 壽字 錢; Chino simplificado : 二十 四 寿字 钱; Pinyin : èr shí sì shòu zì qián ) se refieren a los encantos numismáticos chinos que tienen un patrón de veinticuatro caracteres en un lado que contiene una variación del carácter Hanzi fú (福, buena suerte) o shòu (壽, longevidad), los dos caracteres Hanzi más comunes que aparecen en los amuletos chinos. [94] [95] [96] [97][98] Los antiguos chinos creían que cuantos más caracteres tuviera un amuleto, más buena suerte traería, aunque no se sabe por qué 24 caracteres es el valor predeterminado que se usa para estos amuletos. Una proposición afirma que se seleccionó 24 porque es un múltiplo del número ocho, lo que fue visto como auspicioso para los chinos antiguos debido a su pronunciación similar a la palabra "buena suerte". También puede representar la suma de los doce zodíacos chinos y las doce ramas terrestres. Otras posibilidades incluyen las 24 direcciones de la brújula china del feng shui (罗盘), que los años chinos se dividen en 12 meses y 12 shichen , que los marcadores de temporada chinos se dividen en 24 términos solares , o los 24 ejemplos de piedad filial deConfucianismo . [99] [100] [101]
Encantos de pala chinos
Los amuletos de espadas son amuletos basados en el dinero de espadas , una forma temprana de moneda china. Los amuletos de espadas se basan en el dinero de espadas que circuló durante la dinastía Zhou hasta que fueron abolidos por la dinastía Qin . [102] [103] El dinero de espadas fue reintroducido brevemente por Wang Mang durante la dinastía Xin , y los encantos de espadas chinos generalmente se basan en esta moneda. [104] [105] [106]
Encantos de bloqueo chino
Los encantos de cerradura chinos ( chino tradicional : 家 鎖; chino simplificado : 家 锁; Pinyin : jiā suǒ ) se basan en cerraduras, y simbolizan la protección contra los espíritus malignos tanto del poseedor como de su propiedad. También se pensaba que traían buena fortuna, longevidad y altos resultados en los exámenes imperiales, y a menudo los sacerdotes budistas o taoístas los ataban al cuello de los niños. Los amuletos de cerradura chinos son planos y sin partes móviles, con una forma que se asemeja al carácter Hanzi "凹", que se puede traducir como "cóncavo". Todos los amuletos de bloqueo chinos tienen caracteres chinos. Un ejemplo de un amuleto de candado chino es el "candado de cien familias" (chino tradicional: 百家 鎖), tradicionalmente financiado por una familia pobre que pide a otras cien familias que le regalen una moneda en efectivo como un gesto de buena voluntad para su hijo recién nacido. conferir interés en la seguridad del niño. Muchos amuletos de cerradura chinos se utilizan para desear estabilidad.Otros diseños de amuletos de candado incluyen montañas religiosas, el símbolo Bagua y Yin Yang.[107] [108] [109] [110] [111]
Dijes de escritura de sello de nueve pliegues
Los amuletos de escritura de sello de nueve pliegues ( chino tradicional : 九 疊 文 錢; chino simplificado : 九 叠 文 钱; pinyin : jiǔ dié wén qián ) son amuletos numismáticos chinos con inscripciones en escritura de sello de nueve pliegues , un estilo de escritura de sello que fue en uso desde la dinastía Song hasta la dinastía Qing. Los ejemplos de la dinastía Song son raros. Hacia el final de la dinastía Ming, se emitieron amuletos de escritura de sello nueve veces con la inscripción fú shòu kāng níng (福壽 康寧, "felicidad, longevidad, salud y compostura"), y bǎi fú bǎi shòu (百福 百壽, "cien alegrías y cien longevidades") en el reverso. [112]
Encantos de peces
Los amuletos de peces ( chino tradicional : 魚形 飾 仵; chino simplificado : 鱼形 饰 仵; pinyin : yú xíng shì wǔ ) tienen forma de pez. El carácter chino para "pescado" (魚, yú ) se pronuncia igual que para "excedente" (余, yú ), [113] [114] [115] [116] por lo que el símbolo de pescado se ha asociado tradicionalmente con buena suerte, fortuna, longevidad, fertilidad y otras cosas auspiciosas. Como el carácter chino para "beneficio" (利, lì ) se pronuncia de forma similar a "carpa" (鯉, lǐ ), [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] carpasse utilizan más comúnmente para el motivo de los encantos de peces. Los amuletos de peces se usaban a menudo con la creencia de que protegerían la salud de los niños y presentaban inscripciones que deseaban que los niños que los cargaban permanecieran vivos y seguros. [122] [123] [124]
Encantos de melocotón chino
Los encantos de melocotón chinos ( chino tradicional : 桃形 掛牌; chino simplificado : 桃形 挂牌; pinyin : táo xíng guà pái ) son encantos en forma de melocotón que se utilizan para desear longevidad. Los antiguos chinos creían que el melocotonero poseía vitalidad ya que sus flores aparecían antes de que brotaran las hojas. [ cita requerida ] Los emperadores chinos escribirían el carácter de longevidad (壽) a aquellos de la clase social más baja si hubieran alcanzado edades altas, [125] [126] que se consideraba uno de los mayores dones. Este carácter aparece a menudo en los encantos de melocotón y otros encantos numismáticos chinos. Los encantos de melocotón también suelen representar elReina Madre de Occidente o llevar inscripciones como "larga vida" (長命, cháng mìng ). Los amuletos de melocotón también se usaron para desear riqueza representando el carácter "富" o rangos superiores en mandarín usando el carácter "貴". [127] [128] [129]
Encantos de zapato
Los amuletos para zapatos pequeños se basan en la asociación de los zapatos con la fertilidad y el ideal femenino chino de los pies pequeños, que en el confucianismo se asocia con una vagina estrecha, algo que los antiguos chinos vieron como un rasgo sexualmente deseable para permitir el nacimiento de más descendientes masculinos. La intervención para crear pies pequeños generalmente se lograba vendando los pies desde una edad temprana. Las niñas colgaban pequeños adornos para zapatos sobre sus camas con la creencia de que les ayudaría a encontrar el amor. Los amuletos chinos para zapatos pequeños tienden a medir alrededor de una pulgada (25 mm) de largo. Los zapatos también se asocian con la riqueza porque su forma es similar a la de un sycee . [130]
Charms colgantes chinos
Los dijes colgantes chinos ( chino tradicional : 掛牌; chino simplificado : 挂牌; pinyin : guà pái ) son dijes numismáticos chinos que se utilizan como colgantes decorativos . Desde el comienzo de la dinastía Han, los chinos comenzaron a usar estos amuletos alrededor del cuello o la cintura como colgantes, o adjuntaron estos amuletos a las vigas de sus casas, pagodas, templos u otros edificios, así como en linternas . [131] [132] [133] [134]Se cree que los encantos de obra abierta pueden haber sido los primeros encantos chinos que se usaron de esta manera. Los amuletos de pescado, candado, pala y melocotón se usaban a diario, y los amuletos de pescado y candado los usaban principalmente niños pequeños y bebés. Otros amuletos se utilizaron exclusivamente para rituales o días festivos específicos. Algunos amuletos de la era de la dinastía Han contenían inscripciones como ri ru qian jin (日 入 千金, "que ganes 1.000 de oro todos los días"), chu xiong qu yang (除凶 去 央, "acabar con el mal y disipar la calamidad"), bi bing mo dang (辟 兵 莫 當, "evita las hostilidades y evita las enfermedades"), o chang wu xiang wang(長 毋 相忘, "no olvides a tus amigos"). Otros se parecían a las monedas de efectivo contemporáneas con puntos y estrellas añadidos. Algunos dijes colgantes tenían un solo bucle, mientras que la mayoría de los demás también tenían un orificio cuadrado o redondo en el centro. Algunos dijes colgantes chinos contienen el carácter Hanzi gua (挂, "colgar"), aunque su forma hace que su propósito sea obvio. Aunque la mayoría de los colgantes contienen ilustraciones pictóricas, la asociación de caracteres chinos en formas simbólicas nuevas y místicas alcanzó un extremo aún mayor cuando los taoístas introdujeron la "escritura mágica taoísta" (符 文). [15] [16]
Encantos del palíndromo chino
Los amuletos del palíndromo chino son encantamientos numismáticos chinos muy raros que representan lo que en China se conoce como "poesía palindrómica" (回文 詩), una forma que tiene que tener sentido cuando se lee en cualquier dirección, pero puede que no sea un verdadero palíndromo . [135] [136]Debido a su rareza, los encantos del palíndromo chino generalmente se excluyen de los libros de referencia sobre encantos numismáticos chinos. Un ejemplo conocido de un encanto de palíndromo chino presumiblemente de la dinastía Qing dice "我 笑 他 說 我 看 他 打 我 容 他 罵" ("Yo, me río, él / ella, habla, yo, mira, él / ella, golpea, yo , soy tolerante, él / ella, regaña ") en este caso el significado de las palabras se puede alterar dependiendo de cómo se lea esta inscripción, ya que las definiciones pueden variar según el pronombre anterior. Este amuleto se puede leer tanto en el sentido de las agujas del reloj como en el sentido contrario a las agujas del reloj, y habla de dos lados de una relación combativa que podría interpretarse como una representación de cualquiera de las partes:
| Chino tradicional | Pinyin | Traducción |
|---|---|---|
| 笑 他 說 我 | xiào tā shuō wǒ | Ríase de él / ella regañándome. |
| 看 他 打 我 | kàn tā dǎ wǒ | Míralo pelear conmigo. |
| 容 他 罵 我 | róng tā mà wǒ | Sea tolerante con él / ella maldiciéndome. |
| 我 罵 他 容 | wǒ mà tā róng | Maldigo y es tolerante. |
| 我 打 他 看 | wǒ dǎ tā kàn | Yo lucho y él mira. |
| 我 說 他 笑 | wǒ shuō tā xiào | Yo hablo y se ríe. |
El reverso de esta moneda presenta imágenes de truenos y nubes. [137] [ se necesitan más explicaciones ]
Encantos chinos con inscripciones en monedas
Los amuletos chinos con inscripciones en monedas ( chino tradicional : 錢 文 錢; chino simplificado : 钱 文 钱; pinyin : qián wén qián ) usaban las inscripciones contemporáneas de monedas en efectivo circulantes. Este tipo de amuletos numismáticos utilizan las inscripciones oficiales de las monedas emitidas por el gobierno debido a la asociación mítica de personajes Hanzi y poderes mágicos, así como al respeto cultural por la autoridad del gobierno y sus decretos. Por esta razón, incluso a las monedas de efectivo normales se les habían atribuido cualidades sobrenaturales en varios fenómenos culturales como los cuentos populares y el feng shui.. Algunas inscripciones oficiales de monedas ya tenían significados auspiciosos, y se seleccionaron para usarlas en los talismanes numismáticos chinos. Durante tiempos de crisis y desunión, como bajo el reinado de Wang Mang , el número de amuletos con inscripciones de monedas parece haber aumentado enormemente. [138] [139] [140] Mientras tanto, se seleccionaron otras inscripciones de monedas de efectivo chinas debido a una fuerza percibida en el metal utilizado en la fundición de estas monedas de efectivo contemporáneas; un ejemplo sería la tarde dinastía Zhou era Zhou Yuan Tong bǎo (周元通寶) encanto de la base de monedas en efectivo con la misma inscripción. Incluso después de la caída de la dinastía Xin , se hicieron amuletos con inscripciones deMonedas de la era de Wang Mang como la era de Zhou del Norte wǔ xíng dà bù (五行 大 布) porque podría traducirse como "moneda de 5 elementos". Lo mismo ocurre con la tarde dinastía Zhou 's Zhou Yuan Tong bǎo (周元通寶), la dinastía Song era de Tai Ping Tong bǎo (太平通寶), el khitan dinastía Liao era Qian Qiu wàn suì (千秋萬歲, "mil otoños y diez mil años "), así como la era de la dinastía Jurchen Jin tài hé zhòng bǎo (泰和 重 寶). Los amuletos de la época de la dinastía Song del Norte pueden haberse basado en las mismas monedas madreque se utilizaron para producir las monedas en efectivo del gobierno oficial, y se les dio diferentes reveses para distinguirlas como amuletos. [141] [142]
Durante la dinastía Ming hubo amuletos chinos basados en el hóng wǔ tōng bǎo (洪武 通寶) con la imagen de un niño (o posiblemente el Emperador) montando un buey o un búfalo de agua. Este encanto se hizo muy popular cuando el primer emperador Ming nació como un campesino, lo que inspiró a las personas de bajo nacimiento a que también podían hacer grandes cosas. Hubo una gran cantidad de encantos numismáticos chinos emitidos con el título de reinado Zheng De (正德 通寶), a pesar de que el gobierno había desaprobado las monedas en efectivo por papel moneda en ese momento; estos amuletos a menudo se regalaban a los niños. [143] Durante la dinastía manchú Qing se lanzó un hechizo con la inscripción qián lóng tōng bǎo(乾隆 通寶), pero era bastante grande y tenía la parte tōng bǎo (通寶) de la moneda de efectivo escrita en un estilo diferente, con caracteres manchúes en su reverso para indicar su lugar de origen girado 90 grados. También se hicieron algunos amuletos para parecerse a las monedas de efectivo qí xiáng zhòng bǎo (祺祥 重 寶) emitidas brevemente . Posteriormente se hicieron amuletos para parecerse al guāng xù tōng bǎo (光緒 通寶) emitido bajo el emperador Guangxu, pero tenía dīng cái guì shòu (丁 財 貴 壽, "Que puedas adquirir riqueza, honor [alto rango] y longevidad") escrito en el reverso cara de la moneda. [144] [145] [146] [147] [148] [149] [150]
Durante el año 36 del período Qianlong (o el año gregoriano de 1771), se lanzaron varias monedas de efectivo de fantasía con la inscripción Qianlong Zhongbao (乾隆 重 寳) en celebración del 60 cumpleaños del Emperador. [151] Debido a que la fiesta celebrada en su 60 cumpleaños se llamaba Wanshoujie (萬壽 節, "la fiesta de las diez mil longevidades"), estos encantos numismáticos a menudo se denominan wanshou qian (萬壽 錢, "Monedas de las diez mil longevidades "). [151]
Dijes cloisonné de la dinastía Ming
Los amuletos cloisonné de la dinastía Ming ( chino tradicional : 明代 景泰藍 花錢; chino simplificado : 明代 景泰蓝 花钱; Pinyin : míng dài jǐng tài lán huā qián ) son amuletos numismáticos chinos extremadamente escasos hechos de cloisonné en lugar de latón o bronce. Un conocido amuleto cloisonné de la dinastía Ming tiene la inscripción nā mó ē mí tuó fó(南 無 阿彌陀佛, "Confío en Amitābha Buddha"), con flores de loto de varios colores entre los caracteres Hanzi. Cada color representa algo diferente mientras que el loto blanco simboliza el útero de la tierra de donde todo nace y era el símbolo de la dinastía Ming. Otro conocido encanto cloisonné de la era de la dinastía Ming tiene la inscripción wàn lì nián zhì (萬 歷年 制, "Hecho durante el [reinado] de Wan Li ") y los ocho símbolos del tesoro budista impresos entre los caracteres Hanzi. Estos símbolos del tesoro son el paraguas , la caracola , la rueda llameante, el nudo sin fin , un par de peces, el jarrón del tesoro, [c] el loto y el estandarte de la victoria.[152] [153] [154] [155]
Los amuletos cloisonné producidos después de la dinastía Ming (particularmente los de la dinastía Qing) a menudo tienen patrones de flores. [156]
Árboles de dinero chino
Los árboles del dinero chinos ( chino tradicional : 搖錢樹; chino simplificado : 摇钱树; Pinyin : yáo qián shù ), o shengxianshu , ("árboles de ascensión inmortales"), [157] [158] son conjuntos de amuletos en forma de árbol, con las hojas hechas a partir de réplicas de amuletos numismáticos de monedas en efectivo. Estos árboles de dinero no deberían estar con árboles de monedas que son un subproducto de la fabricación de monedas de efectivo , pero debido a sus similitudes, algunos expertos creen que pueden haber estado relacionados. Varias leyendas de China que datan del período de los Tres Reinosmencione un árbol que si se sacude haría que las monedas cayeran de sus ramas. Se han encontrado árboles del dinero como amuleto en las tumbas del suroeste de China de la dinastía Han, y se cree que se colocaron allí para ayudar a guiar a los muertos al más allá y brindarles apoyo monetario. Según un mito, un agricultor regó la semilla del árbol del dinero con su sudor y regó su árbol joven con su sangre, después de lo cual el árbol maduro proporcionó riqueza eterna; esto implica una moraleja de que uno solo puede volverse rico a través de su propio esfuerzo. Las fuentes literarias afirman que el origen del árbol del dinero se encuentra en la palabra china para "cobre" (銅, tóng ) que se pronuncia similar a la palabra para "el árbol de Paulownia " (桐, tóng). Las hojas de la paulownia se vuelven amarillas en otoño y adquieren la apariencia de monedas de oro o bronce. Chen Shou (陳壽) menciona en los Registros de los Tres Reinos que un hombre llamado Bing Yuan (邴 原) caminó sobre una cadena de monedas en efectivo mientras paseaba y, sin poder descubrir al dueño, la colgó en un árbol cercano; otros transeúntes notaron esta cuerda y comenzaron a colgar monedas en el árbol con la suposición de que era un árbol sagrado e hicieron deseos de riqueza y suerte. Los primeros árboles del dinero, sin embargo, datan de la dinastía Han en la actual Sichuan y una orden religiosa taoísta llamada el Camino de los Cinco Picotazos de Arroz.. Los arqueólogos descubrieron árboles de dinero tan altos como 1,98 metros (6 pies 6 pulgadas), decorados con muchas cadenas de monedas en efectivo, pequeños perros de bronce, murciélagos, deidades chinas, elefantes, ciervos, fénix y dragones, con un marco de bronce y una base de cerámica. Tanto las inscripciones como la caligrafía que se encuentran en los árboles de dinero chinos coinciden con las de las monedas de efectivo chinas contemporáneas, que generalmente presentaban réplicas de monedas Wu Zhu (五 銖) durante la dinastía Han, mientras que las del período de los Tres Reinos tenían inscripciones como "Liang Zhu" (兩 銖). [159] [160] [161] [162] [163]
Por tema
Monedas de astronomía china
Las monedas de astronomía chinas ( chino tradicional : 天象 錢; chino simplificado : 天象 钱; Pinyin : tiān xiàng qián ) son amuletos que representan constelaciones de estrellas, estrellas individuales y otros objetos astronómicos de la antigua astronomía china . También pueden contener textos del Clásico de la Poesía , Las Cuatro Divinas Criaturas y las Veintiocho Mansiones, o ilustraciones del cuento El Vaquero y la Tejedora . Las monedas de astronomía suelen contener indicadores para diferenciar las estrellas y las constelaciones, divididas en cuatro direcciones cardinales . [164] [165] [166]
Encantos del zodiaco
Los amuletos del zodíaco chino se basan en los doce animales o en las doce ramas terrestres de la astrología china , basadas en la órbita de Júpiter , y algunos amuletos del zodíaco presentan constelaciones estelares. Para el período de primavera y otoño , las doce ramas terrestres asociadas con los meses y los doce animales se unieron; durante la dinastía Han, estos también se vincularon al año de nacimiento de una persona. [167] [168] [169] [170] [171] Algunos amuletos del zodíaco presentaban los doce animales y otros también podrían incluir las doce ramas terrestres. A menudo cuentan con el carácter gua(挂), que indica que el amuleto debe llevarse en un collar o en la cintura. [172] Los amuletos del feng shui moderno a menudo incorporan las mismas características basadas en el zodíaco. [173]
Ocho encantos de tesoros
Los amuletos chinos de los ocho tesoros ( chino tradicional : 八寶 錢; chino simplificado : 八宝 钱; pinyin : bā bǎo qián ) representan los ocho tesoros , también conocidos como las "ocho cosas preciosas" y los "ocho tesoros auspiciosos", [174] [175] [176] y se refieren a un subconjunto de un gran grupo de artículos de la antigüedad conocido como "Cien antigüedades" (百 古), que consta de objetos utilizados en la escritura de la caligrafía china , como pinceles, tinta, papel de escribir. y losas de tinta, así como otras antigüedades como ajedrez chino, pinturas, instrumentos musicales y varios otros.Los más comúnmente representados en amuletos más antiguos son losruyi ceremonial (cetro), coral , rombos , cuernos de rinoceronte , siceos , campanillas de piedra y perla llameante. Los amuletos de los ocho tesoros pueden mostrar alternativamente los ocho órganos preciosos del cuerpo de Buda, los ocho signos auspiciosos, varios emblemas de los ocho inmortales del taoísmo u ocho caracteres chinos normales. A menudo tienen inscripciones temáticas. [177] [178]
Liu Haichan y los encantos del sapo de tres patas
Estos amuletos representan al trascendente taoísta Liu Haichan , una de las figuras más populares de los amuletos chinos, y al Jin Chan (rana del dinero). El simbolismo de estos encantos tiene diferencias regionales, ya que en algunas variedades de chino el carácter "chan" tiene una pronunciación muy similar a la de "moneda" (錢qián ). El mítico Jin Chan vive en la luna y estos amuletos simbolizan el deseo de aquello que es "inalcanzable". Esto puede interpretarse como atraer buena fortuna al poseedor del amuleto, o que la obtención de dinero puede llevar a una persona a su ruina. [179] [180] [181] [182]
El libro de los cambios y los encantos de Bagua (ocho encantos de Trigram)
Los encantos chinos que representan ilustraciones y temas del I Ching ( también conocido como El Libro de los Cambios ) se utilizan para desear los principios cósmicos asociados con la adivinación en la antigua China, como la simplicidad, la variabilidad y la persistencia. Los amuletos de Bagua también pueden representar el Bagua (los ocho trigramas de la cosmología taoísta). Los amuletos de Bagua comúnmente presentan representaciones de trigramas, el símbolo de Yin Yang , cong de jade neolítico (琮), el cetro de Ruyi, murciélagos y monedas en efectivo. [183] [184] [185] [186] [187] [188] [189]
Los amuletos del Libro de los Cambios y Bagua se conocen alternativamente como amuletos Yinyang ( chino tradicional :陰陽 錢) porque el taijitu se encuentra a menudo con los ocho trigramas. [190] [191] Este es también un tema popular para los encantos numismáticos vietnamitas y muchas versiones vietnamitas contienen los mismos diseños e inscripciones. [192]
Talismanes de cinco venenos
Los cinco talismanes de venenos (五毒 錢) son amuletos chinos decorados con inscripciones e imágenes relacionadas con el quinto día del quinto mes del calendario chino (天 中 节), el día más desfavorable según la tradición. Este día marcó el inicio del verano que estuvo acompañado de animales peligrosos, la propagación de patógenos a través de infecciones y la supuesta aparición de espíritus malignos. Estos animales incluían los conocidos como los cinco venenos.(五毒): serpientes, escorpiones, ciempiés, sapos y arañas. A menudo se representan en cinco talismanes venenosos, o posiblemente con lagartos, el sapo de tres patas o el tigre. Los antiguos chinos creían que el veneno solo se podía contrarrestar con veneno y que el amuleto contrarrestaría los efectos peligrosos de los animales expuestos. Un ejemplo de un amuleto de cinco venenos lleva la leyenda "五日 午时" ("mediodía del quinto día"), y los amuletos se usaban comúnmente ese día. [193] [194] [195] [196] [197]
Ocho decalitros de encantos de talento
El amuleto de ocho calcomanías de talento es un amuleto hecho a mano de la era de la dinastía Qing con cuatro caracteres. El borde está pintado de azul, los caracteres izquierdo y derecho están pintados de verde y los caracteres superior e inferior están pintados de naranja. La inscripción bā dòu zhī cái (八鬥 之 才), que podría traducirse como "ocho decalitros de talento", es una referencia a una historia en la que Cao Zhi luchó con su hermano Cao Pi , bajo la creencia de que estaba oprimido. de envidia por sus talentos. La inscripción fue ideada por el poeta de la dinastía Jin del Este , Xie Lingyun , en referencia a un dicho que dice que el talento se dividió en diez piezas y Cao Zhi recibió ocho de las diez. [198]
Charms de la hora del tigre
Los amuletos de la Hora del Tigre se inspiran en las monedas de efectivo de la dinastía Zhou del Norte wǔ xíng dà bù (五行 大 布, "Moneda grande de los cinco elementos"), [d] pero tienden a tener un agujero redondo en lugar de un agujero cuadrado. El reverso de estos amuletos presenta la inscripción yín shí (寅時), que es una referencia al shichen del tigre (la "hora del tigre"), [ se necesita más explicación ] y tiene una imagen de un tigre y una nube de la suerte. [199]
Dijes "Cassia y Orquídea"
Los encantos "Cassia y Orquídea" son encantos numismáticos chinos extremadamente raros que datan de la dinastía Manchú Qing con la inscripción guì zi lán sūn (桂子蘭 孫, "semillas de casia y nietos de orquídeas"). Estos amuletos usan la palabra en chino mandarín para Cinnamomum cassia (桂, guì ) como un juego de palabras, porque suena similar a la palabra en chino mandarín para "honorable" (貴, guì ) mientras que la palabra para "semilla" también es un homónimo de " hijo". La palabra china mandarín para orquídea (蘭, lán ) se refiere a zhī lán (芝蘭, "de carácter noble") que en este contexto significa "nietos nobles".La inscripción en el reverso de este amuleto diceróng huá fù guì (榮華富貴, "alta posición y gran riqueza") que describe el deseo de tener hijos y nietos que aprobarían el examen imperial y alcanzarían un gran rango como mandarín. [200] [201]
Los hombres arado, las mujeres tejen encantos
Men Plow, Women Weave charms ( chino tradicional : 男 耕 女 織 錢; chino simplificado : 男 耕 女 织 钱; pinyin : nán gēng nǚ zhī qián ) son amuletos numismáticos chinos que representan escenas relacionadas con la producción de arroz y la sericultura . Los amuletos pueden incluir inscripciones como tián cán wàn bèi (田 蠶 萬倍, "que tus campos [de arroz] y gusanos de seda aumenten 10,000 veces") en su anverso y pueden tener imágenes de un ciervo manchado en el reverso. [202] [203] [204]
La estricta división de los sexos, evidente en la política de que "los hombres aran, las mujeres tejen" ( chino :男 耕 女 织), dividió las historias de hombres y mujeres ya en la dinastía Zhou , y los Ritos de Zhou incluso estipulaban que las mujeres debían ser educado específicamente en " ritos de mujeres " ( chino :陰 禮; pinyin : yīnlǐ ). [205]
Encantos de niño chino
Los amuletos chinos para niños ( chino tradicional : 童子 連 錢; chino simplificado : 童子 连 钱; pinyin : tóng zǐ lián qián ) son amuletos numismáticos chinos que representan imágenes de niños con la esperanza de que estos amuletos hagan que nazcan más niños en la familia. del titular. Por lo general, tienen un ojal para llevar, colgar o usar, y se encuentran más comúnmente en el sur de China. El ideal tradicional para una familia china era tener cinco hijos y dos hijas, y los varones eran el sexo preferido por la piedad filial , continuando el linaje familiar y calificando para el examen imperial. Los niños representados en estos amuletos a menudo se encuentran en una posición de reverencia. Algunos amuletos para niños contienen inscripciones comotóng zǐ lián qián (童子 連 錢) que conectan la descendencia masculina con la riqueza monetaria. También se pueden encontrar estatuillas de niño pertenecientes a amuletos de niño sobre los amuletos de obra abierta. Algunos amuletos para niños contienen imágenes de semillas de loto porque la palabra china para loto suena similar a "continuo" y desea una continuidad a través de la línea masculina. [206] [207] [208] [209]
Encanta con músicos, bailarines y acróbatas
Los encantos chinos con músicos, bailarines y acróbatas "bárbaros" ( chino tradicional : 胡人 樂舞 雜 伎 錢; chino simplificado : 胡人 乐舞 杂 伎 钱; pinyin : hú rén yuè wǔ zá jì qián ) aparecieron durante el Khitan Liao o la dinastía Song china . Estos amuletos generalmente representan a cuatro individuos de los cuales uno está haciendo un truco acrobático (como pararse de manos ) mientras que los otros tocan varios instrumentos musicales: un instrumento de cuatro cuerdas que posiblemente podría ser un ruan , una flauta y un pez de madera . Aunque la mayoría de los catálogos numismáticos se refieren a estos amuletos como "bárbaros" o huren(胡人, literalmente "gente con barba") los personajes representados en estos amuletos no tienen barba. El reverso de estos amuletos muestra a cuatro niños o bebés jugando y divirtiéndose, que es una característica común de los amuletos de la dinastía Liao; encima de estos bebés hay una persona que se parece a un bebé que parece montar sobre algo. [210] [211] [212] [213]
Dijes chinos del cuenco del tesoro
Los amuletos del cuenco del tesoro chino son amuletos numismáticos chinos que presentan referencias al mítico "cuenco del tesoro" (聚寶盆) que generalmente otorgaría una riqueza infinita a quienes lo poseen, pero también puede ser responsable de un gran dolor. Estos amuletos son colgantes con una imagen del cuenco del tesoro lleno de varios objetos de los ocho tesoros en un lado y la inscripción píng ān jí qìng (平 安吉慶, "Paz y felicidad") en el reverso. El lazo del amuleto tiene la forma de un dragón; la cuerda se colocaría entre las piernas y la cola del dragón, mientras que la cabeza del dragón mira hacia arriba desde la parte inferior del amuleto. [214] [215]
Otro tipo de amuleto chino del "cuenco del tesoro" tiene la inscripción en el anverso Zhaocai Jinbao (招財進寳), estos amuletos tienen un eslabón giratorio en forma de dragón. [216]
Encantos confucianos
Los encantos confucianos son encantos numismáticos chinos que representan las tradiciones, los rituales y el código moral del confucianismo , como la piedad filial y la "rectitud". [217] [218] [219] [220] Ejemplos de amuletos confucianos incluirían un amuleto que representa a Shenzi cargando leña en un poste, amuletos de obra abierta que representan historias de "Los veinticuatro ejemplos de piedad filial" (二十四孝) , [221] [222] [223] las "cinco relaciones" (五 倫), Meng Zong arrodillado junto al bambú, Dong Yong (un hombre de la época de la dinastía Han) trabajando una azada, Wang Xiang con una caña de pescar. Las inscripciones confucianas incluyen fù cí zǐ xiào(父慈子孝, "el padre es bondadoso y el hijo es filial") se lee en el sentido de las agujas del reloj, yí chū fèi fǔ (義 出 肺腑, "la justicia viene del fondo del corazón"), zhōng jūn xiào qīn (忠君 孝 親, " ser leal al soberano y honrar a los padres "), huā è shuāng huī (花萼 雙 輝," los pétalos y sépalos brillan "), y jìng xiōng ài dì (敬 兄 愛 第," reverenciar a los hermanos mayores y amar a los menores " ). [224] [225] [226] [227]
Encantos taoístas
Los encantos taoístas ( chino tradicional : 道教 品 壓 生 錢; chino simplificado : 道教 品 压 生 钱; pinyin : dào jiào pǐn yā shēng qián ) son encantos numismáticos chinos que contienen inscripciones e imágenes relacionadas con el taoísmo . Desde la antigüedad, los chinos habían atribuido poderes mágicos e influencia a los personajes Hanzi. Creían que ciertos personajes podían afectar a los espíritus, que a su vez se creía que eran responsables de la buena y la mala fortuna. El Huainanzidescribe a los espíritus como horrorizados al ser comandados por los poderes mágicos de los personajes Hanzi utilizados para amuletos y amuletos. Muchos de los primeros talismanes de la dinastía Han se usaban como colgantes que contenían inscripciones en las que se solicitaba que las personas deificadas en la religión taoísta les prestaran protección. Algunos amuletos taoístas contienen inscripciones basadas en la "escritura mágica" taoísta ( chino : 符 文, también conocido como caracteres de escritura mágica taoísta, figuras mágicas taoístas, fórmulas mágicas taoístas, escritura talismánica secreta taoísta y caracteres talismánicos) que es un estilo de escritura secreto considerado como parte de Fulu. Sus técnicas se transmiten de los sacerdotes taoístas a sus estudiantes y difieren entre las sectas taoístas, con un secreto que llevó a muchas personas a creer que tendrían más efecto en el control de la voluntad de los espíritus.
Como la mayoría de estos amuletos pedían a Leigong (el dios taoísta del trueno) que matara a los espíritus malignos o bogies , estos amuletos numismáticos a menudo se llaman amuletos "Lei Ting" (雷霆 錢) o amuletos "maldición Lei Ting". Como los decretos imperiales tenían autoridad absoluta, esto reforzó el mito popular de que los personajes de Hanzi eran de alguna manera mágicos e inspiró a los talismanes chinos a adoptar la forma de decretos imperiales. Muchos talismanes taoístas leídos como por un funcionario de alto rango al mando de los espíritus malignos y los bogies con inscripciones como "que [la orden] se ejecute tan rápido como Lü Ling", [e] "rápido, rápido, esta es una orden ", y" [pagar] respecto [a] este mandato ". [228]Los talismanes taoístas pueden contener agujeros cuadrados o redondos. Muchos amuletos y amuletos taoístas contienen imágenes de Liu Haichan , Zhenwu , Bagua, símbolos yin-yang, constelaciones, Laozi , espadas, murciélagos e inmortales. [229] [230] [231] [232] [233] [234]
Durante la dinastía Song, se lanzaron varios encantos taoístas que representaban la "Búsqueda de la longevidad". Estos contienen imágenes de un inmortal, quemador de incienso, grulla y una tortuga en el anverso y "escritura mágica" taoísta en el reverso. Los amuletos taoístas que contienen la búsqueda de la inmortalidad son un motivo común y las reproducciones de este amuleto se hicieron comúnmente después del período Song. [235] Algunos amuletos taoístas de la dinastía Qing contienen imágenes de Lü Dongbin con la inscripción fú yòu dà dì (孚 佑 大帝, "Gran Emperador de Protección Fiable"). Este amuleto contiene en particular un agujero redondo. [236] [237]
A Taoist charm from either the Jin or Yuan dynasty without any written text shows what is commonly believed to be either a "boy under a pine tree" (松下童子) or a "boy worshipping an immortal" (童子拜仙人), but an alternative hypothesis is that this charm depicts a meeting between Laozi and Zhang Daoling. This is based on the fact that the figure supposedly representing Zhang Daoling is carrying a cane which in Mandarin Chinese is a homophone for "Zhang". On the reverse side of the charm are the twelve Chinese zodiacs, each in a circle surrounded by what is referred to as "auspicious clouds" which number eight.[238]
Buddhist charms and temple coins
Buddhist charms (Traditional Chinese: 佛教品壓勝錢; Simplified Chinese: 佛教品压胜钱; Pinyin: fó jiào pǐn yā shēng qián) are Chinese numismatic charms that display Buddhist symbols of mostly Mahayana Buddhism. These charms can have inscriptions in both Chinese and Sanskrit (while those with Sanskrit inscriptions did not appear until the Ming dynasty),[239][240] these charms generally contain blessings from the Amitābha Buddha such as coins with the inscription ē mí tuó fó (阿彌陀佛).
Temple coins often had inscriptions calling for compassion and requesting for the Buddha to protect the holder of the coin. Most temple coins are small. Some of them contain mantras from the Heart Sūtra. Some Buddhist charms are pendants dedicated to the Bodhisattva Guanyin. Common symbols are the lotus which is associated with the Buddha, and the banana which is associated with Vanavasa. Less commonly, some Buddhist charms also contain Taoist symbolism including Taoist "magic writing" script. There are Buddhist charms based on the Ming dynasty era hóng wǔ tōng bǎo (洪武通寶) but larger.
Japanese Buddhist charms in China
Japanese Buddhist monks brought large numbers of Japanese numismatic charms to China. Frequently encountered is the Buddhist qiě kōng cáng qì (且空藏棄) which was cast in Japan from 1736 to 1740 during the Tokugawa shogunate, and dedicated to the Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva based on one of the favourite mantras of Kūkai. Ākāśagarbha is one of the eight immortals who attempts to free people from the cycle of reincarnation with compassion. Another Japanese Buddhist charm frequently found in China has the inscription nā mó ē mí tuó fó (南無阿彌陀佛, "I put my trust in [the] Amitābha Buddha").[241][242][243]
Chinese talismans with sword symbolism
Swords are a common theme on Chinese numismatic charms, and coins were often assembled into sword-shaped talismans. Most Chinese numismatic charms that feature swords often show a single sword. According to Chinese legends, the first swords in China appeared under the reign of the legendary Yellow Emperor. During the Spring and Autumn Period, the notion developed that swords could be used against evil spirits and demons. Under the Liu Song dynasty swords became a common instrument in religious rituals, most particularly in Taoist rituals; according to the Daoist Rituals of the Mystery Cavern and Numinous Treasure (洞玄靈寶道學科儀) it was essential for students of Taoism to be able to forge swords which had the capability to dispel demonic entities. Many Taoist sects formed during this period believed that swords could defeat demons and also contained medical properties. Under the Sui and Tang dynasties ritualistic swords constructed of peach wood started to appear. Around this time, Chinese amulets with sword themes began to be produced; often these amulets resembled Chinese cash coins but had crossed swords decorated with ribbons or fillets on them, as the ancient Chinese believed that these items enhanced the powers of the item they were tied to. Chinese swords were commonly engraved with imagery representing the Big Dipper, which was believed to have unlimited magical power, and this also became common for charms that featured swords.[244][245][246]
The image of two swords on Chinese amulets stems from a legend where Taoist leader Zhang Daoling saw Laozi appear to him on a mountain in present-day Sichuan and gave him two swords. Alternatively, two swords can also represent two dragons from a legend where a man named Lei Huan (雷煥) received two swords and gave one to his son Lei Hua (雷華), who lost it in a river; a servant tasked with retrieving it witnessed two coiled and entwined Chinese dragons.[247][248][249][250]
Another popular way swords are integrated in Chinese numismatic talismans is by stringing actual or replica cash coins into a sword-shape.[251][252] In feng shui, these coin-swords are often hung to frighten away demons and evil spirits.[251] Chinese talismans of swordsmen usually depict one of the Taoist immortals Zhong Kui or Lu Dongbin. Swordsmen also appear on zodiac charms, Bagua charms, elephant chess pieces, lock charms, and other Chinese numismatic charms. Another person who appears on Chinese amulets is Zhenwu, who is regarded as the perfect warrior.[253][254][255][256][257]
A common inscription on Chinese sword charms is qū xié jiàng fú (驅邪降福, "Expel evil and send down good fortune [happiness]"), but most commonly these charms feature inscriptions or "imperial orders"/"edicts" (敕令, chì lìng) commanding demons and evil spirits to be expelled. Sometimes an image of a calamus is used, as the leaves of this plant resemble a sword.[258][259][260][261][262]
By other purpose
Horse coins
Horse coins (Traditional Chinese: 馬錢; Pinyin: mǎ qián) were a type of Chinese charm that originated in the Song dynasty. Most horse coins tend to be round, three centimeters in diameter, with a circular or square hole. The horses featured on these coins are depicted in various positions. Their historical use is unknown, though it is speculated that they were used as game board pieces or gambling counters. Horse coins were most often manufactured from copper or bronze, though there are a few documented cases of manufacture from animal horn or ivory. The horse coins produced during the Song dynasty are considered to be of the best quality and craftsmanship and tend to be made from better metal than those which followed.[263]
Horse coins often depicted famous horses from Chinese history, while commemorative horse coins would also feature riders. An example is the coin "General Yue Yi of the State of Yan" which commemorates a Yan attempt to conquer the city of Jimo.[264]
Xiangqi pieces
The game of xiangqi (a.k.a. Chinese chess) was originally played with either metallic or porcelain pieces, and these were often collected and studied by those with an interest in Chinese cash coins,[265][266] charms and horse coins. These coins are regarded as a type of Chinese charm and are divided into the following categories:[267][268][269][270]
- Elephants (象)
- Soldiers (卒)
- Generals (将)
- Horses (马)
- Chariots (車)
- Guards (士)
- Canons (炮)
- Palaces (宫)
- Rivers (河)
The earliest known Xiangqi pieces date to the Chongning era (1102–1106) of the Song dynasty and were unearthed in the province of Jiangxi in 1984. Xianqi pieces were also found along the Silk Road in provinces like Xinjiang and were also used by the Tanguts of the Western Xia dynasty.[271][272][273]
Chinese football charms
During the Song dynasty, Chinese numismatic charms were cast that depict people playing the sport of cuju, a form of football. These charms display four images of football players in various positions around the square hole in the middle of the coin. The reverse side of the coin depicts a dragon and a phoenix, which are the traditional symbols representing men and women, possibly indicating the unisex nature of the sport.[274][275][further explanation needed]
Chinese "World of Brightness" coins
During the late Qing dynasty, cast coinage was slowly replaced by machine-struck coinage. At the same time, machine-struck charms with the inscription guāng míng shì jiè (光明世界, "World of Brightness") started appearing that looked very similar to the contemporary milled guāng xù tōng bǎo (光緒通寶) cash coins. There are three variations of the "World of Brightness" coin: the most common one contains the same Manchu characters on the reverse as the contemporary guāng xù tōng bǎo cash coins, indicating that this coin was produced by the mint of Guangzhou. Another version has the same inscription written on the reverse side of the coin, while a third variant has nine stars on the reverse aide of the coin. Modern numismatists haven't determined the meaning, purpose, or origin of these charms. One hypotheses proposes that these coins were a form of hell money because it is thought that "World of Brightness" in this context would be a euphemism for "world of darkness", which is how the Chinese refer to death. Another hypotheses suggests that these coins were gambling tokens. A third proposes that these coins were used by the Heaven and Earth Society due to the fact that the Hanzi character míng (明) is a component of the name of the Ming dynasty (明朝), which meant that the inscription guāng míng (光明) could be read as "the glory of the Ming".[276]
Paizi designs featured on Chinese numismatic charms
In November 2018, Dr. Helen Wang of the British Museum posted an article on the website Chinese money matters where she noted that the British Museum was in possession of Chinese talismans that featured designs based on paizi (牌子). According to Wang, the Chinese author Dr. Alex Chengyu Fang mentions these charms as "Hanging plaques and charms of unusual shapes" (掛牌與異形錢) in his 2008 book Chinese Charms: Art, Religion and Folk Belief (中國花錢與傳統文化), and also notes that some of these pieces depict lingpai (令牌). Wang also mentions that the American Gary Ashkenazy noted examples of "pendant charms" (挂牌) with these designs on his Primaltrek website. Based on later comments made by Andrew West (@BabelStone) Tangut characters appeared on paizi produced in the Western Xia and comments by Fang made on Twitter were noted by Wang that paizi inspired designs not only appeared on rectangular talismans but also on cash coin-shaped charms where the paizi is featured directly above the square centre hole, and often feature Chinese zodiacs in their designs. The British Museum is also in possession of Chinese talismans with these designs which they acquired from the Tamba Collection (which was originally in the hands of Kutsuki Masatsuna, 1750–1802).[277][278]
Chinese cash coins with charm features
Many government-issued cash coins and other currencies such as Spade and Knife money that did not have any extra charm-like features were considered to have "charm-like qualities" and were treated as charms by some people.[279][280][281] The Wang Mang era knife coin, with a nominal value of 5,000 cash coins, was often seen as a charm by the people because the character 千 (for 1,000) is very similar to the character 子 which means "son". The inscription of the knife coin could be read as "worth five sons". A coin from Shu Han with the nominal value of 100 Wu Zhu cash coins featured a fish on the reverse of the inscription which symbolises "abundance" and "perseverance" in Chinese culture. Another Shu Han era coin contained the inscription tai ping bai qian which was taken as an omen of peace and this coin is often considered to be a peace charm. During the Jin dynasty a coin was issued with the inscription fēng huò (豐貨) which could be translated as "(the) coin of abundance"; possessing it was believed to be economically beneficial, and it was popularly known as the "cash of riches".[282][283]
During the Tang dynasty period, images of clouds, crescents, and stars were often added on coins, which the Chinese continued to use in subsequent dynasties. During the Jurchen Jin dynasty coins were cast with reverse inscriptions that featured characters from the twelve earthly branches and ten heavenly stems. During the Ming dynasty stars were sometimes used decoratively on some official government-produced cash coins. Under the Manchu Qing dynasty yōng zhèng tōng bǎo (雍正通寶) cash coins cast by the Lanzhou Mint were considered to be charms or amulets capable of warding against evil spirits and demons because the Manchu word "gung" looked similar to the broadsword used by the Chinese God of war, Emperor Guan.[284][285]
The commemorative kāng xī tōng bǎo (康熙通寶) cast for the Kangxi Emperor's 60th birthday in 1713 was believed to have "the powers of a charm" immediately when it entered circulation. It contains a slightly different version of the Hanzi symbol "熙" at the bottom of the cash, which lacked the vertical line common at the left part of the character; the part of this symbol which was usually inscribed as "臣" has the middle part written as a "口" instead. Notably, the upper left area of the symbol "通" contains a single dot as opposed to the usual two dots used during this era.[relevant?] Several myths were attributed to this coin over the following three-hundred years; one of these myths was that the coin was cast from golden statues of the 18 disciples of the Buddha, which earned this coin the nicknames "the Lohan coin" and "Arhat money". It was given to children as yā suì qián (壓歲錢) during Chinese new year, some women wore it as an engagement ring, and in rural Shanxi young men wore this like golden teeth. The coin was made from a copper alloy but it was not uncommon for people to enhance the coin with gold leaf.[286][287][288]
Chinese star charms
Chinese star charms refers to Song dynasty era dà guān tōng bǎo (大觀通寶) cash coins that depict star constellations on the reverse side of the coin. These coins are often considered to be among the most beautiful Chinese cash coins because of their "slender gold" script (瘦金書) which was written by Emperor Huizong. This coin was used to make star charms because the word guān means star gazing and is a compound word for astronomy and astrology.[289]
Chinese poem coins
Chinese poem coins (Traditional Chinese: 詩錢; Simplified Chinese: 诗钱; Pinyin: shī qián, alternatively 二十錢局名) are Chinese cash coins cast under the Kangxi Emperor,[290][291] a Manchu Emperor known for his poetry who wrote the work Illustrations of Plowing and Weaving (耕織圖) in 1696. The coins produced under the Kangxi Emperor all had the obverse inscription Kāng Xī Tōng Bǎo (康熙通寶) and had the Manchu character ᠪᠣᠣ (Boo, building) on the left side of the square hole and the name of the mint on the right. As the name Kangxi was composed of the characters meaning "health" (康) and "prosperous" (熙)[292][293][294][295] the Kāng Xī Tōng Bǎo cash coins were viewed as having auspicious properties. As the cash coins were produced at twenty-three mints, some people placed these coins together to form poems in adherence to the rules of Classical Chinese poetry. These coins were always placed together to form the following poems:[296]
| Traditional Chinese | Pinyin |
|---|---|
| 同福臨東江 | tóng fú lín dōng jiāng |
| 宣原蘇薊昌 | xuān yuán sū jì chāng |
| 南寧河廣浙 | nán níng hé guǎng zhè |
| 台桂陝雲漳 | tái guì shǎn yún zhāng |
The strung "charm" of twenty coins, also known as "set coins" (套子錢), was seen as inconvenient to carry. Charms were thus produced that had ten of the twenty mint marks on each side of the coin. These charms were also distinguished from the actual cash coins by having round holes. They were sometimes painted red, as a lucky colour, and sometimes had inscriptions wishing for good fortunes such as:
| Traditional Chinese | Translation |
|---|---|
| 金玉滿堂 | "may gold and jade fill your halls" |
| 大位高升 | "may you be promoted to a high position" |
| 五子登科 | "may your five sons achieve great success in the imperial examinations" |
| 福祿壽喜 | "good fortune, emolument [official salary], longevity, and happiness" |
| 吉祥如意 | "may your good fortune be according to your wishes" |
Kāng Xī Tōng Bǎo cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue and the Ministry of Public Works in the capital city of Beijing are excluded from these poems.[297][298][299]
Chinese Numismatic Charms Museum
On 1 February 2015, a Chinese Numismatic Charms Museum (Traditional Chinese: 中國古代民俗錢幣博物館; Simplified Chinese: 中国古代民俗钱币博物馆; Pinyin: zhōng guó gǔ dài mín sú qián bì bó wù guǎn) was opened in the Hainanese city of Haikuo. This museum is located in a building that is a replica of the Szechuan Kanting Civilian Commercial Bank in Movie Town Haikou, and has exhibition areas that cover around 530 square metres (5,700 sq ft). The collection of the museum contains both Chinese coins and paper money and has more than two thousand Chinese numismatic charms dating from the Han dynasty to the Republic of China.[300][301]
Charms from ethnic minorities
Liao dynasty charms
Liao dynasty charms are Chinese numismatic charms produced during the Khitan Liao dynasty that are written in Khitan script and, unlike Liao dynasty coins, were read counter-clockwise. Because Khitan script hasn't been completely deciphered, these rare charms aren't fully understood by modern experts.[302][303][304] Some Liao dynasty era charms had no inscriptions at all, and are not well understood as the Khitan people may have interpreted certain symbols differently from the Chinese. One of the most well-known Liao dynasty charms is the "Mother of Nine Sons" charm, which bears no inscription. It depicts three groups of three people which are believed to be the sons of the woman riding a dragon on the other side; the three groups are believed to symbolise the three levels of the imperial examination system. A more recent hypothesis proposes that the person riding the dragon is the Yellow Emperor returning to the heavens and that the people represent the Nine Provinces (九州).[305][306][307][308]
Charms of the Sui people
In 2004, a Sui coin was discovered dating to the Northern Song dynasty between 1008 and 1016, with the inscription dà zhōng xiáng fú (大中祥符) on one side and the word "wealth" written in Sui script on the other. This is the only known coin produced by the Sui people and established their differing numismatic tradition from the Han Chinese. Several numismatic charms have been attributed to the Sui people from the Sandu Shui Autonomous County, such as a charm depicting male and female dragons (being transformed from fish) with the twelve Chinese zodiacs and the twelve earthly branches written in Sui script on the reverse. Unlike Chinese charms, Sui charms differentiate show male genitalia on the male dragon, which seems to be a common feature for male dragons on numismatic charms of neighboring ethnic groups.[309][310][311]
The implied and hidden meanings of Chinese numismatic talismans (Traditional Chinese: 諧音寓意; Simplified Chinese: 谐音寓意; Pinyin: xié yīn yù yì) refers to the non-obvious meanings ascribed to them. These can take many forms which can involve hidden symbolism in their inscriptions as well as visual puns.[312]
One fundamental difference between cash coins and numismatic charms is that the majority of cash coins have four character inscriptions that usually bear the reign names, indicating the period of production and their nominal value. While most Chinese numismatic charms also have four character inscriptions, these do not serve for identification but contain wishes and desires such as auspicious inscriptions hoping that good fortune or health will arrive to the carrier, or that they'll succeed in the business world or do well on the imperial examination.[313] Other inscriptions, however, wish for evil and dark spirits or ghosts to go away, or for misfortune to be averted. Unlike cash coins, Chinese numismatic charms depict a large range of images that are intended to enhance the symbolism of the charm. Charms may also contain visual and spoken puns, the latter of which is facilitated by the nature of Chinese languages in which many written Hanzi characters have the same pronunciation.[f] The Chinese talismans produced under the reigns of the Ming and Manchu Qing dynasties often used visual and spoken puns. These implied or hidden meanings are referred in Mandarin Chinese as jí xiáng tú àn (吉祥圖案, "lucky pictures" or a rebus). It is not uncommon for Chinese talismans to depict animals, plants, and other things as a substitute for words due to their similarities in pronunciation despite there being no other relationship between them or what is expressed with the imagery.[314][315][316][317][318][319]
List of symbols that appear on Chinese numismatic charms and their implied meanings
| Symbol | Traditional Chinese | Simplified Chinese | Pinyin | Implied or hidden meaning | Origin of the association | Exemplary image(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apple | 蘋果 | 苹果 | píng guǒ | Denotes peace | The Mandarin Chinese word for "apple" (蘋果, píng guǒ) sounds similar to that for "peace" (平安, píng ān).[320] | |
| Apricot grove, Field of apricots | 杏 | 杏 | xìng | Successful results in the imperial examination | The first celebration where those who were successful in the imperial examination system was allegedly held in an apricot grove. | |
| Axe | 斧 | 斧 | fǔ | Happiness, power, and punitive actions | The Mandarin Chinese word for "axe" (斧, fǔ) sounds similar to that for "happiness" (福, fú). The head of an axe is considered to be one of the Twelve Ornaments of imperial China.[321][322] In Buddhism, axes symbolise the destruction of evil.[323] The axe is the symbol of the God of Carpenters, Lu Ban (鲁班).[324] | |
| Bamboo | 竹 | 竹 | zhú | Being upright, resilience, strength, gentleness, being refined, gracefulness. | These are the ideals of Confucian scholars. Bamboo also represents Taoist ideals, as bamboo often bends without breaking.[325][326] | |
| Wishes or congratulations | The Mandarin Chinese word for "bamboo" (竹, zhú) is a homophone of the word for "to congratulate" or "to wish" (祝, zhù). | |||||
| Modesty | Because bamboos have "hollow centers" (空虚, kōng xū) they are associated with "modesty" (謙虛, qiān xū) because the second character in Mandarin Chinese of both words are homophones. | |||||
| Bat[327][328] | 蝠 | 蝠 | fú | Good fortune. When bats are placed upside-down this means that happiness has arrived. The Five Fortunes: longevity, wealth, health and composure, virtue, and the desire to die a natural death in old age.[329] | The Mandarin Chinese word for "bat" (蝠, fú) sounds like "happiness" (福, fú).[330][331] The Mandarin Chinese word for "upside-down" (倒, dǎo) sounds like "to have arrived" (到, dào), comparatively when a bat is seen descending from the sky (蝠子天来, fú zi tiān lái) this phrase sounds similar to "good fortune descends from the heaven skies" (福子天来, fú zi tiān lái). | |
| Bear[g] | 熊 | 熊 | xióng | Heroism (when combined with an eagle) | The Mandarin Chinese word for "Hero" (英雄, yīng xióng) sounds like a composite of "hawk" or "eagle" (鷹, yīng) and "bear" (熊, xióng). | |
| Bran | 麩子 | 麸子 | fū zi | Fertility | The Mandarin Chinese word for "wheat bran" (麩子, fū zi) is a homophone to the term for "wealthy son" (富子, fù zi). | |
| Butterfly[332] | 蝴蝶 | 蝴蝶 | hú dié | Longevity | The second Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "butterfly" (蝴蝶, hú dié) sounds the same as the Mandarin Chinese word for "someone who is 70–80 years of age" (耋, dié).[333][334][335] | |
| Calamus[336][337][338] | 菖蒲 | 菖蒲 | chāng pú | Protection from bad luck, evil spirits, and pathogens | The leaves of a calamus plant resembles swords. | |
| Carp | 鯉 | 鲤 | lǐ | Strength, power, profit, and fertility | The Mandarin Chinese word for "carp" (鯉, lǐ) sounds like that for "strength" (力, lì) and also the word for "profit" (利, lì). Carp are associated with fertility as they lay many eggs.[339][340] | |
| Persistence | According to an ancient Chinese myth called the lǐ yú tiào lóng mén (鯉魚跳龍門) carps that leap over the dragon gate shall transform into a Chinese dragon.[341][342][343] | |||||
| Cash coins | 錢 | 钱 | qián | Wealth and prosperity, the word "before", completeness | Cash coins are round with a square hole in the middle which was based on the Ancient Chinese belief that the earth was square and the heavens were circular or round.[344][345][346][347] The Mandarin Chinese word for "coin" (錢, qián) sounds like "before" (前, qián). An archaic Mandarin Chinese term for coins (泉, quán) sounds like the word for "complete" (全, quán). | |
| Cassia | 桂 | 桂 | guì | High ranks through success in the imperial examinations | The Mandarin Chinese word for "cassia" (桂, guì) sounds the same as the word for "high rank" (貴, guì).[348] | |
| Cat | 貓 | 猫 | Māo | Longevity, protection of silkworms | The Mandarin Chinese word for "cat" (貓, māo) is a homophone for "octogenarian" (耄, mào).[349][350] Cats hunt rats and mice which are the natural predators of the silkworm.[351][352][353] | |
| Chestnut[h] | 栗子 | 栗子 | Lì zi | Fertility, good manners in a woman | Chestnuts are often given as a Chinese wedding gift.[354][355][relevant?] The Mandarin Chinese word meaning "chestnut" (栗子, lì zi) is a homophone to the phrase "producing children" (立子, lì zi). The first Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word meaning "chestnut" (栗, lì) is a homophone to the word for "etiquette" (禮, lǐ) and is associated with that quality in females. | |
| Chopsticks | 筷子 | 筷子 | Kuài zi | The wish for a newlywed couple to immediately start producing male offspring. | The Mandarin Chinese word for "chopsticks" (筷子, kuài zi) is homophonic with the phrase "fast sons" (快子, kuài zi).[356][357][358] | |
| Chime stones (wind chimes) | 磬 | 磬 | Qìng | Being rich and wealthy | The Mandarin Chinese word for "chime stone" (磬, qìng) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "to congratulate" (慶, qìng). Ancient Chinese chime stones were made from jade and were expensive.[359] The chime stone is one of the Eight Treasures. | |
| Chrysanthemum | 菊 | 菊 | Jú | Maintaining virtue in adverse circumstances, nobility and elegance, longevity[360][361] | The chrysanthemum is one of the Chinese Four gentlemen.[citation needed] It blooms late in the year when circumstances are less than optimal. The Hanzi character for "chrysanthemum" looks like the Hanzi character for "forever" (永久, yǒng jiǔ).[i] | |
| Cicada | 蟬 | 蝉 | Chán | Immortality and rebirth.[362][363] | Cicadas survive underground for a significant period before they rise and fly towards the skies. | |
| Buddha's hand (Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis)[j] | 佛手 | 佛手 | Fó shǒu | Happiness and longevity[364][365] | The Mandarin Chinese word for "Buddha's hand" (佛手, fó shǒu) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese words for "happiness" (福, fú) and longevity" (壽, shòu). | |
| Clouds[k] | 雲 | 云 | yún | Heaven, good luck | The Mandarin Chinese word for "cloud" (雲 , yún) has a similar pronunciation as that for "luck" (運, yùn).[366][367][368] | |
| Coral | 珊瑚 | 珊瑚 | shān hú | Longevity, promotions in rank | Coral was historically thought to be an underwater "iron tree" (鐵樹, tiě shù) that blossomed once per century. Red coral is believed to be auspicious for its colour. Coral buttons were worn on the hats of government officials. Coral resembles deer antlers and deer are associated with longevity.[369][370] Coral is considered to be one of the Eight Treasures. | |
| Crab | 蟹 | 蟹 | xiè | Peace and harmony, high rank | The Mandarin Chinese term for "crab" (蟹, xiè) sounds similar to the word for "harmony" (协, xié). The Mandarin Chinese term for "crab's shell" (甲, jiǎ) also means "first", as in the person who has the highest score on the imperial examination system.[371][372] | |
| Crane | 鶴 | 鹤 | hè | Longevity, success in the imperial exam and high rank, harmonious marriage | It was historically believed that cranes reach high ages before death. Images of cranes were embroidered on the clothing of high-rank government officials. The Mandarin Chinese word for "crane" (鶴, hè) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "harmony" (合, hé).[373][374][375] See also: Crane in Chinese mythology. | |
| Cypress | 柏 | 柏 | bǎi | Large quantities | The Mandarin Chinese word for "cypress" (柏, bǎi) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "one-hundred" (百, bǎi).[376][377] | |
| Date fruits | 棗 | 枣 | Zǎo | An imminent turn of events, the conception of children | The Mandarin Chinese word for "a Chinese jujube" or "date" (棗, zǎo) sounds like the words for "soon" and "early" (早, zǎo). | |
| Deer[l] | 鹿 | 鹿 | Lù | A high government salary, prosperity, longevity | The Mandarin Chinese word for "deer" (鹿, lù) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for the salary of a government official (祿, lù).[378] The Mandarin Chinese word for "deer" sounds like the name of the Chinese God of Prosperity. Traditionally, the Chinese people thought that deer could find the magical lingzhi fungus of immortality. | |
| Dog | 犬 | 犬 | Quǎn | The Chinese zodiac "dog". | Dogs are one of the twelve Chinese zodiacs.[379][relevant?] | |
| Door guardians (Shentu and Yulü) | 門神 | 门神 | ménshén | Protection against bad luck and evil spirits | The door gods were warriors who fought evil.[380][relevant?] | |
| Dragon | 龍 | 龙 | Lóng | Longevity, the renewal of life, fertility, prosperity, and benevolence;[citation needed] good harvests; the Emperor;[m][381] the east and the spring; a human male.[n][382] | Dragons were believed to bring rain and were associated with good harvests. The Chinese dragon is associated with yang (the orient, springtime, and "male energy"). | |
| Dragonfly | 蜻蜓 | 蜻蜓 | Qīng tíng | Pureness of character | The first character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "dragonfly" (蜻, qīng) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "pure" (清, qīng). | |
| Duck | 鴛鴦 / 鸂 | 鸳鸯 / 鸂 | Yuān yāng / Xī | Peace and prosperity in marriage, conjugal affection and fidelity.[383] | The ancient Chinese people believed that Mandarin ducks mated for life. See also: Wedding ducks. | |
| Dumplings | 餃子 | 饺子 | Jiǎo zi | Abundance, money, wealth, fertility and large families | Dumplings are often shaped like crescents which symbolise the desire to have "a year of abundance" or like silver sycees which symbolise wealth. The Mandarin Chinese name for "dumplings" (餃子, jiǎo zi) sounds similar to that of the jiaozi banknotes (交子, jiāozǐ). It was customary to place cash coins in dumplings with the wish that the person who found them would be granted prosperity. The characters that compose the Mandarin Chinese characters for "dumplings" sound like "to have sexual intercourse" (交, jiāo) and "child" (子, zǐ).[384] | |
| Eagle (or Hawk) | 鷹 | 鹰 | Yīng | Heroism | See: Bear | |
| Egret (Heron) | 鷺 | 鹭 | Lù | Pathways, wealth, longevity, purity, and good fortune | The Mandarin Chinese word for a "Heron" or an "Egret" (鷺, lù) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese term for "path", "road", or "way" (路, lù). The word also has a similar pronunciation to the term for "an official's salary" (祿, lù).[385] | |
| Eight (the number) | 八 | 八 | Bā | Good fortune | The number eight is pronounced in Chinese languages (particularly in the Southern variants) similarly to the words for "wealth" or "to prosper" (發財, fā cái).[386] | |
| Eight immortals | 八仙 | 八仙 | Bā xiān | Varies depending on the member(s) depicted | The eight immortals refers to eight individuals who practiced Taoism and were believed to have attained immortality.[387] | |
| Eight Treasures (Chinese)[o] | 八寶 | 八宝 | Bā bǎo | 1. The wish-granting pearl (寳珠, bǎozhū) or flaming pearl 2. The double lozenges (方勝, "fāngshèng"). 3. The stone chime (磬, "qìng"). 4. The pair of rhinoceros horns (犀角, xījiǎo). 5. The double coins (雙錢, shuāngqián). 6. The gold or silver ingot (錠, dìng). 7. Coral (珊瑚, shānhú). 8. The wish-granting scepter (如意, rúyì).[388] | These are the traditional Eight Treasures from China, but they can also be considered to be a subset of the Hundred Treasures. | |
| Eight Treasures (Buddhist)[p] | 佛門八寶 | 佛门八宝 | Fó mén bā bǎo | 1. The lotus flower symbolises purity and enlightenment. 2. The Wheel of the Dharma symbolises knowledge. 3. The treasure vase symbolises wealth. 4. The conch shell holds the Buddha's thoughts. 5. The victory banner represents that the Buddha's teachings conquer all. 6. The endless knot symbolises harmony. 7. The parasol symbolises protection. 8. A fish pair symbolise happiness in marriage.[389] | The eight treasures in Buddhism are the precious organs of the Buddha's body. | |
| Elephant | 象 | 象 | Xiàng | Good fortune; peace and good luck (when depicted with a vase on its back)[390] | The Mandarin Chinese word for "elephant" (象, xiàng) sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "lucky" or "auspicious" (祥, xiáng). The Mandarin Chinese word for "vase" (瓶, píng) has the same pronunciation as the first component for the Mandarin Chinese word for "peace" (平安, píng ān).[391] | |
| Fenghuang (Chinese phoenix) | 鳳凰 | 凤凰 | Fènghuáng | Joy and peace, happy marriage (when shown with a dragon), the South and summer, the Empress of China[392] | Fenghuang were believed to only appear in peaceful and prosperous times. The fenghuang (Chinese phoenix) represents yin (female) while the dragon represents yang (male). | |
| Fish | 魚 | 鱼 | Yú | Abundance, "more" (of whatever is represented by a symbol paired with it), fertility, happiness in marriage (paired fish). | The Mandarin Chinese word for "fish" (魚, yú) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "surplus" or "abundance" (余, yú).[393] Because fish lay many eggs at the same time they are associated with fertility, and thus happy marriage. See also: Fish in Chinese mythology and Carp on this list. | |
| Five blessings[q] | 五福 | 五福 | Wǔ fú | 1. Longevity (壽); 2. Wealth (富); 3. Health and composure (康寧); 4. Virtue (修好德); 5. The desire to die a natural death in old age (考終命).[394][395] | These are the Chinese five blessings described in the Book of Documents. | |
| 1. Good fortune (福); 2. The salary of a government official (祿); 3. Longevity (壽); 4. Joy or happiness (喜); 5. (Earthly) valuables or property (財). | These are a popular "alternative five blessings" in China.[396] | |||||
| Five Poisons[r] | 五毒 | 五毒 | Wǔ dú | The ability to counteract the pernicious influences of toxins.[397] | The ancient Chinese believed that one could combat poison with poison. | |
| Fly-whisk | 拂塵 | 拂尘 | Fú chén | Enlightenment | These fly-swatting tools symbolically represent the sweeping away of ignorance.[citation needed] | |
| Four Blessings | 四福 | 四福 | Sì fú | 1. Happiness (喜). 2. The salary of a high government official (祿). 3. Longevity (壽). 4. Good luck or good fortune (福).[398][399] | ||
| Four Divine Creatures[s] | 四象 | 四象 | Sì Xiàng | The Vermillion Bird (朱雀, zhū què) which represents the south and symbolizes the summer. The White tiger (白虎, bái hǔ) represents the west and symbolizes the autumn. The Azure Dragon (青龍, qīng lóng) represents the east and symbolizes the spring. The black tortoise (or black warrior) coiled around by a snake (玄武, xuán wǔ) represents the north and symbolizes the winter. | Each animal symbolizes a direction and has a season associated with that direction.[400] | |
| Four Gentlemen[t] | 四君子 | 四君子 | Sì jūn zǐ | 1. Orchid (springtime) 2. Bamboo (summer) 3. Chrysanthemum (autumn) 4. Plum (winter)[u] | Each member of the Four Gentlemen represents a season.[401] | |
| Four Happiness Boys | 四蝠男子 | 四蝠男子 | Sì fú nán zǐ | Good luck, many male offspring | The "Four Happiness Boys" depicts two boys in a way that looks as if there are four. This illusion creates the hope for frequent male progeny.[402] | |
| Four Happinesses | 四蝠 | 四蝠 | Sì fú | 1. "Sweet rain after a long drought" (久旱逢甘雨, jiǔ hàn féng gān yǔ) 2. "Meeting an old friend in a faraway place" (他鄉遇故知, tā xiāng yù gù zhī) 3. "The wedding night" (洞房花燭夜, dòng fáng huā zhú yè) 4. "Having one's name on the list of successful candidates of the imperial examination" (金榜題名時, jīn bǎng tí míng shí) | "The four happinesses" come from a Song dynasty era poem composed by Hong Mai (洪邁).[403][relevant?] | |
| Frog | 蛙 | 蛙 | Wā | Fertility | The Mandarin Chinese word for "frog" (蛙, wā) has a similar pronunciation as the Mandarin Chinese word for "baby" (娃, wá).[404] | |
| Fu Lu Shou | 福祿壽 | 福禄寿 | Fú Lù Shòu | Happiness, prosperity, and longevity | Fu Lu Shou refers to the three gods who embody these concepts.[relevant?] | |
| Fungus of immortality[v] | 靈芝 | 灵芝 | Líng zhī | Longevity | The lingzhi mushroom doesn't decay in the same manner as other fungi, instead becoming woody and surviving for an extended period of time. It is also believed to grow on the "Three Islands of the Immortals".[405][relevant?] | |
| Goat | 羊 | 羊 | Yáng | Blessings and protection from famine | A reference to a story in which five goat-riding immortals came down from the heavens and fed a city during a famine; the goats remained and turned to stone.[w][406][407] | |
| God of Examinations[x] | 魁星 | 魁星 | Kuí xīng | Success in the imperial exams | The God of Examinations is often thought to help candidates pass the difficult and rigorous Chinese civil exams of the imperial examination system.[408][relevant?] | |
| God of Happiness[y] | 福 / 福神 / 福星 | 福 / 福神 / 福星 | Fú / Fú shén / Fú xīng | Good luck and good fortune[409][410] | The God of Happiness is a continuation of one of Taoism's three original gods or heavenly officials, namely the "Heavenly Official who grants fortune" (天官賜福).[relevant?] | |
| God of Longevity[z] | 壽 | 寿 | Shòu | Longevity, wisdom[411] | In Confucianism it is believed that wisdom comes with (old) age.[relevant?] | |
| God of Prosperity[aa] | 祿 | 禄 | Lù | Prosperity, wishes fulfilled, high rank and salary | The God of Prosperity is associated with the saying "may office and salary be bestowed upon you" (加官進祿).[412][413][relevant?] | |
| Leigong (god of thunder) | 雷神 / 雷公 | 雷神 / 雷公 | Léi shén / Léi gōng | Punishment of criminals and evil spirits | Leigong is usually featured on Taoist numismatic charms in the form of the inscription "O Thunder God, destroy devils, subdue bogies, and drive away evil influences. Receive this command of Tai Shang Lao Qun (Lao Zi) and execute it as fast as Lü Ling [a famous runner of the Zhou dynasty{{]}}" (Traditional Chinese: 雷霆八部，誅鬼降精，斬妖辟邪，永保神清，奉太上老君，急急如律令，敕。; Hanyu Pinyin: Léi Tíng bā bù, zhū guǐ jiàng jīng, zhǎn yāo pì xié, yǒng bǎo shén qīng, fèng tài Shàng Lǎo Jūn, jí jí rú Lǜ Lìng, chì.).[414][415][relevant?] | |
| God of War | 關帝 關公 | 关帝 关公 | Guān Dì Guān Gōng | Warding off evil | Guan Yu is an immortalized Chinese general who is often depicted wielding a huge broadsword used to fight evil.[416][relevant?] | |
| God of Wealth | 財神 | 财神 | Cái shén | Wealth and success[417] | Caishen is usually depicted either carrying or being surrounded by cash coins, sycees, coral and other symbols the ancient Chinese associated with wealth.[relevant?] | |
| Gods of Peace and Harmony[ab] | 和合二仙 | 和合二仙 | Hé hé èr xiān | Peace and harmony[418] | Han Shan (寒山) is usually depicted holding a round container, the Ruyi sceptre, a calabash, cash coins, a persimmon, etc. While the other twin Shi De (拾得) usually is depicted holding a lotus flower.[relevant?] | |
| Goldfish | 金魚 | 金鱼 | Jīn yú | Abundance of wealth | The first character in the Mandarin Chinese name for "goldfish" means "gold" (金, jīn), while second character means "fish" which has a similar pronunciation as the Mandarin Chinese words for "jade" (玉, yù) and for "abundance" or "surplus" (余, yú).[419][420] | |
| Gourd | 葫蘆 | 葫芦 | Hú lu | Protection, blessings, success at imperial exams, fertility, having male progeny | The first Hanzi symbol in the Mandarin Chinese term for "gourd" (葫蘆, hú lu) is homonymous to the Mandarin Chinese term for "to protect" or "to guard" (護, hù). It also sounds like the Mandarin Chinese term for "blessing" (祜, hù).[421] In some varieties of the Chinese languages, the word for "gourd" (葫蘆) sounds like the terms for "happiness and rank" (福祿). Trailing vines of calabashes are named in Mandarin Chinese with the Hanzi character "蔓", which can also be a homonym to the Mandarin Chinese word for "ten thousand" (萬, wàn), and due to the fact that the calabash contains many seeds, they are associated with fertility. | |
| Grasshopper (Tettigoniidae)[422][423] | 螽斯 | 螽斯 | Zhōng sī | Fertility and procreation | Grasshoppers are associated with fertility because they gather together and reproduce in large numbers. One charm has the inscription "may your children be as numerous as grasshoppers" (螽斯衍慶, zhōng sī yǎn qìng).[citation needed] | |
| Ji (halberd) | 戟 | 戟 | Jǐ | Good luck, success in exams | The Mandarin Chinese word for "halberd" (戟, jǐ) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese term for "lucky" or "auspicious" (吉, jí), and also sounds like the term for "rank" or "grade" (級, jí), which in this context refers to the rank of a government official.[424][425] | |
| Horse | 馬 | 马 | Mǎ | Strength, stamina, perseverance, speed, Mongols | Horses are associated with the Mongol people who ruled the Yuan dynasty. Horses are also represented on the Chinese zodiac.[426] See also: Horse in Chinese mythology. | |
| Horse saddle | 鞍 | 鞍 | Ān | Peace | The Mandarin Chinese word for "saddle" (鞍, ān) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "peace" (安, ān).[427] | |
| Kitchen God[428][429][430] | 灶君 | 灶君 | Zào Jūn | Protection of the hearth and family | The Kitchen God is the most important of a plethora of domestic gods in Chinese folk religion, mythology, and Taoism. | |
| Lion | 獅 | 狮 | Shī | Majesty, strength, high rank, wealth, Gautama Buddha | The Mandarin Chinese word for "lion" (獅, shī) sounds like the word for "teacher", "master", "tutor", or "preceptor" (師, shī) which could be associated with archaic governmental titles such as "Senior Grand Tutor" (太師, tài shī) and "Junior Preceptor" (少師, shào shī). An ancient legend states that great fortune will be bestowed on a household if a lion enters its gates.[431] Lions are depicted as the guardians of Buddhism and a symbol of Buddhist kings.[432][433] Gautama Buddha is believed to have been reincarnated ten times as a lion. See also: Cultural depictions of lions. | |
| Liu Haichan and Jin Chan | 劉海戲蟾 | 刘海戏蟾 | Liú hǎi xì chán | Wealth and prosperity | See Chinese numismatic charm § Liu Haichan and the Three-Legged Toad charms above. | |
| Longevity stone | 長壽石 | 长寿石 | Cháng shòu shí | Longevity | Longevity stones are odd-shaped rocks associated with longevity because they are old. They are usually depicted next to images of linzhi mushrooms.[relevant?] | |
| Lotus | 蓮花 / 荷花 | 莲花 / 荷花 | Lián huā / Hé huā | Purity, detachment from earthly concerns, continuous harmony, harmony in sex and marriage, continuous childbirth (for seeds)[434] | Gautama Buddha is often shown sitting on a lotus.[435] One of the Mandarin Chinese words for "lotus" is lián huā (蓮花) which has a primary Hanzi character that is pronounced similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "continuous" (連, lián), while the first Hanzi character in another term for "lotus" is pronounced as hé (荷) which sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word for "harmony" (和, hé). When a lotus pod is depicted on the same charm as a lotus stem, this symbolises harmonious marriage and sexual intercourse. The Mandarin Chinese word for "lotus seeds" (蓮籽, lián zǐ) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese phrase "continuously giving birth to children" (連子, lián zi). | |
| Lozenge | 方勝 | 方胜 | Fāng shèng | Good luck, a musical instrument (with two interlocked lozenges), people in cooperation, victory | The lozenge is one of the Eight Treasures,[436] though it is unclear why lozenges are associated with good luck. Interlocked lozenges symbolise an ancient Chinese musical instrument due to their diamond shape. This can also symbolise two hearts working together with a single mindset. | |
| Magpie | 喜鵲 | 喜鹊 | Xǐ què | Happiness,[ac] marriage (in pairs) | The first character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "magpie" (喜鵲, xǐ què) is synonymous to the Mandarin Chinese word for "happiness" (喜).[437] The association with marriage comes from an old Chinese tale of two celestial lovers who could only meet once a year on a bridge made of magpies.[438] | |
| Mirror | 銅鏡 | 铜镜 | Tóng jìng | Good luck, protection from demons and evil spirits, harmonious marriage (when depicted with shoes) | The (bronze) mirror is one of the Eight Treasures. The ancient Chinese believed that a demon or evil spirit would be scared of their reflection in a mirror and flee. The Mandarin Chinese words for "bronze mirror" (銅鏡, tóng jìng) and "shoes" (鞋, xié) sound like "together and in harmony" (同諧, tóng xié). | |
| Money tree | 搖錢樹 | 摇钱树 | Yáo qián shù | Wealth, riches, and treasures.[439] | See Chinese numismatic charm § Chinese money trees | |
| Monkey | 猴 | 猴 | Hóu | The monkey is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. The Monkey King | The Monkey King or "Sun Wukong" (孫悟空) Is a character from the Ming dynasty era novel Journey to the West.[440] See: Monkeys in Chinese culture. | |
| Monkey riding a horse[ad] | 馬上風猴 | 马上风猴 | Mǎ shàng fēng hóu | A wish to be immediately promoted to high rank[441] | The first Hanzi characters of the Mandarin Chinese phrase mǎ shàng fēng hóu (馬上風猴) could mean both "on the horse" as well as "at once". The word for "wind" or "breeze" is pronounced similar as the word for "to grant a title" (封, fēng). The final Hanzi character means "monkey" and is pronounced like the word for "marquis" (侯, hóu) which is associated with a high rank. | |
| Moon (crescent) | 月 | 月 | Yuè | [further explanation needed] | In Chinese mythology the moon is the residence of Jin Chan. In Taoist mythology the "Jade Rabbit" (a.k.a. the "Moon Hare") lives on the moon, and is known for making the elixir of immortality.[442] The moon is often a location for various figures from Chinese mythology. | |
| Mountain | 山 | 山 | Shān | Limitlessness | In Chinese mythology, mountains are the places closest to the Gods. | |
| Mugwort (Artemisia leaf) | 艾 | 艾 | Ài | Longevity, protection from harm[443] | The mugworth is associated with longevity because of its usage in traditional Chinese medicine and as one of the Eight Treasures. People used to hang mugwort on their doors in the belief that the scent would repel insects and that the tiger-claw shape would offer protection. | |
| Narcissus | 水仙 | 水仙 | Shuǐ xiān | Immortals | The Mandarin Chinese word for "narcissus" (水仙, shuǐ xiān) means "water immortal".[444] | |
| Nine (number) | 九 | 九 | Jiǔ | Forever | The Mandarin Chinese word for the number "nine" (九, jiǔ) is homonymous with the Mandarin Chinese word for "forever" or "long lasting" (久, jiǔ).[445][446] | |
| Nine similitudes | 九如 | 九如 | Jiǔ rú | The nine similitudes are associated with the congratulatory greeting: "May you be as the mountains and the hills, as the greater (taller) and the lesser (shorter) heights, as the river streams which flow in all directions, having the constancy of the moon in the sky, like the rising sun which brings us the day, with the longevity of the southern mountain and the green luxuriance of the fir and the cypress." which wishes for the greeted person to be blessed with luxury, wealth, and (of course) longevity.[further explanation needed] | The nine similitudes are from the Classic of Poetry which is a book that incorporates music, poetry, and hymns from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Zhou dynasty.[447] | |
| Onion | 蔥 | 葱 | Cōng | Intelligence, wit | The Mandarin Chinese word for "onion" (蔥, cōng) sounds like the word for "clever" or "intelligent" (聰明, cōng míng).[448] | |
| Orange tree | 桔 | 桔 | Jú | Good luck, good fortune | The Hanzi character for orange is "桔", which contains the Hanzi characters "木" ("tree") and "吉" ("lucky" or "auspicious").[449] | |
| Orchid | 蘭 | 兰 | Lán | Humility, modesty, beauty and refinement; female beauty.[450][451][452][453] | The orchid is a member of the Four Gentlemen. | |
| Osmanthus (Chinese cinnamon) | 桂 | 桂 | Guì | Preciousness, honour, longevity | The Mandarin Chinese word for an "osmanthus blossom" (桂, guì) sounds similar to the term for "something that is precious" or "something that is of value" (貴, guì). The scent of the Osmanthus fragrans is associated with fragrance (or an "honourable life").[454][455][456] | |
| Ox (water buffalo) | 牛 | 牛 | Niú | Harvest, fertility, springtime; a simple and idyllic life; great fortune from humble beginnings (with a boy riding) | The ox is one of the twelve animals represented on the Chinese zodiac. Oxen were important to agricultural development and are associated with harvests, fertility, and the springtime. A boy or young man riding an ox may represent Zhu Yuanzhang, who went from humble beginnings to found the Ming dynasty.[457] | |
| Peach | 桃 | 桃 | Táo | Marriage, springtime, longevity, justice, Taoist immortality, weaponry, protection from demons | Peaches are associated with longevity because of the peaches of immortality.[458] Peach wood was used to make weapons (and amulets). The Mandarin Chinese word for "peach" (桃, táo) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese term for "to flee", "to retreat", or "to run away" (逃, táo). The ancient Chinese people believed that the timber of peach trees could keep demons away because the Mandarin Chinese word for "peach" sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "to eliminate" (淘, táo).[459] The peach is a member of the Chinese "three plenties". | |
| Peacock | 孔雀 | 孔雀 | Kǒng què | Desire for prosperity and peace; dignity paired with beauty; high rank | The Queen Mother of the West is sometimes depicted riding a peacock. The ancient Chinese people believed that a single glance of a peacock would instantly make a woman pregnant. During Ming and Qing dynasties, the seniority of an official could be deduced by the number of peacock feathers they wore on their hats.[460][461] | |
| Peanut | 花生 | 花生 | Huā shēng | Fertility | The second Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "peanut" is "生", which is synonymous with the term "to give birth".[462] | |
| Pearl | 寳珠 | 宝珠 | Bǎozhū | Endless transformation; perfection and enlightenment (when chased by a dragon);[ae] wealth, treasure, pure intentions, and genius in obscurity | Chinese dragons are often depicted as chasing a pearl-like jewel object.[463][464] The pearl also resembles the moon, and as a dragon devours or disgorges the moon it appears to wane or wax. The flaming pearl is one of the Eight Treasures. | |
| Peony | 牡丹 富貴花 | 牡丹 富贵花 | Mǔ dān Fù guì huā | Longevity, happiness, eternal beauty,[465] and loyalty. Economic prosperity and wealth.[466] | The double manner in which peonies grow resembles strings of Chinese cash coins, which is why they're associated with richness. This is also the origin of the alternative Mandarin Chinese name for the peony "fù guì huā" (富貴花). | |
| Peony in a vase | 牡丹花瓶 | 牡丹花瓶 | Mǔ dān huā píng | Wealth and prosperity in peace | The Mandarin Chinese word for "peony" (牡丹, mǔ dān) can be translated as "the flower of wealth and honour", while the Mandarin Chinese word for "vase" (瓶, píng) is a homophonic pun with "peace" (平安, píng ān). | |
| Persimmon | 柿 | 柿 | Shì | Good luck; official matters; a gentleman or official; safe concerns (when paired with an apple) | The persimmon is considered to be an auspicious symbol due to its orange colour and round shape. The Mandarin Chinese word for "persimmon" (柿, shì) sounds like the word for "matters, affairs or events" (事, shì). It also sounds like the word for "official" or "gentleman" (仕, shì). The Mandarin Chinese word for "apple" (蘋果, píng guǒ) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "safety" (平安, píng ān) forming a visual pun that symbolises the saying "may your matters be safe" (事平安, shì píng ān).[467][468][469][470] | |
| Pig, boar or hog | 豬 | 猪 | Zhū | Economic prosperity, good luck, protection from evil spirits | The pig is a sign of the Chinese zodiac.[471] Pigs are associated with protection from evil due to an ancient Chinese tradition where parents had their sons wear pig-themed shoes and hats to supposedly fool evil spirits into thinking that the boy was a pig, and thus leave him alone.[472][473][474] | |
| Pine tree | 松 | 松 | Sōng | Longevity, solitude, protection of the dead | The pine tree is one of the Chinese Three Friends of Winter. Because they can endure very rough winter weather, pine trees are associated with longevity. Ancient Chinese people believed that a creature named Wang Xiang (罔象) devoured the brains of dead people but was afraid of pine trees, so pines were often planted near graveyards.[475][476] | |
| Plum | 梅 | 梅 | Méi | Hopefulness and courageousness; the Chinese five blessings (plum blossom petals)[477] | The plum is one of the Chinese Three Friends of Winter.[478] The ancient Chinese associated plums with courage due to the fact that plums blossom first while the winter still poses a threat to its fruits, which is considered to be brave. | |
| Pomegranate | 石榴 | 石榴 | Shí liu | Fertility[479] | The association with fertility has two major reasons: pomegranates have many seeds, and the first Hanzi character of "pomegranate" (石榴, shí liu) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese term for "generations" (世, shì) as in "generations of descendants". The pomegranate is a member of the Chinese "three plenties". | |
| Prawn[af] | 蝦 | 虾 | Xiā | Happiness and laughter | The Chinese character for "prawn" (蝦) is pronounced as xiā in Mandarin Chinese and haa in Yuè Chinese (Cantonese) which are both very similar to the sound people make when they laugh (ha ha ha).[480][481][482] | |
| Pumpkin | 南瓜 | 南瓜 | Nán guā | A desire to produce male offspring | The first Hanzi character of the word for "pumpkin" (南, nán ; meaning south) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "boy" or "male" (男, nán). | |
| Qilin ("Chinese unicorn") | 麒麟 | 麒麟 | Qílín | Benevolence, goodwill, good fortune, and prosperity; the west and autumn. | The Qilin was believed by the ancient Chinese people to appear every time a new sage was born. Qilin are often depicted delivering babies on Chinese numismatic charms.[483][484][485][486][487] | |
| Quail | 鵪鶉 | 鹌鹑 | Ān chún | Courage, peace | The quail is associated with courage due to its combative attitude. The first Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "quail" (鵪鶉, ān chún) can be used in a homophonic pun for "peace" (安, ān).[488] | |
| Rabbit | 兔子 | 兔子 | Tù zi | Longevity | In Taoist mythology, the elixir of immortality is prepared by the "moon hare", who resides on the moon.[489][490][491][492] The rabbit (or hare) is one of the twelve Chinese zodiac animals. | |
| Rat[493] | 老鼠 大鼠 | 老鼠 大鼠 | Lǎo shǔ Dà shǔ | Abundance, fertility, wealth | The rat is associated with fertility due to its strong reproductive capabilities. The rat is one of the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac. | |
| Reed pipe | 笙 | 笙 | Shēng | Giving birth, promotion | The Mandarin Chinese word for "reed pipe" (笙, shēng) sounds similar to the word meaning "to give birth" (生, shēng).[494] It also sounds similar to the Mandarin Chinese word which could be translated as "to rise" (升, shēng).[495] | |
| Rhinoceros horns | 犀角 | 犀角 | Xī jiǎo | Happiness | Rhinoceros horns are one of the Eight Treasures.[496][497] The first Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "rhinoceros horn" (犀角, xī jiǎo) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "happiness" (喜, xǐ). | |
| Ribbons and fillets | 帶 | 带 | Dài | Greatness and vastness; descendants who enjoy longevity | Ribbons were believed to enhance the characteristics and importance of the object they were bound to. The Mandarin Chinese word for "ribbon" or "fillet" (帶, dài) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "generations" (代, dài), and as the Mandarin Chinese word for a fillet attached to an official seal is (綬帶, shòu dài), the first Hanzi character of this term could also be associated with a long life because it sounds like the word for "longevity" (壽, shòu). In combination, this means that future generations shall enjoy longevity. The red colour of these ribbons is associated with joy and happiness.[498] The Mandarin Chinese word for "red" (紅, hóng) sounds like the words for "vast" (洪, hóng) and "great" (宏, hóng). | |
| Ritual baton | 笏 | 笏 | Hù | High rank | These batons, depicted as an X-shaped symbol, are thought to be based on narrow tablets known as hù (笏) which were carried by Chinese officials as authorisation passes.[499][500][501] Wooden clappers were also associated with one of the eighth immortals, Cao Guojiu (曹國舅). | |
| Rooster | 公雞 | 公鸡 | Gōng jī | Good luck; high rank; intelligence and fame; the five virtues (五德) | The second Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for "cock" (公雞, gōng jī) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "auspicious" or "lucky" (吉, jí). Cocks symbolize a high rank because their combs look like the hat of a Mandarin.[502] The Mandarin Chinese term for a "crowing cock" (公鳴, gōng míng) sounds like the term for "intelligence and fame" (功名, gōng míng). Cocks symbolises the five virtues because its comb makes it resemble a Mandarin (civil); its spurs (martial); how the cock conducts itself during combat (courage); cocks protect their hens (kindness), and cocks are very accurate in heralding the dawn.[503] The rooster is one of the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac. | |
| Ruyi scepter | 如意 | 如意 | Rúyì | Power and authority; good wishes and prosperity | In Buddhism and Chinese mythology, the Ruyi scepter can grant wishes.[504][505] The Ruyi scepter is one of the Eight Treasures. | |
| Sanxing | 三星 / 福祿壽 | 三星 / 福禄寿 | Sān xīng / Fú Lù Shòu | Prosperity, high rank, and longevity | The "three stars" are the Gods of Prosperity (Fu), Status (Lu), and Longevity (Shou) in Chinese religion.[506][507] | |
| Sheep[ag] | 羊 | 羊 | Yáng | Yang energy, the sun, filial piety | The Mandarin Chinese word for "sheep", "ram", and "goat" (羊, yáng) sounds like the word for "Yang energy" (陽, yáng) which could also mean "the sun". Lambs kneel when they receive milk from their mothers, which is seen as submissiveness in Confucianism.[508] | |
| Shoes | 鞋 | 鞋 | Xié | Wealth; in harmony with (when paired with another symbol); fertility and a wish to produce offspring (for lotus shoes) | Shoes are associated with wealth because they are shaped similar to sycees. The Mandarin Chinese word for "shoes" (鞋, xié) sounds like the words for "together with" (諧, xié) and "in harmony with" (諧, xié). The Mandarin Chinese word for "lotus flower" (蓮, lián) sounds like the word for "continuous" (連, lián). | |
| Six (6) | 六 / 陸 | 六 / 陆 | Liù | A wish for things to go smoothly; good fortune, good luck, and prosperity | The Mandarin Chinese word for the number "six" (六, liù) sounds like the word for "to flow" (流, liú).[509][510] The saying "everything goes smoothly with six" (六六大顺, liù liù dà shùn) is based on this.[511][512] The Mandarin Chinese word for "six" also sounds like the word for "prosperity" (祿, lù). | |
| Snake | 蛇 | 蛇 | Shé | [further explanation needed] | The snake is one of the twelve animals represented as a Chinese zodiac.[513] The snake is also a member of the Five Poisons.[514] See also: Snakes in Chinese mythology and Chinese numismatic charm § "Five poisons" talismans. | |
| Spider | 蜘蛛 / 蟲喜子 | 蜘蛛 / 虫喜子 | Zhī zhū / Chóng xǐ zǐ | Happiness or happy sons; happiness falling from the sky (if depicted falling) | The first Hanzi character from one of the Mandarin Chinese terms for "spider" (喜子, xǐ zǐ) means "happiness", the second Hanzi character can also mean "son".[515][516] | |
| Star (dots) | 星 | 星 | Xīng | Unknown | Unknown | |
| Stork | 鸛 | 鹳 | Guàn | Longevity, promotion and high rank | The ancient Chinese believed that storks lived a thousand years; storks are often depicted next to pine trees which are another longevity symbol. In Chinese folk religion, both the Queen Mother of the West and Shouxing, the God of Longevity, ride storks for transportation. The Mandarin Chinese word for "stork" (鸛, guàn) is a homophonic pun with the Mandarin Chinese words for "government official" (官, guān), "first place" (冠, guàn), and "hat" (冠, guàn) and is thus associated with promotion and high rank in government. | |
| Swallow[517][518] | 燕 | 燕 | Yàn | Good fortune, the spring, and bringing prosperous change | Swallows were seen as bringing "new" to "old" because they arguably "renovate" areas by constructing their mud nests in the cracks of walls and graves. | |
| Swastika | 卐 卍 | 卐 卍 | Wàn | "The myriad of things" or "everything" | The swastika Hanzi character is pronounced as wàn (卐 / 卍) which sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "ten thousand" (萬, wàn).[519][520] | |
| Sword | 刀 | 刀 | Dāo | Victory over evil (if used as a symbol for Lu Dongbin), protection against evil spirits and bogies (if used as a symbol for Zhong Kui) | See Chinese numismatic charm § Chinese talismans with sword symbolism. | |
| Sycee[ah] | 細絲 / 元寶 | 细丝 / 元宝 | Xì sī / Yuán bǎo | Wealth, high rank, brightness and purity | Silver became an official measurement of wealth during the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and sycees became closely associated with wealth. The first Hanzi character in the Mandarin Chinese word for sycees "yuanbao" (元寶, yuánbǎo) also means "first" which could be interpreted as being "first place in the imperial exams" and thus attaining a high rank. Sycees are a member of the Eight Treasures. | |
| Taijitu (yin and yang symbol)[ai] | 太極圖 | 太极图 | Tàijítú | The light and the dark, the strong and the weak, the male and the female, Etc. | The taijitu is a Taoist symbol that symbolises the basic polarities of the universe.[521][522][relevant?] | |
| Teapot (or pot) | 壺 | 壶 | Hú | Protection, blessings | The Mandarin Chinese word for "teapot" or simply "pot" (壺, hú) sounds like the words for "blessing" (祜, hù) and "to protect" (護, hù). | |
| Ten Symbols of Longevity[aj] | 十壽 | 十寿 | Shí shòu | 1. The pine tree (松); 2. The sun (日); 3. The crane (鹤); 4. Water (水); 5. The mountains (山); 6. The clouds (雲); 7. The deer (鹿); 8. The tortoise (龜); 9. The Lingzhi mushroom (靈芝); 10. Bamboo (竹).[523][524][525] | The Ten Symbols of Longevity are symbols that the ancient Chinese people associated with longevity, and are also very in Korean art including Korean numismatic charms. | |
| Three Abundances[ak] | 三多 | 三多 | Sān duō | 1. The peach (which represents longevity); 2. The pomegranate (which represents progeny or descendants); 3. The Buddha's hand (representing longevity and happiness). | The three plenties are three symbols that the ancient Chinese people saw as being auspicious.[526][527] | |
| Three Friends of Winter | 歲寒三友 | 岁寒三友 | Suìhán sānyǒu | Steadfastness, perseverance, and resilience; the scholar-gentleman's ideal in Confucianism | The three friends of winter are: bamboo, the pine tree, and the plum tree. These plants grow in the winter despite harsh conditions.[528][529][530] | |
| Three Many | 福壽三多 | 福寿三多 | Fú shòu sān duō | The three many are the desires for: 1. Happiness; 2. Longevity; 3. Descendants. | The three many are three things the ancient Chinese people thought were desirable and auspicious to acquire.[531] | |
| Three Rounds | 三圓 | 三圆 | Sān yuán | The "three rounds" could be depicted as any grouping of three round items. When these are placed together, they give an implied meaning of "high rank". | The Mandarin Chinese word for "round" (圓, yuán) is a homophonic pun with the word "first" (元, yuán), which in this context refers to getting the highest score in the imperial Chinese examination system. The number three in this context could then refer to coming first in all three stages of the exams. | |
| Tiger[al] | 虎 | 虎 | Hǔ | Protection from evil spirits and misfortune, heroism, longevity | The Mandarin Chinese word for "tiger" (虎, hǔ) sounds like the word for "to protect" (護, hù). Tigers are also the guardian spirit of agriculture and the ancient Chinese believed that the tiger could devour "the demon of drought", and were believed to be heroic. The ancient Chinese believed that a tiger's hair turned white after five centuries and that they could live up to a millennium.[532][533] Caishen is sometimes depicted using a tiger as a mode of transportation. The tiger is a member of the Chinese zodiac. See also: Tiger in Chinese culture. | |
| Toad | 蟾蜍 蟾 | 蟾蜍 蟾 | Chán chú Chán | Coins, wealth | In some Chinese languages, the word for "toad" (蟾) sounds like their word for "coin" or "money" (錢). | |
| Tortoise | 龜 | 龟 | Guī | Longevity; magnetic north, winter; endurance and physical strength; the divine and divinity. | Tortoises live very long. The ancient Chinese believed that the universe was round and the earth flat, like the lower body of a tortoise; hence tortoises were associated with the divine. | |
| Treasure bowl[am] | 聚寶盆 | 聚宝盆 | Jù bǎo pén | Wealth | This mythical object can infinitely reproduce an object placed inside of it, turning one treasure into many.[citation needed] | |
| Twelve Ornaments[an] | 十二章 | 十二章 | Shí'èr zhāng | 1. The sun (日), symbolising enlightenment 2. The moon (月), symbolising the passive principle of yin 3. The Constellation of Three Stars (星辰), symbolising the Emperor's mercy 4. The mountain (山), symbolising the Emperor's stability and earth 5. The (five-clawed) dragon (龍), symbolising the Emperor's authority 6. The pheasant (華蟲), symbolising literary refinement 7. The two goblets (宗彝), symbolising filial piety, imperial loyalty, and metal 8. Seaweed (藻), symbolising purity, the Emperor's leadership, and water 9. Rice grain (粉米), symbolising prosperity, fertility, and wood 10. Fire (火), symbolising intellect, summer solstice, and fire 11. The Axe-head (黼), symbolising the Emperor's decisiveness 12. The Fu symbol (黻), symbolising collaboration and the Emperor's power and perception[534] | According to the Zhou dynasty era Book of Rites, the number twelve is also the number of Heaven, as the Emperor was considered to be "the son of heaven" twelve symbols were chosen to represent his authority. The renowned writers Lu Xun, Qian Daosun, and Xu Shoushang from the Ministry of Education created the Twelve Symbols national emblem based on these symbols, and this national emblem appeared on early coins from the Republic of China. | |
| Vase (or bottle) | 瓶 | 瓶 | Píng | Peace and safety, peace throughout the year (if depicted with flowers from each season) | The Mandarin Chinese word for "vase" (瓶, píng) sounds like the word for "peace" or "safety" (平安, píng ān).[535][536][537] | |
| Willow | 柳 | 柳 | Liǔ | Poets and scholars; exorcism and "sweeping tombs" during the Qingming Festival;[538] parting and sorrow | Willow trees are associated with poets and scholars who were inspired while walking amongst them. Willow branches were regarded as "magical" by the ancient Chinese people and associated with exorcism. The Mandarin Chinese word for "willow" (柳, liǔ) sounds like the Mandarin Chinese word for "to part" (離, lí); willow branches were given to friends and acquaintances who would depart to distant places.[539] | |
| Writing brush and sycee | 筆錠 | 笔锭 | Bǐ dìng | The hope that everything will go as you wish | The Mandarin Chinese words for "writing brush" (筆, bǐ) and "ingot" (錠, dìng) sound like the term for "certainly" (必定, bì dìng). | |
| Zhenwu | 真武 | 真武 | Zhēnwǔ | Healing and protection. | Zhenwu is a Taoist god associated with healing and protection[540][relevant?] | |
| Zither[422][541] | 齊特琴 | 齐特琴 | Qí tè qín | Fertility and marital harmony | Zithers in this context refer to guqin and se musical instruments. An example of a Chinese numismatic charm or amulet displaying the zither-theme would be one with an inscription that could be translated as "with the qin and the se be friendly to her" or "the qin and se zithers warm her heart" (琴瑟友之, qín sè yǒu zhī).[further explanation needed] |
See also
- Chinese token (alternative currency)
- Bamboo tally
Notes
- ^ This was an official inscription on a government-cast cash coin during the Northern Song dynasty.
- ^ Most of the open-work charms depicting buildings and temples are believed to have been cast in the city of Dali, Yunnan during the Ming dynasty.
- ^ Also known as "the urn of wisdom".
- ^ It is very common for Chinese numismatic charms to adopt the calligraphy used on this coin.
- ^ Lü Ling was an ancient Chinese runner from the Zhou dynasty during the Mu Wang era in the 10th century BC.
- ^ Depending on the local Chinese variety as the pronunciation of Hanzi characters can differ substantially between them.
- ^ Note that bears are very uncommonly used for Chinese numismatic amulets and charms.
- ^ The eight-sided holes in some charms, amulets, and coins mostly found in Tang and Song dynasty era are referred to as "chestnut holes" or "flower holes".
- ^ Similarly the Hanzi character for chrysanthemum also represents the number "nine" (九) due to the fact that they look similar.
- ^ The fingered citron is also known as "Buddha's Hand".
- ^ In the world of Chinese charms, amulets, and talismans clouds are sometimes referred to as "auspicious clouds" (祥雲, xiáng yún).
- ^ Deer are one of the most commonly seen animals on Chinese numismatic charms, amulets, and talismans.
- ^ When a dragon has five fingers it represents an Emperor, a dragon with only four fingers represents a King.
- ^ When a Chinese dragon is conjoined with a Chinese phoenix they symbolise a married couple.
- ^ "Eight Precious Things" and the "Eight Auspicious Treasures".
- ^ Also in Hinduism and Jainism.
- ^ Alternatively known as the "Five Happinesses" or "Five Good Fortunes".
- ^ The five poisons are alternatively referred to as the "Five Poisonous Creatures", this term refers to five poisonous creatures which usually include snakes, scorpions, centipedes, toads and spiders. In some variations lizards replace spiders. The "three-legged toad" is often seen as one of the five poisons.
- ^ They are alternatively known as the Four Heraldic Animals, the Four Directional Animals, or the Four Symbols (四象).
- ^ They are alternatively known as the Four Plants of Virtue.
- ^ Images of bamboo and a plum together symbolise friendship.
- ^ Alternatively known as the glossy ganoderma.
- ^ Due to this myth the city of Guangzhou has also adopted the nicknames "the City of Goats" (羊城), "Sheaves of Rice City" (穗城), and "the City of Five Goats" (五羊城).
- ^ Alternatively referred to in English the Star of Literature.
- ^ He is alternatively known as the "God of Luck" or the "God of Good Fortune and Blessings".
- ^ The Chinese God of Longevity is alternatively known as "Shou Lao" (壽老), the "Old Immortal of the South Pole" (南極仙翁), and the "Longevity Star" (壽星).
- ^ He is alternatively known as "the God of Rank and Emolument", and "the God of High Ranking Office".
- ^ They are alternatively known as "the Gods of Unity and Harmony", "the Laughing Twins", and "the Gods of Mirth" in the English language.
- ^ If a magpie is shown upside down this has the same connotations as an upside-down bat described above. The same goes for two magpies like two bats are used as in "a pair of magpies" (喜喜) or "a pair of bats" (蝠蝠).
- ^ Sometimes a monkey is shown riding a deer.
- ^ This is even more so the case if the dragon in this context represents the Emperor of China.
- ^ Known as "shrimp" in American English.
- ^ Could also be represented as a goat or ram.
- ^ Sycees are alternatively known as "saddle sycees", "silver sycees", and "drum-shaped sycees".
- ^ Also known as the "supreme ultimate symbol".
- ^ The "Ten Symbols of Longevity" are alternatively known as the "Ten Longevities" (十壽) in Chinese mythology.
- ^ They are alternatively known as "the Three Plenties".
- ^ Sometimes depicted as a leopard.
- ^ Alternatively referred to as the "treasure basin" in the English language.
- ^ These twelve symbols are alternatively called as the "Twelve Symbols of Imperial Authority" or the "Twelve Imperial Symbols" (十二章紋) in the English language.
References
- ^ Anything Anywhere China, amulets by Bob Reis. Retrieved: 5 June 2018.
- ^ Your Chinese Astrology Feng Shui Items/Symbols and Their Meanings. Retrieved: 13 May 2018.
- ^ "ANCIENT FIVE EMPEROR COINS". Miss Cheah (Xing Fu – 幸福). 13 February 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ LinkSpringer Lucky Charms from the Ming and the Qing Dynasties. Author: Jian Hu (Shenzhen Municipal Government, Shenzhen, China). Translated by Mao Yue-hao (毛越浩). First Online: 10 December 2016. Retrieved: 22 June 2018.
- ^ "Vạn Thọ thông bảo 萬夀通寶 de Cảnh Hưng 景興 (1774)". François Thierry de Crussol (TransAsiart) (in French). 14 September 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
- ^ Albert Schroeder, Annam, Études numismatiques, n°589. (in French)
- ^ a b "Charms". Dr. Luke Roberts at the Department of History – University of California at Santa Barbara. 24 October 2003. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ François Thierry de Crussol (蒂埃里) (14 September 2015). "Pièces de jeu amulettisées – Charm gambling tokens" (in French). TransAsiart. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ "Emergence of Chinese Charms – Symbols Begin to Appear on Chinese Coins". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
- ^ Museum of Chinese Art and Ethnography. Parma, Italy. 0521-257.337 Good Luck Charms. Retrieved: 8 May 2018. Xaverian Missionaries © Museo d'Arte Cinese ed Etnografico – 2018 – Parma, Italia
- ^ ""Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the Basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon Symbols on Ancient Chinese Coins and Charms". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
- ^ Chinese Symbolism & Art Motifs by C.A.S. Williams. Publisher: DAlphabetical.
- ^ Amuletes & Talismans Monetiformes D'Extreme Orient by Karl Petit.
- ^ Nations Online Five Elements or the Five States of Change – The Theory of the Five Elements – Wu Xing (Chinese: 五行; pinyin: wǔxíng), often shortened to Five Elements, is the concept in Chinese philosophy conceiving the world as dynamic states, or phases, of constant change. Retrieved: 26 June 2018.
- ^ a b "Chinese Pendant Charms – 挂牌". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
- ^ a b Petit, Karl Talismans Monetiformes de Chine et du Japon. 184p, 1981 (in French)
- ^ Charm.ru Liao Dynasty Charm – Qian Qiu Wan Sui by Vladimir Belyaev. Published: 9 February 2002. Retrieved: 1 June 2018.
- ^ "Ancient Chinese Charms and Coins". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
- ^ Open Library History of amulets, charms, and talismans. A historical investigation into their nature and origin. By Michael Lewy Rodkinson. Published 1893 in New York. Retrieved: 1 June 2018.
- ^ Coole, Arthur B. Coins in China's History. Mission, Kansas, USA, 1965.
- ^ SpringerLink Chinese Charms and the Iconographic Language of Good Luck and Heavenly Protection by Alex Chengyu Fang and François Thierry. City University of Hong Kong Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China – The French National Library, Paris, France. First Online: 10 December 2016. Retrieved: 1 June 2018.
- ^ Sportstune.com Chinese coins – for beginners by John Ferguson. Retrieved: 9 May 2018.
- ^ a b c d David Hartill (13 August 2020). "Cast Chinese Amulets". New Generation Publishing. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
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[Shouxing] commonly holds a giant peach of immortality in his right hand and a walking stick with attached gourd (holding special life-giving elixir) in his left.
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- ^ "Archived copy" 精美白铜吉语花钱赏析 – 20 October 2011 14:06:57 作者：安徽望江 宋康年 来源：收藏快报 浏览次数：483 网友评论 0 条。. "The Oriental Collection" (dongfang shoucang, 东方收藏) (in Chinese). 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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- ^ 孚佑大帝（浮雕） [复制链接] – 晓南风 – 从九品上.中下县主簿 – 147 – 帖子 – 12 – 关注 – 11 – 粉丝 – 电梯直达 – 楼主 – 发表于 4 November 2013 10:41:42 |只看该作者 |倒序浏览 信誉 3 / 粟米 728.78 / 恶评 0 / 不满 0 / 帖子 147 / 精华 0 / 在线 670 小时 / 注册 28 September 2008 Retrieved: 13 May 2018. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)
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- ^ Travel China Guide Year of the Snake. Retrieved: 8 July 2018.
- ^ "Things Chinese – Scorpion, xiēzi, xie zi (蠍 子), one of the 5 poisons (wŭdú, wuu dur 五毒)". P. A De Voe. 5 January 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ^ China Sage Animal symbolism in Chinese art 兽 shòu § Spider 蜘蛛 zhī zhū. Retrieved: 8 July 2018.
- ^ "The symbolic spider that wove its way through history". Lizeafloor (Ancient Origins – Reconstructing the story of humanity's past). 17 October 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ^ China Sage Bird symbolism in Chinese art 鸟 niǎo § Swallow 燕子 yàn zi. Retrieved: 7 July 2018.
- ^ | INKSPIRATION | Following the Black line. All things inky for death heads & leather lovers. – SYMBOLISM. Swallow. Published: 12 September 2013. Retrieved: 7 July 2018.
- ^ Light of Asia (Buddha Sakyamuni in Asian Art the Villa Del Prado Collection) – Buddhas-Online The Swastika in Asian Art. Quote: "Although the Swastika is often synonymous with the Nazi movement of the 20th century (actually a reverse swastika), it was widely used in ancient times as a symbol of prosperity and good fortune. It originally represented the revolving sun, fire, or life. One of the oldest known Swastikas was painted on a paleolithic cave at least 10,000 years ago." Retrieved: 7 July 2018.
- ^ Japanese Buddhism The Swastika in Japan. Retrieved: 7 July 2018.
- ^ "Yin and Yang: The Supreme Ultimate". Dale's Korean Temple Adventures. 29 February 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
- ^ "A Legendary Symbol Born from Chaos: The Philosophy of Yin and Yang". Kerry Sulivan (Ancient-Origins.net). 4 November 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
- ^ Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art (University of Oregon) Ten Symbols of Longevity and Late Joseon Korean Culture. On exhibition from 1 April 2014 to 28 June 2015. Retrieved: 4 July 2018.
- ^ Stanford Libraries The ten symbols of longevity : shipjangsaengdo : an important Korean folding screen in the collection of the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art at the University of Oregon. Retrieved: 4 July 2018.
- ^ The Ten Symbols of Longevity (Collection in Context) by Richard Gherke. Publication date: 25 August 2006. ISBN 0295986573. ISBN 978-0295986579.
- ^ "The Three Abundances". Amy Huang (Shape of Good Fortune – A student curated exhibition on Chinese auspicious images). 20 January 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
- ^ "rare Ming-style blue and white 'three abundances' soft-paste vase, meiping". 12 May 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
- ^ "Three Friends of Winter". Colby College. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ^ "Cultivating Virtue: Botanical Motifs and Symbols in East Asian Art". Harvard Art Museums. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- ^ Dusenbury, Mary (2004). Flowers, dragons and pine trees: Asian textiles in the Spencer Museum of Art (Bier, Carol; Foresman, Helen ed.). New York: Hudson Hills Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-55595-238-9.
- ^ Patricia Bjaaland Welch, Chinese Art : A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery (North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Pub., 2008), 49.
- ^ "Chinese Tiger in Painting and Its Symbolic Meaning". CNArtGallery at the Chinese Paintings Blog (Artisoo Paintings – Bring Chinese culture to the world). 13 March 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
- ^ "Tigers In Culture And Folklore". Amelia Meyer (Tigers – The most majestic cats in the world). 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
- ^ Nations Online Twelve Symbols of Sovereignty – The Twelve Symbols of Sovereignty (十二章紋) representing Chinese imperial authority appeared on the five-clawed dragon robes (Traditional Chinese: 龍袍 Chinese: 龙袍 lóng páo) of the emperor since the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050-771 B.C.). Navigation: Home – Earth – Continents – Asia – Thailand / China – Chinese New Year Photos – Chinese Customs and Traditions Glossary – Symbols of Sovereignty. Retrieved: 27 June 2018.
- ^ Asianart.com Hidden Meanings: Symbolism in Chinese Art by Gary Gach. Published: 29 November 2006. The exhibition Hidden Meanings: Symbolism in Chinese Art runs until 31 Dec at the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. It will be featured in the Exhibitions section of Asianart.com soon. Retrieved: 3 July 2018.
- ^ Government of Australia Imperial robe – CHINESE Portrait of an official Ming dynasty 1368–1644 China pigments and ink on silk 136.0 x 91.5 cm Felton Bequest, 1946 (1028-D4). Retrieved: 3 July 2018.
- ^ Government of Australia Imperial robe see DVD for additional material – 吉服 jifu Emperor's semi- formal court robe – 蝠 fu bat – 福 fu happiness. Retrieved: 3 July 2018.
- ^ Travel China Guide Qingming Festival (Tomb-sweeping Day). Retrieved: 3 July 2018.
- ^ China Sage Willow 柳 liǔ (Flower and Fruit symbolism in Chinese art 花朵 huā duǒ). Retrieved: 3 July 2018.
- ^ Academia.edu Ming Imperial Patronage of the Wudang Mountains and the Daoist God Zhenwu. Uploaded by Noelle Giuffrida. Retrieved: 1 July 2018.
- ^ Artxun 琴瑟友之. Retrieved: 1 July 2018.
Further reading
- Books about Chinese numismatic charms in the public domain. (Wikimedia Commons)
External links
- Media related to Chinese numismatic charms at Wikimedia Commons
- Yansheng coins in ancient China
- Amulets
- Talismans
- Chinese numismatic charms
