Educación en Holanda

Overview of education in the Netherlands

Educación en Holanda

Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Ciencia
ministro de Educación	Ingrid van Engelshoven y Arie Slob
Presupuesto nacional de educación (2014)
Presupuesto	32,1 mil millones de euros (42 mil millones de dólares)
Detalles generales
Idiomas primarios	Holandés bilingüe / trilingüe (con inglés, alemán, francés o frisón occidental (solo en Frisia ))
Sistema actual	1968 (Mammoetwet). 1999 (última revisión).

La educación en los Países Bajos se caracteriza por la división: la educación se orienta hacia las necesidades y los antecedentes del alumno. La educación se divide en escuelas para diferentes grupos de edad, algunos de los cuales se dividen en cursos para diferentes niveles educativos. Además, las escuelas se dividen en escuelas públicas , especiales (religiosas) y generales-especiales (neutrales), ^[1] aunque también hay algunas escuelas privadas. La escala de calificación holandesa va de 1 (muy deficiente) a 10 (sobresaliente).

El Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Estudiantes (PISA), coordinado por la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE), clasifica a la educación en los Países Bajos como la novena mejor del mundo a partir de 2008, siendo significativamente más alta que el promedio de la OCDE. ^[2]

Descripción general

La vida en los Países Bajos
Cultura Historia Personas Idioma Arquitectura Cocina Cultura Costumbres Vacaciones Música Religión Deporte
Economía Economía Reciclaje Impuestos Transporte
Sociedad Demografía Educación Costumbres Idiomas Medios de comunicación Cuidado de la salud
Gobierno La política exterior Derechos humanos Ley Cumplimiento de la ley Militar Política
Políticas Gedogen Aborto Política de drogas Eutanasia Pilarización Prostitución El matrimonio del mismo sexo
v t mi

La política educativa está coordinada por el Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Ciencia de los Países Bajos con los gobiernos municipales.

La educación obligatoria ( leerplicht ) en los Países Bajos comienza a los cinco años, aunque en la práctica, la mayoría de las escuelas aceptan niños a partir de los cuatro años. A partir de los dieciséis años hay una educación obligatoria parcial ( partiële leerplicht ), lo que significa que un alumno debe asistir a algún tipo de educación durante al menos dos días a la semana. ^[3] La educación obligatoria finaliza para los alumnos de dieciocho años en adelante o cuando obtienen un diploma en el nivel VWO, HAVO o MBO.

Las escuelas públicas, especiales (religiosas) y generales-especiales (neutrales) ^[1] son financiadas por el gobierno y reciben el mismo apoyo financiero del gobierno si se cumplen ciertos criterios. Aunque oficialmente son gratuitas, estas escuelas pueden solicitar una contribución de los padres ( ouderbijdrage ). Las escuelas privadas dependen de sus propios fondos, pero son muy poco comunes en los Países Bajos, hasta el punto de que incluso los monarcas holandeses han asistido tradicionalmente a escuelas públicas o especiales. Las escuelas públicas están controladas por los gobiernos locales. Las escuelas especiales están controladas por una junta escolar y generalmente se basan en una religión en particular.; las que asumen la igualdad entre religiones se conocen como escuelas generales-especiales. Estas diferencias están presentes en todos los niveles educativos.

Como resultado, puede haber escuelas primarias, secundarias y universidades católicas , protestantes , judías y musulmanas . Una escuela especial puede rechazar solicitudes de alumnos cuyos padres o tutores no estén de acuerdo con la filosofía educativa de la escuela , pero esto es poco común. En la práctica, hay poca diferencia entre las escuelas especiales y las escuelas públicas, excepto en las áreas tradicionalmente religiosas del cinturón bíblico holandés . Todos los tipos de escuelas (públicas, especiales y privadas) están bajo la jurisdicción de un organismo gubernamental llamado Inspectie van het Onderwijs (Inspección de Educación, también conocida como Onderwijsinspectie) que puede exigir a una escuela que cambie su política y calidad educativas a riesgo de cierre.

En las escuelas primarias y secundarias, los alumnos son evaluados anualmente por un equipo de maestros que determinan si avanzaron lo suficiente como para pasar al siguiente grado. Obligar a un alumno a retomar el curso ( blijven zitten ; literalmente, "permanecer sentado") tiene un impacto profundo en la vida del alumno en términos de contactos sociales y permanencia en el sistema educativo por más tiempo, pero es muy común, incluso en la mayoría de las corrientes académicas. como Gymnasium. Es más probable que algunas escuelas elijan esta opción que otras. En algunas escuelas existen mecanismos para evitar retomar años, como la enseñanza de recuperación y otras formas de orientación o hacer que vayan a un tipo diferente de educación, como pasar de HAVO a VMBO. Retomar un año también es común en las escuelas primarias. Dotado A los niños a veces se les concede la oportunidad de saltarse un año entero, sin embargo, esto ocurre raramente y suele ocurrir en las escuelas primarias.

Educación primaria

Entre los cuatro y los doce años, los niños asisten a la escuela primaria ( basisschool ; que es literalmente "escuela básica"). Esta escuela tiene ocho grados, llamados groep 1 (grupo 1) hasta groep 8 (grupo 8). La asistencia a la escuela no es necesaria hasta el grupo 2 (a los cinco años), pero casi todos los niños comienzan la escuela a los cuatro años (en el grupo 1). Los grupos 1 y 2 solían celebrarse en una institución separada similar al jardín de infancia ( kleuterschool ; literalmente, "escuela para niños pequeños"), hasta que se fusionó con las escuelas primarias en 1985. Sin embargo, continuaron existiendo jardines de infancia para niños menores de 5 años.

A partir del grupo 3, los niños aprenden a leer , escribir y hacer aritmética . La mayoría de las escuelas enseñan inglés en los grupos 7 y 8, pero algunas comienzan desde el grupo 1. En el grupo 8, la gran mayoría de las escuelas administran una prueba de aptitud llamada Cito Eindtoets Basisonderwijs (literalmente, "Cito final test de educación primaria", a menudo abreviado como Citotoets (prueba Cito), desarrollado por el Centraal instituut voor toetsontwikkeling ^[4](Instituto Central para el Desarrollo de Pruebas)), que está diseñado para recomendar el tipo de educación secundaria que mejor se adapta a un alumno. En los últimos años, esta prueba ha ganado autoridad, pero la recomendación del profesor del grupo 8 junto con la opinión del alumno y sus padres sigue siendo el factor crucial para elegir la forma correcta de educación secundaria.

La prueba Cito no es obligatoria; algunas escuelas, en cambio, administran el Nederlandse Intelligentietest voor Onderwijsniveau (" prueba de inteligencia holandesa para el nivel educativo", generalmente abreviado como NIO-toets ) o el Schooleindonderzoek ("prueba final de la escuela").

Un número considerable de escuelas primarias se basan principalmente en una filosofía educativa particular, por ejemplo, el Método Montessori , el Plan Pestalozzi , el Plan Dalton , el Plan Jena o Freinet . ^[1] La mayoría de estas son escuelas públicas, pero algunas escuelas especiales también se basan en una de estas filosofías educativas.

Educación secundaria

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Después de asistir a la educación primaria, los niños en los Países Bajos (en ese momento generalmente tienen 12 años) van directamente a la escuela secundaria ( voortgezet onderwijs ; literalmente "educación continua"). Con base en los consejos de la escuela primaria y los resultados de la prueba Cito, se elige entre voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (VMBO), hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (HAVO) o voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs(VWO) por el alumno y sus padres. Cuando no está claro qué tipo de educación secundaria se adapta mejor a un alumno, o si los padres insisten en que su hijo puede manejar un nivel de educación superior al que se les recomendó, hay un año de orientación tanto para VMBO / HAVO como para HAVO / VWO para determinar esto. En algunas escuelas, ni siquiera es posible hacer HAVO el primer año, así que tienes que hacer una combinación. Después de uno o dos años, el alumno continuará en el plan de estudios normal de cualquier nivel. Una escuela secundaria puede ofrecer uno o más niveles de educación, en una o varias ubicaciones. Un enfoque en la eficiencia (financiera) ha llevado a una mayor centralización, con grandes escuelas que ofrecen educación en todos o en la mayoría de los niveles educativos.

Dado que el sistema educativo holandés normalmente no tiene escuelas intermedias o secundarias, el primer año de todos los niveles en las escuelas secundarias holandesas se conoce como brugklas (literalmente "clase puente"), ya que conecta el sistema de la escuela primaria con la secundaria. sistema educativo. Durante este año, los alumnos aprenderán gradualmente a hacer frente a las diferencias entre los sistemas escolares, por ejemplo, a lidiar con una mayor responsabilidad personal. A veces la gente también llama brugklas al segundo año . Aunque el sistema educativo holandés en general no tiene escuelas intermedias, hay alrededor de 10 escuelas intermedias oficiales (llamadas tussenschool ) que reemplazan el séptimo y octavo grado de primaria y el primero y segundo de secundaria.

Es posible que los alumnos que hayan obtenido el diploma VMBO asistan a los dos últimos años de educación de nivel HAVO y rindan el examen HAVO, y que los alumnos con un diploma HAVO asistan a los dos últimos años de educación de nivel VWO y rindan el examen VWO. La razón fundamental es que esto permite que los alumnos accedan a un nivel más avanzado de educación superior. Este sistema actúa como una red de seguridad para disminuir los efectos negativos de la inmadurez o la falta de autoconocimiento de un niño. Por ejemplo, cuando un alumno brillante fue enviado a VMBO porque estaba desmotivado pero luego descubrió su potencial o adquirió el deseo de lograr mejores resultados, el alumno aún puede alcanzar un nivel más alto pasando a HAVO, pasando solo un año más en la escuela.La mayoría de las escuelas requieren un promedio de calificaciones en particular para garantizar que el alumno sea capaz de manejar el aumento de la carga de estudio y el mayor nivel de dificultad.

Aside from moving up, there is also a system in place where pupils can be demoted to a lower level of education. When for example a pupil has entered secondary education at a level they cannot cope with, or when they lack the interest to spend effort on their education resulting in poor grades, they can be sent from VWO to HAVO, from HAVO to VMBO, and from any level of VMBO to a lower level of VMBO.

VMBO

Main article: Voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs

The VMBO (voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs; literally "preparatory middle-level applied education", in international terms "pre-vocational education") education lasts four years, from the age of twelve to sixteen.^[5] It combines vocational training with theoretical education in languages, mathematics, history, arts and sciences. Sixty percent of students nationally are enrolled in VMBO. Students cannot choose between the four different levels of VMBO that differ in the ratio of practical vocational training and theoretical education, but the level depends from the score.^[5] Not all levels are necessarily taught in the same high school.

• Theoretische leerweg (VMBO-TL; literally, "theoretical learning path") has the largest share of theoretical education. It prepares for middle management and the MBO level of tertiary education, and allows students to resume vocational training at HAVO level.^[5] It was previously known as "MAVO".
• Gemengde leerweg (VMBO-GL; literally "mixed learning path") is in between VMBO-TL and VMBO-KBL. The progression route to graduation is similar to the VMBO-TL.^[5]
• Kaderberoepsgerichte Leerweg (VMBO-KBL; literally "middle management-oriented learning path") is composed of an equal amount of theoretical education and vocational training. It prepares for middle management and vocational training at the MBO level of tertiary education.
• Basisberoepsgerichte Leerweg (VMBO-BBL; literally "basic profession-oriented learning path") emphasizes vocational training and prepares for vocational training at the MBO level of tertiary education.
• Praktijkonderwijs (literally "practical education") mainly consists of vocational training. It is tailored to pupils who would otherwise not be able to obtain a VMBO-diploma. This form of on-the-job training is aimed at allowing pupils to enter the job market directly.

At all of these levels, Leerwegondersteunend onderwijs (literally "learning path supporting education") is offered, which is intended for pupils with educational or behavioural problems. These pupils are taught in small classes by specialized teachers.

Selective secondary education

Secondary education, which begins at the age of 12 and, as of 2008, is compulsory until the age of 18, is offered at several levels. The two programmes of general education that lead to higher education are HAVO (five years) and VWO (six years). Pupils are enrolled according to their ability, and although VWO is more rigorous, both HAVO and VWO can be characterised as selective types of secondary education. The HAVO diploma is the minimum requirement for admission to HBO (universities of applied sciences) but you can get into the HBO when you achieved an MBO Diploma. The VWO curriculum prepares pupils for university, and the VWO diploma grants access to WO (research universities), but you can get into university after successfully completing your propaedeuse (first year) of HBO as well.

Curriculum

The first three years of both HAVO and VWO are called the basisvorming (literally "basis formation"). All pupils follow the same subjects: languages, mathematics, history, arts and sciences. The last two years of HAVO and the last three years of VWO are referred to as the second phase (tweede fase), or upper secondary education. This part of the educational programme allows for differentiation by means of subject clusters that are called "profiles" (profielen). A profile is a set of different subjects that will make up for the largest part of the pupil's timetable. It emphasizes a specific area of study in which the pupil specializes. Compared to the HAVO route, the difficulty level of the profiles at the VWO is higher, and lasts three years instead of two. Pupils pick one of four profiles towards the end of their third year:

• Cultuur en Maatschappij (C&M; literally "culture and society") emphasizes arts and foreign languages (French, German and occasionally Spanish, Russian, Arabic and Turkish). In the province of Friesland, West Frisian is also taught. The mathematics classes focus on statistics and stochastics. This profile prepares for artistic and cultural training.
• Economie en Maatschappij (E&M; literally "economy and society") emphasizes social sciences, economics, and history. The mathematics classes focus on statistics and stochastics. This profile prepares for management and business administration.
• Natuur en Gezondheid (N&G; literally "nature and health") emphasizes biology and natural sciences. The mathematics classes focus on algebra, geometry and calculus. This profile is necessary to attend medical training.
• Natuur en Techniek (N&T; literally "nature and technology") emphasizes natural sciences. The mathematics classes focus on algebra, geometry and calculus. This profile is necessary to attend technological and natural science training.

Because each profile is designed to prepare pupils for certain areas of study at the tertiary level, some HBO and WO studies require a specific profile because prerequisite knowledge is required. For example, one cannot study engineering without having attained a certificate in physics at the secondary educational level. Aside from the subjects in the profile, the curriculum is composed of a compulsory segment that includes Dutch, English, mathematics and some minor subjects, and a free choice segment in which pupils can choose two or more subjects from other profiles. Picking particular subjects in the free curriculum space can result in multiple profiles, especially the profiles N&G and N&T that overlap for a large part.

HAVO

Main article: Hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs

The HAVO (hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs; literally "higher general continued education") has five grades and is attended from age twelve to seventeen. A HAVO diploma provides access to the HBO level (polytechnic) of tertiary education.

VWO

Main article: Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs

The VWO (voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs; literally "preparatory scientific education") has six grades and is typically attended from age twelve to eighteen. A VWO diploma provides access to WO training, although universities may set their own admission criteria (e.g. based on profile or on certain subjects).

The VWO is divided into atheneum and gymnasium. A gymnasium programme is similar to the atheneum, except that Latin and Greek are compulsory courses. Not all schools teach the ancient languages throughout the first three years (the "basic training"). Latin may start in either the first or the second year, while Greek may start in the second or third. At the end of the third and sometimes fourth year, a pupil may decide to take one or both languages in the second three years (the second phase), when the education in ancient languages is combined with education in ancient culture. The subject that they choose, although technically compulsory, is subtracted from their free space requirement.

VWO-plus, also known as atheneum-plus, VWO+, Masterclass or lyceum, offers extra subjects like philosophy, additional foreign languages and courses to introduce students to scholarly research. Schools offer this option rarely and sometimes only for the first three years, it is not an official school level.

Some schools offer bilingual VWO (Tweetalig VWO, or TVWO), where the majority of the lessons are taught in English. In some schools near the Dutch–German border, pupils may choose a form of TVWO that offers 50% of the lessons in German and 50% in Dutch.

VAVO

VAVO (Voortgezet algemeen volwassenen onderwijs; literally "extended general adult education") is an adult school, which teaches VMBO/MAVO, HAVO or VWO, for students who in the past were unable to receive their diploma, who want to receive certificates for certain subjects only, or who for example received their diploma for HAVO but want to receive their VWO-diploma within one or two years.

International education

As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed the Netherlands as having 152 international schools.^[6] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and is international in its orientation."^[6] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.^[7]

Vocational education and higher education

In the Netherlands there are 3 main educational routes after secondary education:

• MBO (middle-level applied education), which is the equivalent of junior college education. Designed to prepare students for either skilled trades and technical occupations and workers in support roles in professions such as engineering, accountancy, business administration, nursing, medicine, architecture, and criminology or for additional education at another college with more advanced academic material.^[8]
• HBO (higher professional education), which is the equivalent of college education and has a professional orientation. The HBO is taught in vocational universities (hogescholen), of which there are over 40 in the Netherlands. Note that the hogescholen are not allowed to name themselves university in Dutch. This also stretches to English and therefore HBO institutions are known as universities of applied sciences.^[9]
• WO (Scientific education), which is the equivalent of university level education and has an academic orientation.^[10]

HBO graduates can be awarded two titles, which are Baccalaureus (bc.) and Ingenieur (ing.). At a WO institution, many more bachelor's and master's titles can be awarded. Bachelor's degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Master's degrees: Master of Arts (MA), Master of Laws (LLM) and Master of Science (MSc). The PhD title is a research degree awarded upon completion and defense of a doctoral thesis.^[11]

Vocational education

MBO

The MBO (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs; literally "middle-level applied education") is oriented towards vocational training and is the equivalent of junior college education. Many pupils with a VMBO-diploma attend MBO. The MBO lasts one to four years, depending on the level. There are 4 levels offered to students:^[5]

• MBO level 1: Assistant training. It lasts 1 year maximum. It is focused on simple executive tasks. If the student graduates, they can apply to MBO level 2.
• MBO level 2: Basic vocational education. The programme lasts 2 to 3 years and is focused on executive tasks.
• MBO level 3: The programme lasts 3 to 4 years. Students are taught to achieve their tasks independently.
• MBO level 4: Middle Management VET. It lasts 3 to 4 years and prepares for jobs with higher responsibility. It also opens the gates to Higher education.

At all levels, MBO offers 2 possible pathways: a school-based education, where Training within a company takes between 20 and 59% of the curriculum, or an apprenticeship education, where this training represents more than 60% of the study time. Both paths lead to the same certification.^[5] Students in MBO are mostly between 16 and 35. Students of the "apprenticeship" path are overall older (25+).^[5]After MBO (4 years), pupils can enroll in HBO or enter the job market. Many different MBO studies are typically offered at a regionaal opleidingen centrum (ROC; literally "regional education center"). Most ROCs are concentrated on one or several locations in larger cities. Exceptions include schools offering specialized MBO studies such as agriculture, and schools adapted to pupils with a learning disability that require training in small groups or at an individual level.

Higher education

See also: List of universities in the Netherlands and Academic ranks in the Netherlands

Higher education in the Netherlands is offered at two types of institutions: universities of applied sciences (hogescholen; HBO), open to graduates of HAVO, VWO, and MBO, and research universities (universiteiten; WO) open only to VWO-graduates and HBO graduates (including HBO propaedeuse-graduates). The former comprise general institutions and institutions specializing in a particular field, such as agriculture, fine and performing arts, or educational training, while the latter comprise twelve general universities as well as three technical universities.^[12]

Since September 2002, the higher education system in the Netherlands has been organised around a three-cycle system consisting of bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees, to conform and standardize the teaching in both the HBO and the WO according to the Bologna process.^{[citation needed]} At the same time, the ECTS credit system was adopted as a way of quantifying a student's workload (both contact hours, and hours spent studying and preparing assignments). Under Dutch law, one credit represents 28 hours of work and 60 credits represents one year of full-time study.^{[citation needed]} Both systems have been adopted to improve international recognition and compliance.

Despite these changes, the binary system with a distinction between research-oriented education and professional higher education remains in use. These three types of degree programmes differ in terms of the number of credits required to complete the programme and the degree that is awarded. A WO bachelor's programme requires the completion of 180 credits (3 years) and graduates obtain the degree of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Laws degree (B.A./B.Sc./LL.B.), depending on the discipline.^{[citation needed]} An HBO bachelor's programme requires the completion of 240 credits (4 years), and graduates obtain a degree indicating their field of study, for example Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng.) or Bachelor of Nursing (B. Nursing).^{[citation needed]} The old title appropriate to the discipline in question (bc., ing.) may still be used.

Master's programmes at the WO level mostly require the completion of 60 or 120 credits (1 or 2 years). Some programmes require 90 (1.5 years) or more than 120 credits. In engineering, agriculture, mathematics, and the natural sciences, 120 credits are always required, while in (veterinary) medicine or pharmacy the master's phase requires 180 credits (3 years). Other studies that usually have 60-credit "theoretical master's programmes" sometimes offer 120-credit technical or research masters. Graduates obtain the degree of Master of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Laws or the not legally recognized degree Master of Philosophy^[13] (M.A./M.Sc./LL.M./M.Phil.), depending on the discipline. The old title appropriate to the discipline in question (drs., mr., ir.) may still be used. Master's programmes at the HBO level require the completion of 60 to 120 credits, and graduates obtain a degree indicating the field of study, for example Master of Social Work (MSW).

The third cycle of higher education is offered only by research universities, which are entitled to award the country's highest academic degree, the doctorate, which entitles a person to use the title Doctor (Dr.). The process by which a doctorate is obtained is referred to as "promotion" (promotie). The doctorate is primarily a research degree, for which a dissertation based on original research must be written and publicly defended. This research is typically conducted while working at a university as a promovendus (research assistant).

Requirements for admission

To enroll in a WO bachelor's programme, a student is required to hold a VWO diploma or to have completed the first year (60 credits) of an HBO programme resulting in a propaedeuse, often combined with additional (VWO) certificates. The minimum admission requirement for HBO is either a HAVO school diploma or a level-4 (highest) MBO diploma. In some cases, pupils are required to have completed a specific subject cluster. A quota (numerus fixus) applies to admission to certain programmes, primarily in the medical sciences, and places are allocated using a weighted lottery. Applicants older than 21 years who do not possess one of these qualifications can qualify for admission to higher education on the basis of an entrance examination and assessment.

For admission to all master's programmes, a bachelor's degree in one or more specified disciplines is required, in some cases in combination with other requirements. Graduates with an HBO bachelor's may have to complete additional requirements for admission to a WO master's programme. A pre-master programme may provide admission to a master's programme in a different discipline than that of the bachelor's degree.

Accreditation and quality assurance

A guaranteed standard of higher education is maintained through a national system of legal regulation and quality assurance.

The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science is responsible for legislation pertaining to education. A system of accreditation was introduced in 2002. Since then, the new Accreditation Organization of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO) has been responsible for accreditation. According to the section of the Dutch Higher Education Act that deals with the accreditation of higher education (2002), degree programmes offered by research universities and universities of professional education will be evaluated according to established criteria, and programmes that meet those criteria will be accredited, that is, recognised for a period of six years. Only accredited programmes are eligible for government funding, and students receive financial aid only when enrolled in an accredited programme. Only accredited programmes issue legally recognised degrees. Accredited programmes are listed in the publicly accessible Central Register of Higher Education Study Programmes (CROHO).^[14] Institutions are autonomous in their decision to offer non-accredited programmes, subject to internal quality assessment. These programmes do not receive government funding.

HBO

The HBO (Hoger beroepsonderwijs; literally "higher professional education") is oriented towards higher learning and professional training. HBO is therefore the equivalent of college education in the United States. After HBO (typically 4–6 years), pupils can enroll in a (professional) master's program (1–2 years) or enter the job market. In some situations, students with an MBO or a VWO diploma receive exemptions for certain courses, so the student can do HBO in three years. The HBO is taught in vocational universities (hogescholen), of which there are over 40 in the Netherlands, each of which offers a broad variety of programs, with the exception of some that specialize in arts or agriculture. Note that the hogescholen are not allowed to name themselves university in Dutch. This also stretches to English and therefore HBO institutions are known as universities of applied sciences.

WO

The WO (wetenschappelijk onderwijs; literally "scientific education") is only taught at research universities. It is oriented towards higher learning in the arts or sciences. After the bachelor's programme (typically 3 years), students can enroll in a master's programme (typically 1, 2 or 3 years) or enter the job market. After gaining a master, a student can apply for a 3 or 4 year PhD candidate position at a university (NB a master's degree is the mandatory entry level for the Dutch PhD program). There are three technical universities, an Open University, six general universities and four universities with unique specializations in the Netherlands,^[15] although the specialized universities have increasingly added more general studies to their curriculum.

History of education

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A national system of education was introduced in the Netherlands around the year 1800. The Maatschappij tot Nut van 't Algemeen ("Society for the Common Good") took advantage of the revolutionary tide in the Batavian Republic to propose a number of educational reforms. The Education law of 1806 encouraged the establishment of primary schools in all municipalities and instated provincial supervision. It also introduced a mandatory curriculum comprising Dutch language, reading, writing, and arithmetics. History, geography, and modern languages such as French, German and English were optional subjects. All newly established schools needed consent from the authorities or would be disbanded as freedom of education was not proclaimed until the Constitutional Reform of 1848.. In addition to primary education, gymnasia (or, Latin schools) and universities constituted higher education. What could be considered secondary education or vocational training was unregulated.^{[citation needed]}

This situation changed in the second half of the nineteenth century in the wake of social and economic modernisation. In 1857, a Lower Education law replaced the 1806 law supplementing the mandatory curriculum with geometry, geography, history, natural sciences, and singing. Modern languages and mathematics remained optional. Drawing and physical education would be added in subsequent reforms. The introduction of the so-called Kinderwetje (literally, "children's little law") by legislator Samuel van Houten in 1874 forbade child labour under the age of 12. An amendment in 1900 led to compulsory education for children aged 6–12 in 1901.

A political struggle during several decades, from about 1848, culminated in the equalization of public financing for religious schools and public schools in 1917. This so-called school struggle (schoolstrijd) was very important for the emancipation of the Roman Catholic part of the country, which is traditionally mainly Protestant.

Secondary education was introduced in 1863. This now comprised the Hogere burgerschool (hbs; "higher commoner's school") and the polytechnic. Classical education was still given in higher education: the gymnasium and universities. This distinction between the secondary and higher based on the type of education rather than the students' age would gradually alter in the twentieth century. After 1917, an hbs-diploma could also give access to a number of courses at universities, while the lyceum, combining hbs and gymnasium, became an increasingly common type of school.

Thus, by the 1960s, a range of school types existed:

• Kleuterschool - kindergarten (ages 4–6).
• Lagere school - primary education, (ages 6–12), followed by either;
  • Individueel technisch onderwijs (ito; literally, "individual technical education") - now vmbo - praktijkonderwijs (ages 12 to 16).
  • Ambachtsschool (vocational training) - comparable with vmbo - gemengde leerweg, but there was more emphasis on thorough technical knowledge (ages 12–16).
  • (Meer) Uitgebreid lager onderwijs (mulo, later ulo; literally, "(further) extended primary education") - comparable with vmbo - theoretical learning path (ages 12 to 16).
  • Hogere burgerschool (hbs; literally, "higher commoner's school", mixed education) - comparable with atheneum (ages 12–17).
  • Middelbare meisjesschool (mms; literally, "middle-level girls' school") - comparable with havo (ages 12–17).
  • Gymnasium - secondary education, comparable with atheneum with compulsory Greek and Latin added (ages 12 to 18). At the age of 15 one could choose between the alpha profile (gymnasium-α; mostly languages, including compulsory Greek and Latin) or the beta profile (gymnasium-β; mostly natural sciences and mathematics). A student wanting to complete gymnasium-β would have to pass exams in the languages Ancient Greek, Latin, French, German, English, Dutch (all consisting of three separate parts: an oral book report, a written essay, and a written summary), pass the sciences physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics (in mathematics, students were assigned to two of the three sub-fields analytic geometry/algebra, trigonometry, and solid geometry based on a draw), and attend history and geography, which were taught until the final year without examinations.
  • Lyceum - a combination of gymnasium and hbs, with alpha and beta streams which pupils elected after a two-year (sometimes one-year) bridging period (ages 12–18).
• Middelbare and hogere technische school (mts/hts; literally, middle and higher level applied/technical training), similar to polytechnic education.
• University - only after completing hbs, mms, gymnasium or hts.

The different forms of secondary education were streamlined in the Wet op het voortgezet onderwijs (literally, "law on secondary education") in 1963 at the initiative of legislator Jo Cals. The law is more widely known as the Mammoetwet (literally, "mammoth act"), a name it got when ARP-MP Anton Bernard Roosjen was reported to have said "Let that mammoth remain in fairyland" because he considered the reforms too extensive.^[16] The law was enforced in 1968. It introduced four streams of secondary education, depending on the capabilities of the students (lts/vbo, mavo, havo and vwo) and expanded compulsory education to 9 years. In 1975 this was changed to 10 years.

The law created a system of secondary education on which the current secondary school is based albeit with significant adaptations. Reforms in the late 1990s aimed at introducing information management skills, increasing the pupils' autonomy and personal responsibility, and promoting integration between different subjects. Lts/vbo and mavo were fused into vmbo, while the structure of havo and vwo were changed by the introduction of a three-year basisvorming (primary secondary education; literally, "basic forming"), followed by the tweede fase (upper secondary education; literally, second phase"). The basisvorming standardized subjects for the first three years of secondary education and introduced two new compulsory subjects (technical skills and care skills), while the tweede fase allowed for differentiation through profiles.

The influx and emancipation of workers from Islamic countries led to the introduction of Islamic schools. In 2003, in total 35 Islamic schools were in operation.^[17]

By 2004, the municipalities of the Netherlands were obliged to activate a regional care structure for individual students dealing with health and social problems. Each school was obliged to activate a care team at least composed by a physician/nurse, a school social worker and the school care coordinator. In the context of the schoolBeat project, each primary and secondary school of the Maastricht region designated a professional advisor who was employed by a drug prevention, werfare or mental health organization closely linked to the regional public health institute.^[18]

Terms and school holidays

In general, all schools in the Netherlands observe a summer holiday, and several weeks of one or two-week holidays during the year. Also schools are closed during public holidays. Academic terms only exist at the tertiary education level. Institutions are free to divide their year, but it is most commonly organized into four quadmesters.

The summer holiday lasts six weeks in elementary school, and starts and ends in different weeks for the northern, middle and southern regions of the country to prevent the national population from all going on vacation simultaneously. For the six-week summer holidays of all high schools, the same system applies. Universities have longer holidays (about 2 months, but this may include re-examinations) and usually start the year in late August or early September. The summer holiday is followed by a one-week autumn holiday in the second half of October at all levels except for most research universities. At elementary and high school levels, the week depends on the north/middle/south division also used around the summer holidays. There is a two-week Christmas holiday that includes New Year's in the second half of December, and a one-week spring holiday in the second half of February (around Carnival). The last school holiday of the year is a one- or two-week May holiday around 27 April (Kings Day); sometimes including Ascension Day. Easter does not have a week of holiday, schools are only closed on Good Friday and Easter Monday. The summer holiday dates are compulsory, the other dates are government recommendations and can be changed by each school, as long as the right number of weeks is observed.

Criticism

The Dutch educational system divides children in educational levels around the age of 12.^[19] In the last year of primary school, a test, most commonly the “Cito Eindtoets Basisonderwijs”, is taken to help choose the appropriate level of secondary education/school type. Although the ensuing recommendation is not binding, it does have great influence on the decision making process. Unless caretakers identify the need,^[20] in most cases an IQ test is not given to a child, which may result in some children who for various secondary reasons do not function well at school, but who do have the academic ability to learn at the higher levels, mistakenly being sent to the lower levels of education.^[21] Within a few years these children can fall far behind in development compared to their peers who were sent to the higher levels.^{[citation needed]}

It is possible for students to move up (or down) from one level to another level. If there is doubt early on about the level chosen, an orientation year may be offered. However, moving up a level later on may require a lot of extra effort, motivation and time resulting in some students not reaching their full potential.^{[citation needed]}

Research has shown that 30% of gifted children^[22] are (mistakenly) advised to attend the VMBO, the lower level to which 60% of twelve-year-olds are initially sent. In this particular group of children there is a higher than normal percentage of drop-outs (leaving school without any diploma).

Although IQ testing may aid to reduce mistakes in choosing levels, research has also shown that IQ is not fixed at the age of 12^[23] and may still improve with exposure to the proper educational stimuli, which the current Dutch system by design (early separation into levels) may fail to provide.

Another area of concern is that although parents have the right to have their voice heard in the school's decision making process, not all parents make use of this right equally, resulting in unequal opportunities for children.^[24]

A recent study by University of Groningen, has also shown strong correlation between lower parental income and advise given to students to follow lower education https://kansenkaart.nl/maps/schooladvieslager

https://www.volkskrant.nl/nieuws-achtergrond/is-kansenongelijkheid-in-het-onderwijs-dan-toch-geen-typisch-stadsprobleem~be1c4135/

The Programme for International Student Assessment has found that the Netherlands' educational standing compared to other nations has been declining since 2006, and is now only slightly above average.^[25] School inspectors are warning that reading standards among primary school children are lower than 20 years ago, and the Netherlands has now dropped down the international rankings. A similar trend is seen in arithmetic, maths and science.^[26]

See also

• Academic grading in the Netherlands
• Comprehensive school
• Open access in the Netherlands

References

1. "Pagina niet gevonden – LOBO".
2. "OECD.org" (PDF).
3. "Leerplicht". www.rijksoverheid.nl (in Dutch). Ministerie van Onderwijs Cultuur en Wetenschap. 11 December 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
4. "Cito - toetsen, examens, volgsystemen, certificering & onderzoek".
5. "Vocational Education in the Netherlands". UNESCO-UNEVOC. August 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
6. "International School Consultancy Group > Information > ISC News". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
7. "The new local". The Economist. 17 December 2014.
8. https://www.government.nl/topics/secondary-vocational-education-mbo-and-higher-education/secondary-vocational-education-mbo
9. https://www.government.nl/topics/secondary-vocational-education-mbo-and-higher-education/higher-education
10. https://www.government.nl/topics/secondary-vocational-education-mbo-and-higher-education/higher-education
11. https://www.tudelft.nl/en/education/information-and-experience/whats-the-difference-between-hbo-and-wo/
12. "Alle universiteiten in Nederland". MijnStudentenleven.
13. The Dutch Department of Education, Culture and Science has decided not to recognize the MPhil degree. Accordingly, some Dutch universities have decided to continue to grant the MPhil degree but also offer a legally recognized degree such as M.A. or M.Sc. to those who receive the M.Phil. degree, see e.g. De MPhil graad wordt niet meer verleend Archived July 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
14. The CROHO register is the list of all recognized Dutch studies offered at faculties, past or present, since the recognition system was introduced in the Netherlands. It is available at IB-groep.nl Archived 2009-06-03 at the Wayback Machine
15. VSNU (2011). Is er geen efficiencywinst te halen wanneer Nederlandse universiteiten meer gaan samenwerken en zich verder specialiseren? Archived 2012-03-20 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 11, 2011.
16. Trouw (in Dutch)
17. W.A. Shadid (2003). "Controlling lessons on religion on Islamic schools, based on an article in Vernieuwing. Tijdschrift voor Onderwijs en Opvoeding". Interculturele communicatie (in Dutch). Retrieved 29 April 2015.
18. Leurs, Mariken; Schaalma, Herman; Jansen, Maria; Mur-Veeman, Ingrid; St Leger, Lawrence; De Vries, Nanne (September 1, 2005). Development of a collaborative model to improve school health promotion in the Netherlands. Health Promotion International. 20. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–305. doi:10.1093/heapro/dai004. ISSN 0957-4824. OCLC 1133727050. PMID 15797902. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
19. "Map of Dutch education system" (PDF).
20. "Slachtoffer van de Cito-toets - Sargasso". 6 March 2011.
21. "De Citotoets geeft nog vaak een verkeerd advies - Binnenland - Voor nieuws, achtergronden en columns". De Volkskrant.
22. "Hoogbegaafdheid". Centrum Regenboogkind.
23. Bouchard, Thomas J. (2013). "The Wilson Effect: The Increase in Heritability of IQ With Age". Twin Research and Human Genetics. 16 (5): 923–930. doi:10.1017/thg.2013.54. ISSN 1832-4274. PMID 23919982.
24. Aroon, Shiam (1 June 2014). "WFT basis". Beroepen.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 23 July 2017.
25. "Compare your country to the OECD average". PISA. OECD. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
26. "Education standards at Dutch schools have been slipping for 20 years: inspectors". DutchNews.nl. DutchNews. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.

Further reading

• Passow, A. Harry et al. The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems. (1976) online
• Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Algemene informatie over de leerplicht, retrieved June 23, 2006.

External links

• Netherlands Organisation for Internationalisation of Higher Education
• Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
• Information on education in Netherlands, OECD - Contains indicators and information about Netherlands and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries
• Vocational education in the Netherlands, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2012) - Overview of the vocational system
• Diagram of Dutch education system, OECD - Using 1997 ISCED classification of programmes and typical ages. Also in Dutch
• Education in the Netherlands, a webdossier of Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education Server