Coordenadas : 10 ° S 52 ° W / 10 ° S 52 ° W
Brasil ( portugués : Brasil ; portugués brasileño: [bɾaˈziw] ), [nt 4] oficialmente la República Federativa de Brasil , [a] es el país más grande de América del Sur y América Latina . Cubre un área de 8.515.767 kilómetros cuadrados (3.287.956 millas cuadradas), con una población de más de 211 millones. Brasil es el quinto país más grande y el sexto más poblado del mundo , compuesto por 26 estados y el Distrito Federal . Es el país más grande para tener portugués como unidioma oficial y único en las Américas . [12] [13] Brasil es una de las naciones más multiculturales y étnicamente diversas del mundo, debido a más de un siglo de inmigración masiva de todo el mundo . [14] También es el país de mayoría católica romana más poblado , y su capital es Brasilia , mientras que la ciudad más grande es São Paulo .
República Federativa de Brasil República Federativa do Brasil ( portugués ) | |
---|---|
Capital | Brasilia 15 ° 47′S 47 ° 52′W / 15,783 ° S 47,867 ° W |
Ciudad más grande | São Paulo 23 ° 33′S 46 ° 38′W / 23.550 ° S 46.633 ° W |
Idioma oficial e idioma nacional | Portugués [2] |
Grupos étnicos (2010) [3] [4] | |
Religión (2010) [5] [6] | 88,8% Cristianismo —64,6% Católico romano —22,2% Protestante —2,0% Otro cristiano 8,0% Sin religión 2,0% Espiritismo 1,2% Otras religiones |
Demonym (s) | brasileño |
Gobierno | Federal presidencial constitucional república |
• presidente | Jair Bolsonaro |
• Vicepresidente | Hamilton Mourão |
• Presidente de la Cámara de Diputados | Arthur Lira |
• Presidente del Senado Federal | Rodrigo Pacheco |
• Presidente del Tribunal Supremo Federal | Luiz Fux |
Legislatura | Congreso Nacional |
• Cámara alta | Senado federal |
• Cámara baja | Cámara de Diputados |
Independencia del Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil y Algarves | |
• Declarado | 7 de septiembre de 1822 |
• Reconocido | 29 de agosto de 1825 |
• República | 15 de noviembre de 1889 |
• Constitución actual | 5 de octubre de 1988 |
Área | |
• Total | 8.515.767 km 2 (3.287.956 millas cuadradas) ( quinto ) |
• Agua (%) | 0,65 |
Población | |
• Estimación 2019 | 210,147,125 [7] ( 6º ) |
• Densidad | 25 / km 2 (64,7 / millas cuadradas) ( 200 ° ) |
PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2021 |
• Total | $ 3.328 billones [8] ( octavo ) |
• Per cápita | $ 15,642 [8] ( 84º ) |
PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2021 |
• Total | $ 1.491 billones [8] ( 13º ) |
• Per cápita | $ 7,010 [8] ( 87º ) |
Gini (2019) | 53,4 [9] alto · décimo |
IDH (2019) | 0,765 [10] alto · 84º |
Divisa | Real (R $) ( BRL ) |
Zona horaria | UTC −2 a −5 ( BRT ) |
Formato de fecha | dd / mm / aaaa ( CE ) |
Electricidad de red | 220 V, 60 Hz y 127 V, 50 Hz |
Lado de conducción | derecho |
Código de llamada | +55 |
Código ISO 3166 | BR |
TLD de Internet | .br |
Brasil limita con el Océano Atlántico al este y tiene una línea costera de 7.491 kilómetros (4.655 millas). [15] Cubre aproximadamente la mitad de la masa continental de América del Sur y limita con todos los demás países del continente, excepto con Ecuador y Chile . [16] Su cuenca del Amazonas incluye un vasto bosque tropical , hogar de diversa vida silvestre , una variedad de sistemas ecológicos y extensos recursos naturales que abarcan numerosos hábitats protegidos . [15] Este patrimonio ambiental único convierte a Brasil en uno de los diecisiete países megadiversos y es objeto de gran interés mundial, ya que la degradación ambiental a través de procesos como la deforestación tiene impactos directos en problemas globales como el cambio climático y la pérdida de biodiversidad .
Brasil fue habitado por numerosas naciones tribales antes del desembarco en 1500 del explorador Pedro Álvares Cabral , quien reclamó el área para el Imperio Portugués . Siguió siendo una colonia portuguesa hasta 1808 cuando la capital del imperio fue trasladada de Lisboa a Río de Janeiro . En 1815, la colonia fue elevada al rango de reino tras la formación del Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil y los Algarves . En 1822, Brasil logró la independencia con la creación del Imperio de Brasil . La ratificación de la primera constitución en 1824 condujo a la formación de una legislatura bicameral, ahora llamada Congreso Nacional . El país se convirtió en una república presidencial en 1889 tras un golpe de estado militar . Una junta militar autoritaria llegó al poder en 1964 y gobernó hasta 1985, después de lo cual se reanudó el gobierno civil. La constitución actual de Brasil , formulada en 1988, lo define como una república federal democrática . [17]
Brasil es una potencia regional y una potencia intermedia en los asuntos internacionales , y ocupa un lugar destacado en el Índice de Desarrollo Humano . Es un país recientemente industrializado , con la mayor participación de la riqueza mundial en América Latina. La economía de Brasil es la decimotercera más grande del mundo por PIB nominal y la octava por PPA . Es uno de los principales graneros del mundo , siendo el mayor productor de café de los últimos 150 años. [18] Debido a su reconocimiento e influencia internacional, el país se clasifica posteriormente como una potencia emergente . [19] Sin embargo, el país mantiene altos niveles de corrupción y delincuencia, teniendo la mayor cantidad de asesinatos registrados en 2018. [20]
Brasil es miembro fundador de las Naciones Unidas , el G20 , los BRICS , el Mercosur , la Organización de Estados Americanos , la Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos y la Comunidad de Países de Lengua Portuguesa . También alberga el decimotercer número más alto del mundo de sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO .
Etimología
La palabra "Brasil" probablemente proviene de la palabra portuguesa para palo de Brasil , un árbol que alguna vez creció abundantemente a lo largo de la costa brasileña. [21] En portugués, el palo de Brasil se llama pau-brasil , con la palabra brasil comúnmente dada la etimología "rojo como una brasa ", formado por brasa ("ascua") y el sufijo -il (de -iculum o -ilium ). [22] Dado que el palo de Brasil produce un tinte rojo intenso, fue muy valorado por la industria textil europea y fue el primer producto explotado comercialmente de Brasil. [23] A lo largo del siglo XVI, los pueblos indígenas (en su mayoría tupi ) cosecharon grandes cantidades de palo de Brasil a lo largo de la costa brasileña, que vendieron la madera a comerciantes europeos (en su mayoría portugueses, pero también franceses) a cambio de una variedad de bienes de consumo europeos. [24]
El nombre oficial portugués de la tierra, en los registros portugueses originales, era la "Tierra de la Santa Cruz" ( Terra da Santa Cruz ), [25] pero los marineros y comerciantes europeos comúnmente la llamaban simplemente la "Tierra de Brasil" ( Terra do Brasil ) debido al comercio de madera de Brasil. [26] La denominación popular eclipsó y eventualmente suplantó el nombre oficial portugués. Algunos de los primeros marineros la llamaron la "Tierra de los loros". [27]
En el idioma guaraní , un idioma oficial de Paraguay , Brasil se llama "Pindorama". Este fue el nombre que la población indígena le dio a la región, que significa "tierra de las palmeras". [28]
Historia
Era pre-Cabraline
Algunos de los primeros restos humanos encontrados en las Américas , la Mujer Luzia , fueron encontrados en el área de Pedro Leopoldo , Minas Gerais y proporcionan evidencia de habitación humana que se remonta al menos a 11.000 años. [31] [32]
La cerámica más antigua jamás encontrada en el hemisferio occidental fue excavada en la cuenca del Amazonas de Brasil y el radiocarbono data de hace 8.000 años (6000 a. C.). La cerámica se encontró cerca de Santarém y proporciona evidencia de que la región del bosque tropical sustentaba una cultura prehistórica compleja. [33] La cultura Marajoara floreció en Marajó en el delta del Amazonas desde el 400 d. C. hasta el 1400 d. C., desarrollando alfarería sofisticada, estratificación social , grandes poblaciones, construcción de montículos y formaciones sociales complejas como los cacicazgos . [30]
Alrededor de la época de la llegada de los portugueses, el territorio de Brasil actual tenía una población indígena estimada de 7 millones de personas, [34] en su mayoría seminómadas, que subsistían de la caza, la pesca, la recolección y la agricultura migrante. La población indígena de Brasil comprendía varios grupos étnicos indígenas importantes (por ejemplo, los tupis , los guaraníes , los ges y los arawaks ). El pueblo Tupí se subdividió en Tupiniquins y Tupinambás , y también hubo muchas subdivisiones de los otros grupos. [35]
Antes de la llegada de los europeos, los límites entre estos grupos y sus subgrupos estaban marcados por guerras que surgían por diferencias en la cultura, el idioma y las creencias morales. [36] Estas guerras también involucraron acciones militares a gran escala en tierra y agua, con rituales caníbales sobre prisioneros de guerra . [37] [38] Si bien la herencia tenía algo de peso, el estado de liderazgo fue más moderado con el tiempo que asignado en las ceremonias y convenciones de sucesión. [36] La esclavitud entre los indios tenía un significado diferente al que tenía para los europeos, ya que se originó a partir de una organización socioeconómica diversa, en la que las asimetrías se traducían en relaciones de parentesco . [39]
Colonización portuguesa
La tierra ahora llamada Brasil fue reclamada para el Imperio portugués el 22 de abril de 1500, con la llegada de la flota portuguesa comandada por Pedro Álvares Cabral . [40] Los portugueses se encontraron con pueblos indígenas divididos en varias tribus, la mayoría de las cuales hablaban idiomas de la familia tupí-guaraní y lucharon entre ellos. [41] Aunque el primer asentamiento se fundó en 1532, la colonización comenzó efectivamente en 1534, cuando el rey Juan III de Portugal dividió el territorio en las quince Colonias Capitanías privadas y autónomas de Brasil . [42] [43]
Sin embargo, las tendencias descentralizadas y desorganizadas de las colonias de capitanía resultaron problemáticas, y en 1549 el rey portugués las reestructuró en la Gobernación General de Brasil en la ciudad de Salvador , que se convirtió en la capital de una colonia portuguesa única y centralizada en América del Sur. [43] [44] En los dos primeros siglos de la colonización, los grupos indígenas y europeos vivieron en guerra constante, estableciendo alianzas oportunistas con el fin de obtener ventajas entre sí. [45] [46] [47] [48] A mediados del siglo XVI, el azúcar de caña se había convertido en la exportación más importante de Brasil, [41] [49] y los esclavos adquiridos en África subsahariana , en el mercado de esclavos de África occidental [50] (no solo los de los aliados portugueses de sus colonias en Angola y Mozambique ), se había convertido en su mayor importación, [51] [52] para hacer frente a las plantaciones de caña de azúcar, debido a la creciente demanda internacional de azúcar brasileña. [53] [54] El Brasil portugués recibió más de 2,8 millones de esclavos de África entre los años 1500 y 1800. [55]
A fines del siglo XVII, las exportaciones de caña de azúcar comenzaron a declinar [56] y el descubrimiento de oro por los bandeirantes en la década de 1690 se convertiría en la nueva columna vertebral de la economía de la colonia, fomentando una fiebre del oro brasileña [57] que atrajo a miles de nuevos colonos a Brasil desde Portugal y todas las colonias portuguesas del mundo. [58] Este aumento del nivel de inmigración a su vez provocó algunos conflictos entre los recién llegados y los antiguos colonos. [59]
Las expediciones portuguesas conocidas como Bandeiras avanzaron gradualmente las fronteras originales coloniales de Portugal en América del Sur hasta aproximadamente las fronteras brasileñas actuales. [60] [61] En esta época, otras potencias europeas intentaron colonizar partes de Brasil, en incursiones que los portugueses tuvieron que combatir, en particular los franceses en Río durante la década de 1560 , en Maranhão durante la década de 1610 y los holandeses en Bahía y Pernambuco. , durante la Guerra Holandés-Portuguesa , tras el fin de la Unión Ibérica . [62]
La administración colonial portuguesa en Brasil tenía dos objetivos que garantizarían el orden colonial y el monopolio de la colonia más grande y rica de Portugal: mantener bajo control y erradicar todas las formas de rebelión y resistencia esclavas , como el Quilombo de Palmares , [63] y Reprimir todos los movimientos por la autonomía o la independencia , como la Conspiración de Minas . [64]
Reino Unido con Portugal
A finales de 1807, las fuerzas españolas y napoleónicas amenazaron la seguridad de Portugal continental , lo que provocó que el príncipe regente João , en nombre de la reina María I , trasladara la corte real de Lisboa a Río de Janeiro . [65] Allí establecieron algunas de las primeras instituciones financieras de Brasil, como sus bolsas de valores locales , [66] y su Banco Nacional , además de poner fin al monopolio portugués sobre el comercio brasileño y abrir Brasil a otras naciones. En 1809, en represalia por verse obligado a exiliarse, el príncipe regente ordenó la conquista portuguesa de la Guayana Francesa . [67]
Con el fin de la Guerra de la Independencia en 1814, las cortes de Europa exigieron que la reina María I y el príncipe regente João regresaran a Portugal, por considerar que no era apto para el jefe de una antigua monarquía europea para residir en una colonia . En 1815, para justificar seguir viviendo en Brasil, donde la corte real había prosperado durante seis años, la Corona estableció el Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil y los Algarves , creando así un estado monárquico transatlántico pluricontinental . [68] Sin embargo, el liderazgo en Portugal, resentido por el nuevo estatus de su colonia más grande, continuó exigiendo el regreso de la corte a Lisboa ( v. Revolución Liberal de 1820 ). En 1821, accediendo a las demandas de los revolucionarios que habían tomado la ciudad de Oporto , [69] D. João VI partió hacia Lisboa. Allí prestó juramento a la nueva constitución, dejando a su hijo, el príncipe Pedro de Alcântara , como regente del Reino de Brasil . [70]
Imperio independiente
Las tensiones entre portugueses y brasileños aumentaron y las Cortes portuguesas , guiadas por el nuevo régimen político impuesto por la Revolución Liberal de 1820, intentaron restablecer Brasil como colonia. [71] Los brasileños se negaron a ceder, y el príncipe Pedro decidió apoyarlos, declarando la independencia del país de Portugal el 7 de septiembre de 1822. [72] Un mes después, el príncipe Pedro fue declarado primer emperador de Brasil , con el título real. de Dom Pedro I , resultando en la fundación del Imperio de Brasil . [73]
La Guerra de Independencia de Brasil , que ya había comenzado en este proceso, se extendió por las regiones del norte, noreste y en la provincia de Cisplatina . [74] Los últimos soldados portugueses se rindieron el 8 de marzo de 1824; [75] Portugal reconoció oficialmente a Brasil el 29 de agosto de 1825. [76]
El 7 de abril de 1831, desgastado por años de agitación administrativa y disidencia política tanto con los lados liberales como conservadores de la política, incluido un intento de secesión republicana , [77] y sin reconciliarse con el camino que los absolutistas en Portugal habían dado en la sucesión del rey Juan VI, Pedro I fue a Portugal para reclamar la corona de su hija , abdicando del trono brasileño en favor de su hijo y heredero de cinco años (que se convirtió así en el segundo monarca del Imperio, con el título real de Dom Pedro II ). [78]
Como el nuevo emperador no pudo ejercer sus poderes constitucionales hasta que alcanzó la mayoría de edad, la Asamblea Nacional estableció una regencia . [79] En ausencia de una figura carismática que pudiera representar un rostro moderado del poder, durante este período se produjeron una serie de rebeliones localizadas, como el Cabanagem en la provincia de Grão-Pará , la Revuelta de Malê en Salvador de Bahía , la Balaiada ( Maranhão ), la Sabinada ( Bahía ) y la Guerra Ragamuffin , que comenzó en Rio Grande do Sul y fue apoyada por Giuseppe Garibaldi . Estos surgieron de la insatisfacción de las provincias con el poder central, junto con las antiguas y latentes tensiones sociales propias de un vasto Estado-nación esclavista y recientemente independiente . [80] Este período de convulsión política y social interna, que incluyó la revuelta de Praieira en Pernambuco , fue superado solo a fines de la década de 1840, años después del fin de la regencia, que ocurrió con la prematura coronación de Pedro II en 1841. [81]
Durante la última fase de la monarquía, el debate político interno se centró en el tema de la esclavitud. La trata atlántica de esclavos fue abandonada en 1850, [82] como resultado de la Ley de Aberdeen británica , pero solo en mayo de 1888 después de un largo proceso de movilización interna y debate por un desmantelamiento ético y legal de la esclavitud en el país , fue la institución abolido formalmente. [83]
Las políticas de relaciones exteriores de la monarquía se ocuparon de cuestiones con los países del Cono Sur con los que Brasil tenía fronteras. Mucho después de la Guerra Cisplatina que resultó en la independencia de Uruguay , [84] Brasil ganó tres guerras internacionales durante el reinado de 58 años de Pedro II. Estas fueron la Guerra Platine , la Guerra de Uruguay y la devastadora Guerra de Paraguay , el esfuerzo bélico más grande en la historia de Brasil. [85] [86]
Aunque no existía el deseo de la mayoría de los brasileños de cambiar la forma de gobierno del país , [87] el 15 de noviembre de 1889, en desacuerdo con la mayoría de los oficiales del Ejército , así como con las élites rurales y financieras (por diferentes razones), el La monarquía fue derrocada por un golpe militar. [88] El 15 de noviembre es ahora el Día de la República , un feriado nacional. [89]
República temprana
El primer gobierno republicano no era más que una dictadura militar, con el ejército dominando los asuntos tanto en Río de Janeiro como en los estados. La libertad de prensa desapareció y los gobernantes controlaron las elecciones. [90] No fue hasta 1894, luego de una crisis económica y militar , que los civiles tomaron el poder, permaneciendo allí hasta octubre de 1930. [91] [92] [93]
Si en relación a su política exterior, el país en este primer período republicano mantuvo un relativo equilibrio caracterizado por un éxito en la resolución de disputas fronterizas con los países vecinos, [94] solo roto por la Guerra de Acre (1899-1902) y su participación en el mundo La Primera Guerra (1914-1918), [95] [96] [97] seguida de un intento fallido de ejercer un papel destacado en la Sociedad de Naciones ; [98] Internamente, a partir de la crisis del Encilhamento [99] [100] [101] y las revueltas de la Armada , [102] se inició un ciclo prolongado de inestabilidad financiera, política y social hasta la década de 1920, que mantuvo al país asediado por diversas rebeliones, tanto civiles [103] [104] [105] como militares. [106] [107] [108]
Poco a poco, un ciclo de inestabilidad general desatado por estas crisis socavó al régimen hasta tal punto que a raíz del asesinato de su compañero de fórmula, el derrotado candidato presidencial opositor Getúlio Vargas , apoyado por la mayoría de los militares, lideró con éxito la Golpe de octubre de 1930 . [109] [110] Se suponía que Vargas y los militares asumirían el poder temporalmente, pero en cambio cerraron el Congreso, extinguieron la Constitución, gobernaron con poderes de emergencia y reemplazaron a los gobernadores de los estados con sus propios partidarios. [111] [112]
En la década de 1930, ocurrieron tres intentos fallidos de sacar a Vargas y sus partidarios del poder. La primera fue la Revolución Constitucionalista de 1932, liderada por la oligarquía Paulista . El segundo fue un levantamiento comunista en noviembre de 1935, y el último un intento de golpe de Estado por fascistas locales en mayo de 1938. [113] [114] [115] El levantamiento de 1935 creó una crisis de seguridad en la que el Congreso transfirió más poder al ejecutivo. . El golpe de Estado de 1937 resultó en la cancelación de las elecciones de 1938, formalizó a Vargas como dictador, iniciando la era del Estado Novo , que se destacó por la brutalidad gubernamental y la censura de la prensa. [116]
La política exterior durante los años de Vargas estuvo marcada por los antecedentes [ aclaración necesaria ] y la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Brasil permaneció neutral hasta agosto de 1942, cuando el país entró en el bando aliado , [117] [118] luego de sufrir represalias por parte de la Alemania nazi y la Italia fascista , en una disputa estratégica por el Atlántico Sur. [119] Además de su participación en la batalla del Atlántico , Brasil también envió una fuerza expedicionaria para luchar en la campaña italiana . [120]
Con la victoria aliada en 1945 y el fin de los regímenes nazi-fascistas en Europa, la posición de Vargas se volvió insostenible y rápidamente fue derrocado en otro golpe militar, con la democracia "reinstalada" por el mismo ejército que la había terminado 15 años antes. [121] Vargas se suicidó en agosto de 1954 en medio de una crisis política, luego de haber regresado al poder mediante elecciones en 1950. [122] [123]
Era contemporánea
Varios breves gobiernos interinos siguieron al suicidio de Vargas. [124] Juscelino Kubitschek asumió la presidencia en 1956 y asumió una postura conciliadora hacia la oposición política que le permitió gobernar sin grandes crisis. [125] La economía y el sector industrial crecieron notablemente, [126] pero su mayor logro fue la construcción de la nueva ciudad capital de Brasilia , inaugurada en 1960. [127]
El sucesor de Kubitschek, Jânio Quadros , dimitió en 1961 menos de un año después de asumir el cargo. [128] Su vicepresidente, João Goulart , asumió la presidencia, pero suscitó una fuerte oposición política [129] y fue depuesto en abril de 1964 por un golpe de estado que desembocó en un régimen militar . [130]
El nuevo régimen estaba destinado a ser transitorio [131] pero gradualmente se cerró sobre sí mismo y se convirtió en una dictadura total con la promulgación de la Quinta Ley Institucional en 1968. [132] La opresión no se limitó a quienes recurrieron a tácticas guerrilleras para combatir el régimen, pero también llegó a opositores institucionales, artistas, periodistas y otros miembros de la sociedad civil, [133] [134] dentro y fuera del país a través de la infame " Operación Cóndor ". [135] [136] A pesar de su brutalidad, como otros regímenes autoritarios , debido a un auge económico, conocido como "milagro económico", el régimen alcanzó un pico de popularidad a principios de la década de 1970. [137]
Lentamente, sin embargo, el desgaste de años de poder dictatorial que no habían frenado la represión, incluso después de la derrota de las guerrillas de izquierda, [138] más la incapacidad para hacer frente a las crisis económicas del período y la presión popular, hicieron que La política de apertura inevitable, que desde el lado del régimen estuvo encabezada por los generales Ernesto Geisel y Golbery do Couto e Silva . [139] Con la promulgación de la Ley de Amnistía en 1979, Brasil inició un lento retorno a la democracia, que se completó durante la década de 1980. [81]
Los civiles regresaron al poder en 1985 cuando José Sarney asumió la presidencia. Se volvió impopular durante su mandato por no controlar la crisis económica y la hiperinflación que heredó del régimen militar. [140] El gobierno fallido de Sarney llevó a la elección en 1989 del casi desconocido Fernando Collor , posteriormente acusado por el Congreso Nacional en 1992. [141]
A Collor lo sucedió su vicepresidente, Itamar Franco , quien nombró ministro de Hacienda a Fernando Henrique Cardoso . En 1994, Cardoso produjo un Plano Real de gran éxito , [142] que, después de décadas de planes económicos fallidos realizados por gobiernos anteriores que intentaban frenar la hiperinflación, finalmente estabilizó la economía brasileña. [143] [144] Cardoso ganó las elecciones de 1994 y nuevamente en 1998 . [145]
La transición pacífica del poder de Cardoso a su principal líder de la oposición, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ( elegido en 2002 y reelegido en 2006 ), fue vista como una prueba de que Brasil había logrado una estabilidad política largamente buscada. [146] [147] Sin embargo, provocadas por la indignación y las frustraciones acumuladas durante décadas por la corrupción, la brutalidad policial , las ineficiencias del establecimiento político y el servicio público , numerosas protestas pacíficas estallaron en Brasil desde la mitad del primer mandato de Dilma Rousseff , quien había triunfado Lula después de ganar las elecciones en 2010 y nuevamente en 2014 por estrechos márgenes. [148] [149]
Rousseff fue acusada por el Congreso brasileño en 2016, a la mitad de su segundo mandato, [150] [151] y reemplazada por su vicepresidente Michel Temer , quien asumió plenos poderes presidenciales después de que se aceptara la acusación de Rousseff el 31 de agosto. Durante el proceso de acusación se llevaron a cabo grandes protestas callejeras a favor y en contra de ella . [152] Los cargos en su contra fueron alimentados por crisis políticas y económicas junto con evidencia de participación con políticos (de todos los partidos políticos primarios) en varios esquemas de soborno y evasión de impuestos . [153] [154]
En 2017, la Corte Suprema solicitó la investigación de 71 legisladores brasileños y nueve ministros del gabinete del presidente Michel Temer que supuestamente estaban vinculados al escándalo de corrupción de Petrobras . [155] El propio presidente Temer también fue acusado de corrupción . [156] Según una encuesta de 2018, el 62% de la población dijo que la corrupción era el mayor problema de Brasil. [157]
A través de la Operación Lavado de Autos , la Policía Federal de Brasil ha actuado desde entonces sobre las desviaciones y la corrupción del PT y los partidos aliados en ese momento. En las disputadas elecciones de 2018 , el controvertido candidato conservador Jair Bolsonaro del Partido Social Liberal (PSL) fue elegido presidente, ganando en la segunda vuelta a Fernando Haddad , del Partido de los Trabajadores (PT), con el apoyo del 55,13% de los válidos. votos. [158]
Geografía
Brasil ocupa una gran área a lo largo de la costa oriental de América del Sur e incluye gran parte del interior del continente, [159] que comparte fronteras terrestres con Uruguay al sur; Argentina y Paraguay al suroeste; Bolivia y Perú al oeste; Colombia al noroeste; y Venezuela , Guyana , Surinam y Francia (región francesa de ultramar de la Guayana Francesa ) al norte. Comparte frontera con todos los países de América del Sur, excepto Ecuador y Chile . [15]
También abarca varios oceánicas archipiélagos , como Fernando de Noronha , el atolón de Rocas , San Pedro y San Pablo Rocas , y Trinidad y Martín Vaz . [15] Su tamaño, relieve, clima y recursos naturales hacen que Brasil sea geográficamente diverso. [159] Incluyendo sus Atlántico islas, mentiras Brasil entre las latitudes 6 ° N y 34 ° S , y longitudes 28 ° y 74 ° W . [15]
Brasil es el quinto país más grande del mundo y el tercero más grande de América, con una superficie total de 8.515.767,049 km 2 (3.287.956 millas cuadradas), [160] que incluyen 55.455 km 2 (21.411 millas cuadradas) de agua. [15] Se extiende por cuatro zonas horarias ; desde UTC-5 que comprende el estado de Acre y la porción más occidental de Amazonas , hasta UTC-4 en los estados occidentales, hasta UTC-3 en los estados orientales (la hora nacional ) y UTC-2 en las islas del Atlántico . [161]
Brazil is the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to south. Brazil is also the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[162] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[162] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[162]
The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[162] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[162] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 metres (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[15]
Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[163] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[163]
Climate
The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.[15] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[164] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[165][166]
An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[164] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[166] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.[165]
Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[165] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.[164] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme.[167]
The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimetres (31.5 in) of rain,[167] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year[168] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.[165] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,[169] caused approximately half a million deaths.[170] A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.[171]
South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.[164] The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4 °F);[166] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.[164][165]
Biodiversity and environment
Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,[172] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.[173] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.[173] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.[173]
Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.[173][174] Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.[175] Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha.
By 2013, Brazil's "dramatic policy-driven reduction in Amazon Basin deforestation" was a "global exception in terms of forest change", according to scientific journal Science.[176]:852 From 2003 to 2011, compared to all other countries in the world, Brazil had the "largest decline in annual forest loss", as indicated in the study using high-resolution satellite maps showing global forest cover changes.[176]:850 The annual loss of forest cover decreased from a 2003/2004 record high of more than 40,000 square kilometres (4,000×10 3 ha; 9.9×10 6 acres; 15,000 sq mi) to a 2010/2011 low of under 20,000 square kilometres (2,000×10 3 ha; 4.9×10 6 acres; 7,700 sq mi),[176]:850 reversing widespread deforestation[176]:852 from the 1970s to 2003.
However, in 2019, when the Bolsonaro government came to power, the rate of deforestation of the Amazon rainforest increased sharply threatening to reach a tipping point after it the forest will collapse, having severe consequences for the world (see Tipping points in the climate system) and possibly complicating the trade agreement with the European Union.[177]
According to a 2008 GreenPeace article, the natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, climate change, fire, and invasive species.[172] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.[178] The construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.[175][179] At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including the controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.[180] In summer 2019, 2 states in Brazil Paraná and Santa Catarina banned fracking, what it is expected to have positive effects on the climate and water quality, because the shale gas and shale oil reserves in the state of Parana are the larger in the southern hemisphere.[181][182]
In 2020 the government of Brazil pledged to reduce its annual greenhouse gases emissions by 43% by 2030. It also set as indicative target of reaching carbon neutrality by the year 2060 if the country gets 10 billion dollars per year.[183]
Gobierno y políticas
The form of government is a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system.[17] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[17] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Jair Bolsonaro. The previous president, Michel Temer, replaced Dilma Rousseff after her impeachment.[184] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[17] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.[185]
The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities.[17] The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The federation is set on five fundamental principles:[17] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labor and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution.[17] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state and Federal District spheres.
All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[186][187][188] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[186] For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.[17]
Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.[189] Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.
The country has more than 40 active political parties, and only one of them defines itself as a right-wing party (PSL), with a clear political imbalance. The country has several far-left parties like PSOL, PCO, PSTU, PCB, PC do B, left parties like PT, PSB, PDT, PV, Rede and Solidariedade and center-left like PSDB, DEM, PMN and Cidadania. Ten parties declare themselves as the center: MDB, PL, PSD, PTC, DC, PROS, Avante, Patriota, Podemos and PMB. Five parties declare themselves as center-right: PTB, Progressistas, PSC, PRTB and Republicanos. The only party that claims to be purely liberal, without further consideration, is Novo. When asked about their ideological spectrum, Brazilian parties tend to give obtuse and non-conclusive answers on the subject.[190]
Law
Brazilian law is based on the civil law legal system[191] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.
The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, promulgated on 5 October 1988, and the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[192] As of April 2007[update], there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[193] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way to constitutions.[194] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[17] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[17] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[17] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.
This system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.[195] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube.[196][197] In December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.[198]
Military
The armed forces of Brazil are the largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment.[199] It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservists annually.[200]
Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,[201] the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks.[202] It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command,[203][204][205] and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist,[206][207] 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile)[208] and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile)[209] able to act anywhere in the country, on short notice, to counter external aggression.[210] The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.[17]
Brazil's navy, the second-largest in the Americas, once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.[211] Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.[212] It is the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, PHM Atlantico,[213] and one of the ten navies of the world to operate one.[202]
The Air Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67,000 personnel.[214]
Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War.[215] Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbors[216] and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other.[217][218] The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government.[219] It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti, East Timor and Central African Republic.[220] Brazil signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[221]
Foreign policy
Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.[222] According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.[223]
Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[224] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.[225] Brazil is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.
An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.[226] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.[226] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year, which includes.[226] In addition, Brazil already managed a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million).[226] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India.[226] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting".[227]
Law enforcement and crime
In Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or state powers.[17] The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.[228]
The country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of homicide of the world.[229] The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[230] In 2018, Brazil had a record 63,880 murders.[231] However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[232]
Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992.[233] The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about 200,000 accommodations.[234]
Administrative divisions
AtlanticOcean PacificOcean North Region Northeast Region Central-West Region Southeast Region South Region Acre Amazonas Pará Roraima Amapá Rondônia Tocantins Maranhão Bahia Piauí Ceará Rio Grandedo Norte Paraíba Pernambuco Alagoas Sergipe Mato Grosso Mato Grossodo Sul FederalDistrict Goiás Minas Gerais São Paulo Rio de Janeiro Espírito Santo Paraná Santa Catarina Rio Grandedo Sul Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela |
Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states, one federal district, and the 5570 municipalities.[17] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[17]
The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects.
Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[17] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).
Economía
Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's ninth largest economy and the eighth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP) according to 2018 estimates. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests.
Its Gross domestic product (PPP) per capita was $15,919 in 2017[235] putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors Brazil has a labor force of over 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).[236]
The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries.[237] Brazil has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[18] The country is a major exporter of soy, iron ore, pulp (cellulose), maize, beef, chicken meat, soybean meal, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, orange juice, footwear, airplanes, cars, vehicle parts, gold, ethanol, semi-finished iron, among other products.[238][239]
Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services.[240] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the GDP in 2007.[241] Brazil is the largest producer of various agricultural commodities.[242] and also has a large cooperative sector that provides 50% of the food in the country.[243] The world's largest healthcare cooperative Unimed is also located in Brazil, and accounts for 32% of the healthcare insurance market in the country.[244]
In the production of animal proteins, Brazil is today one of the largest countries in the world. In 2019, the country was the world's largest exporter of chicken meat.[248][249] It was also the second largest producer of beef,[250] the world's third largest producer of milk,[251] the world's fourth largest producer of pork[252] and the seventh largest producer of eggs in the world.[253]
In the mining sector, Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the second world exporter), copper, gold,[254] bauxite (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), manganese (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), tin (one of the largest producers in the world), niobium (concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world)[255] and nickel. In terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine and garnet.[256][257]
Industry in Brazil – from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft and consumer durables – accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.[241] Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.[258] Brazil has become the fourth largest car market in the world.[259] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.[260] In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in value of exports. In the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.[261] In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer of pulp in the world and the 8th producer of paper.[262] In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.[263] In 2019, the country was the 8th producer of vehicles and the 9th producer of steel in the world.[264][265][266] In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the 8th in the world.[267][268][269] Although it was among the 5 largest world producers in 2013, Brazil's textile industry is very little integrated into world trade.[270]
The tertiary sector (trade and services) represented 75.8% of the country's GDP in 2018, according to the IBGE. The service sector was responsible for 60% of GDP and trade for 13%. It covers a wide range of activities: commerce, accommodation and catering, transport, communications, financial services, real estate activities and services provided to businesses, public administration (urban cleaning, sanitation, etc.) and other services such as education, social and health services, research and development, sports activities, etc., since it consists of activities complementary to other sectors.[271][272] Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP. In the commercial sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the sector.[273]
Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998[274] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed float regime[275] scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.[276]
Brazil received an International Monetary Fund (IMF) rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,[277] a record sum at the time. Brazil's central bank repaid the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.[278] One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.[279] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[280] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role in setting short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.[281]
Corruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone in 2010, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market.[282] Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges.[283] Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012.[284] The purchasing power in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.[285]
Energy
Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation,[286] and the country has other large plants like Belo Monte and Tucuruí. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005.[287]
In total electricity generation, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric plants).[288] In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.[289] Brazil is one of the 5 largest hydroelectric energy producers in the world (2nd place in 2017).[290]
As of September 2020,[ref] according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 16.3 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%.[291] While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;[292] the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.[293]
In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.[294] In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.[295][296] Brazil is one of the 10 largest wind energy producers in the world (8th place in 2019, with 2.4% of world production).[297][298]
As of September 2020,[ref] according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 6.9 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are Minas Gerais, Bahia and Goiás.[299][300] In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.[294]
Recent oil discoveries in the pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oil production.[301] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.[302] In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.[303]
Tourism
Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico.[305] Revenues from international tourists reached US$6 billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis.[306] Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and US$6.8 billion in receipts were reached in 2011.[307][308] In the list of world tourist destinations, in 2018, Brazil was the 48th most visited country, with 6.6 million tourists (and revenues of 5.9 billion dollars).[309]
Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo.[310]
In terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States.[311][312]
Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.[312]
Infraestructura
Science and technology
Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies.[313] Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the National Institute for Space Research.[314][315]
The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellites.[316] Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).[317]
The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it extracts 73% of its reserves. Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% from its electricity from hydroelectricity[318]) and the country's first nuclear submarine was delivered in 2015 (by France).[319]
Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[320] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.[321] According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009–2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information technology.[322]
Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont,[323] Evaristo Conrado Engelberg,[324] Manuel Dias de Abreu,[325] Andreas Pavel[326] and Nélio José Nicolai.[327]
Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson),[328] Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),[329] José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of the UNESCO Science Prize),[330] Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of the Fields Medal)[331] and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).[332]
Transport
Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 215,000 km (133,595 mi) in 2018.[334][335] The country has about 14,000 km (8,699 mi) of divided highways, 5,000 km (3,107 mi) only in the State of São Paulo. Currently it's possible to travel from Rio Grande, in the extreme south of the country, to Brasília (2,580 km (1,603 mi)) or Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (2,045 km (1,271 mi)), only on divided highways. The first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luís, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra.[336] President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways.[337]
Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,185 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007.[338] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Salvador and Fortaleza. The country has an extensive rail network of 28,538 kilometres (17,733 miles) in length, the tenth largest network in the world.[339] Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers.
There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.[340] São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.[341]
For freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway (3,250 kilometres (2,020 miles) with 6 metres (20 feet) minimum depth). The country also has 50,000 kilometres (31,000 miles) of waterways.[339] Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.[342] Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36.3 hours on average.[343]
Health
The Brazilian public health system, the Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde – SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,[345] being the largest system of this type in the world.[346] On the other hand, private healthcare systems play a complementary role.[347]
Public health services are universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area. In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000 inhabitants.[348][349] Despite all the progress made since the creation of the universal health care system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In 2006, the main points to be solved were the high infant (2.51%) and maternal mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).[350]
The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and cancer (72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.[350] The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000.[351]
Education
The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.[352]
According to the IBGE, in 2019, the literacy rate of the population was 93.4%, meaning that 11,3 million (6,6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country, with some states like Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina reaching around 97% of literacy rate;[353] functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.[354] Illiteracy is higher in the Northeast, where 13.87% of the population is illiterate, while the South, has 3.3% of its population illiterate.[355][353]
Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making impacts.[356]
The University of São Paulo is the second best university in Latin America, according to recent 2019 QS World University Rankings. Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight are Brazilian. Most of them are public. Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten, elementary and medium education are required of all students.[357]
Media and communication
The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808 with the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.[359]
The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.[360] The largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo, Super Notícia, O Globo and O Estado de S. Paulo.[361]
Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of "Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro".[362]
Television in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand.[363] Since then television has grown in the country, creating large commercial broadcast networks such as Globo, SBT, RecordTV, Bandeirantes and RedeTV. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67%[364][365] of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted on 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007.[366] In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.[367] Commercial television channels broadcast internationally include Globo Internacional, RecordTV Internacional and Band Internacional.
Demografía
The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million[368] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometre or 57.8/sq mi), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1[369] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[370] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.
The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.[371] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.[372] Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[373] and to 72.6 years in 2007.[374] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050[375] thus completing the demographic transition.[376]
In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[377] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[378] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[379]
Race and ethnicity
According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as East Asian (officially called amarela or yellow); and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.[381]
In 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[382]
Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable genetic mixing between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).[383][384][385][386]
Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different "racial" groups.[387]
Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.[391] Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).[386][392][393][394]
The brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno)[395][396] is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).[395][396][397][398][399] People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.[400]
Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[399][401] and also in northern Maranhão,[402][403] southern Minas Gerais[404] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[399][404] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.[405][406] Brazil has the second largest Jewish community in Latin America making up 0.06% of its population.[407]
Religion
Roman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.[408][409] According to the 2010 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 64.63% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 22.2% Protestantism; 2.0% Kardecist spiritism; 3.2% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 8.0% have no religion.[5]
Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.[410] This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,[411]
Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,[412] and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population.[413] The most common Protestant denominations are Evangelical Pentecostal ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.[414]
However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.[415] After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 8% of the population as of the 2010 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.[416] Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.[416]
In October 2009, the Brazilian Senate approved and enacted by the President of Brazil in February 2010, an agreement with the Vatican, in which the Legal Statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil is recognized. The agreement confirmed norms that were normally complied with regarding religious education in public elementary schools (which also ensures the teaching of other beliefs), marriage and spiritual assistance in prisons and hospitals. The project was criticized by parliamentarians who understood the end of the secular state with the approval of the agreement.[419][420]
Urbanization
According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.[421] The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte – all in the Southeastern Region – with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.[422][423][424] The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.[425]
Language
The official language of Brazil is Portuguese[428] (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[429]
Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese[430] (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only.[431] As a result,[citation needed] the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese). These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.[431]
In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a six-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.[432]
The sign language law legally recognized in 2002,[433] (the law was regulated in 2005)[434] the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access ("inclusion") to deaf people.[435]
Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[431] In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil,[436] being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes)[excessive detail?], Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[437]
There are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language.[438][439] Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul,[440] and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.[441] Italian is also recognized as ethnic language in the Santa Teresa microregion and Vila Velha (Espirito Santo state), and is taught as mandatory second language at school.[442]
Learning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory education system (primary and secondary education, there called ensino fundamental and ensino médio respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to secondary students.[443]
Cultura
The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.[444] Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[445]
Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well as Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil during the 19th and 20th centuries.[446] The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[447]
Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[448][449] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.[450]
Architecture
The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has a history that goes back 500 years to the time when Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500. Portuguese colonial architecture was the first wave of architecture to go to Brazil.[451] It is the basis for all Brazilian architecture of later centuries.[452] In the 19th century during the time of the Empire of Brazil, Brazil followed European trends and adopted Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. Then in the 20th century especially in Brasilia, Brazil experimented with Modernist architecture.
The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century when Brazil was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonize Brazil. They built Portuguese colonial architecture which included churches, civic architecture including houses and forts in Brazilian cities and the countryside. During 19th century Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more European styles to Brazil such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage which produced a unique form of Brazilian architecture. In the 1950s the modernist architecture was introduced when Brasilia was built as new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The architect Oscar Niemeyer idealized and built government buildings, churches and civic buildings in the modernist style.[453][454]
Music
The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements.[456] Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism.[457] The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.[456]
Popular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.[458] Maracatu and Afoxê are two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals.[459] The sport of capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.[460] Forró is a type of folk music prominent during the Festa Junina in northeastern Brazil.[461] Jack A. Draper III, a professor of Portuguese at the University of Missouri,[462] argues that Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural lifestyle.[463]
Choro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint.[464] Bossa nova is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s.[465] The phrase "bossa nova" means literally "new trend".[466] A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.[467]
Literature
Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.[468]
Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism – novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara.[469] Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.[470][471][472]
Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Week of Modern Art in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature,[473] while Post-Modernism brought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Bandeira.[474][475][476]
Cuisine
Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[477] Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[478] and regional foods such as beiju, feijão tropeiro, vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé (from African cuisine).[479]
The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.[480]
A typical meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef, salad, french fries and a fried egg.[481] Often, it is mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.[482] Popular snacks are pastel (a fried pastry); coxinha (a variation of chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (a variation of Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm.
Brazil has a variety of desserts such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), bolo de rolo (roll cake with goiabada), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, lime, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.[483]
Cinema
The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.[484] The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time.[485] The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.
During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.[486]
During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes,[487] being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list[488] and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival.
Theatre
The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion when theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century. in the 17th and 18th centuries the first dramatists who appeared on the scene of European derivation was for court or private performances.[489] During the 19th century, dramatic theater gained importance and thickness, whose first representative was Luis Carlos Martins Pena (1813–1848), capable of describing contemporary reality. Always in this period the comedy of costume and comic production was imposed. Significant, also in the nineteenth century, was also the playwright Antônio Gonçalves Dias.[490] There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The Brazilian conductor Antônio Carlos Gomes became internationally known with operas like Il Guarany. At the end of the 19th century orchestrated dramaturgias became very popular and were accompanied with songs of famous artists like the conductress Chiquinha Gonzaga.[491]
Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters, entrepreneurs and actor companies, but paradoxically the quality of the products staggered, and only in 1940 the Brazilian theater received a boost of renewal thanks to the action of Paschoal Carlos Magno and his student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors Adolfo Celi, Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the Teatro Brasileiro de Comedia. From the 1960s it was attended by a theater dedicated to social and religious issues and to the flourishing of schools of dramatic art. The most prominent authors at this stage were Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna.[490]
Visual arts
Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,[492] influenced by Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Cubism and Abstracionism making it a major art style called Brazilian academic art.[493][494] The Missão Artística Francesa (French Artistic Mission) arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists like Jean-Baptiste Debret.[494]
Upon the creation of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, new artistic movements spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called Week of Modern Art broke definitely with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist trend which was influenced by modernist arts. Among the best-known Brazilian painters are Ricardo do Pilar and Manuel da Costa Ataíde (baroque and rococo), Victor Meirelles, Pedro Américo and Almeida Junior (romanticism and realism), Anita Malfatti, Ismael Nery, Lasar Segall, Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro, and Tarsila do Amaral (expressionism, surrealism and cubism), Aldo Bonadei, José Pancetti and Cândido Portinari (modernism).[495]
Sports
The most popular sport in Brazil is football.[496] The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.[497][498]
Volleyball, basketball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup. In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship eight times.[499][500][501]
Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,[502] futsal (indoor football)[503] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[504] Vale tudo,[505] and Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[506]
Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup[507] and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2019 Copa América.[508] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[509] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[510] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games[511] and second in Latin America, after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.[512]
Ver también
- Index of Brazil-related articles
- Outline of Brazil
Notas
- ^ includes Arab Brazilian, Jewish Brazilian, and Romani Brazilian
- ^ includes Caboclo, Mulatto, and Zambo
- ^ The Brazilian census uses the term amarela (or yellow in English) to describe people of East Asian background, and therefore excludes those of other Asian origins, such as West Asians/Arabs and South Asians.
- ^ European Portuguese: [bɾɐˈziɫ]
- ^ (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil)[11]
Referencias
- ^ Exército Brasileiro. "Hino à Bandeira Nacional" (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "Demographics". Brazilian Government. Archived from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
- ^ "Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do Censo Demográfico 2010 – Cor ou raça" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ "South America :: BRAZIL". CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
- ^ a b IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics). 2010 Census. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
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Bibliografía
- Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971
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- Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002
- Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007
- Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996
- Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004
- Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987
- Ermakoff, George (2006). Rio de Janeiro – 1840–1900 – Uma crônica fotográfica (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial. ISBN 978-85-98815-05-3.
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- Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 85-359-0277-5
- Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990
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- Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN 85-359-0807-2
- Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981
- Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942.
- Peres, Damião (1949) O Descobrimento do Brasil por Pedro Álvares Cabral: antecedentes e intencionalidade Porto: Portucalense.
- Scheina, Robert L. Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-295-8
- Lilia Schwarcz (30 November 1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-7164-837-1. OL 142027M. Wikidata Q18238040.
- Stuart B. Schwartz Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil (1973)
- Early Latin America (1983)
- Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society (1985)
- Skidmore, Thomas E. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change (Oxford University Press, 1999)
- Uma História do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. ISBN 85-219-0313-8
- Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. ISBN 978-85-200-0864-5.
- Wright, Simon. 1992. Villa-Lobos. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315475-7
- Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 85-7302-441-0
- Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988
- Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república, 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994
- Zirin, Dave. Brazil's Dance with the Devil: The World Cup, The Olympics, and the Fight for Democracy Haymarket Books 2014. ISBN 978-1-60846-360-2
Otras lecturas
- Alencastro Felipe, Luiz Felipe de. The Trade in the Living: The Formation of Brazil in the South Atlantic, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (SUNY Press, 2019) excerpt
- Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
- Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World Development (pp. 1805–19).
- "Background Note: Brazil". US Department of State. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
- Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc.
- Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
- Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
- Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
- Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
- Levine, Robert M. Historical Dictionary of Brazil (2019)
- Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale.
- Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change. Macmillan.
- Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
- Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder Westview.
- Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.
enlaces externos
Government
- Brazilian Federal Government
- Official Tourist Guide of Brazil
- Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics
- Wikimedia Atlas of Brazil
- Geographic data related to Brazil at OpenStreetMap