La Primera Batalla de Gaza se libró el 26 de marzo de 1917, durante el primer intento de la Fuerza Expedicionaria Egipcia (EEF) de invadir el sur de Palestina en el Imperio Otomano durante la Campaña del Sinaí y Palestina de la Primera Guerra Mundial . Los enfrentamientos tuvieron lugar en la ciudad de Gaza y sus alrededores en la costa mediterránea cuando la infantería y la infantería montada de la Columna del Desierto , un componente de la Fuerza del Este, atacó la ciudad. A última hora de la tarde, a punto de capturar Gaza, la Columna del Desierto fue retirada debido a las preocupaciones sobre la oscuridad que se acercaba y los grandes refuerzos otomanos. Esta derrota británica fue seguida unas semanas más tarde por la derrota aún más enfática de la Fuerza Oriental en la Segunda Batalla de Gaza en abril de 1917.
Primera batalla de Gaza | |||||||
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Parte del teatro de Oriente Medio de la Primera Guerra Mundial | |||||||
Oficiales otomanos que defendieron con éxito Gaza durante la primera batalla | |||||||
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Beligerantes | |||||||
Imperio Otomano Imperio Alemán Austria-Hungría | |||||||
Comandantes y líderes | |||||||
Archibald Murray Philip Chetwode Charles Dobell | Tala Bey (nominal) Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein (actual) | ||||||
Unidades involucradas | |||||||
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Fuerza | |||||||
31.000 | 19.000 | ||||||
Bajas y perdidas | |||||||
523 muertos 2.932 heridos 512 desaparecidos | 16 muertos o heridos, 41 desaparecidos 300 muertos, 750 heridos, 600 desaparecidos |
En agosto de 1916, la victoria de la EEF en Romani puso fin a la posibilidad de ataques terrestres contra el Canal de Suez , amenazado por primera vez en febrero de 1915 por la incursión otomana en el Canal de Suez . En diciembre de 1916, la victoria de la Columna del Desierto recién creada en la Batalla de Magdhaba aseguró el puerto mediterráneo de El Arish y la ruta de suministro, la tubería de agua y el ferrocarril que se extiende hacia el este a través de la península del Sinaí . En enero de 1917, la victoria de la Columna del Desierto en la Batalla de Rafa completó la captura de la Península del Sinaí y puso a la EEF a una distancia de ataque de Gaza.
En marzo de 1917, dos meses después, Gaza fue atacada por la infantería de la Fuerza Oriental de la 52ª División (Tierras Bajas) reforzada por una brigada de infantería . Este ataque fue protegido de la amenaza de los refuerzos otomanos por la División Montada de Anzac y una pantalla de la División Montada Imperial . El ataque de infantería desde el sur y sureste contra la guarnición otomana en Gaza y sus alrededores fue fuertemente resistido. Mientras la División Montada Imperial continuaba reteniendo los refuerzos otomanos amenazadores, la División Montada de Anzac atacó Gaza desde el norte. Tuvieron éxito en entrar en la ciudad desde el norte, mientras que un ataque conjunto de infantería e infantería montada contra Ali Muntar capturaron la posición. Sin embargo, el retraso de la hora, la determinación de los defensores otomanos y la amenaza de los grandes refuerzos otomanos que se acercaban desde el norte y el noreste, hicieron que la Fuerza del Este decidiera retirarse. Se ha sugerido que este movimiento arrebató la derrota de las fauces de la victoria.
Fondo
Como las operaciones aliadas en el Medio Oriente eran secundarias a la campaña del Frente Occidental , se denegaron los refuerzos solicitados por el general Sir Archibald Murray , comandante de la Fuerza Expedicionaria Egipcia (EEF). Además, el 11 de enero de 1917, el Gabinete de Guerra informó a Murray que las operaciones a gran escala en Palestina se aplazarían hasta septiembre, y el mariscal de campo William Robertson , jefe del Estado Mayor Imperial , le informó que debería estar listo para enviar posiblemente dos divisiones de infantería a Francia . Una semana después, Murray recibió una solicitud para la primera división de infantería y envió a la 42.a División (East Lancashire) . Se le aseguró que ninguna de sus unidades montadas sería transferida de la EEF, y se le dijo "que no había intención de restringir las actividades que considerara justificadas por sus recursos". [1] [2] Murray repitió su estimación de que se necesitaban cinco divisiones de infantería, además de las unidades montadas, para las operaciones ofensivas. [3]
Después del 26 de febrero de 1917, cuando un Congreso anglo-francés en Calais decidió emprender una ofensiva de primavera, Murray recibió un fuerte estímulo. La decisión del Consejo Supremo de Guerra recibió un mayor ímpetu para la "actividad aliada" el 8 de marzo cuando comenzó la Revolución Rusa . El 11 de marzo, Bagdad en Mesopotamia había sido ocupada por las fuerzas del Imperio Británico y se había lanzado una ofensiva en Macedonia . En abril, los británicos lanzaron la batalla de Arras y los franceses lanzaron la ofensiva de Nivelle . [4] Los tres principales objetivos de guerra de Gran Bretaña ahora eran mantener la supremacía marítima en el Mar Mediterráneo , mientras se preservaba el equilibrio de poder en Europa y la seguridad de Egipto, India y el Golfo Pérsico. Esto último podría asegurarse mediante un avance hacia Palestina y la captura de Jerusalén . Un avance adicional finalmente aislaría a las fuerzas otomanas en Mesopotamia de las de la Península Arábiga y aseguraría la región. [5]
El 5 de febrero, la tubería de agua del Canal de Agua Dulce de Egipto , que transportaba agua desde el Nilo , había llegado a El Arish, mientras que la línea de ferrocarril se estaba tendiendo bien al este de ese lugar. La creación de esta infraestructura permitió establecer una sólida posición defensiva y una base avanzada en El Arish. [6] Ahora había dos direcciones posibles para un avance hacia Jerusalén por la Fuerza Oriental a tomar: a través de Rafa en la costa, o tierra adentro a través de Hafir El Auja , en el ferrocarril otomano. El teniente general Charles Macpherson Dobell , al mando de la Fuerza del Este, pensó que un avance a lo largo de la costa podría obligar al ejército otomano a retirar sus fuerzas del interior, ya que quedaron flanqueadas y sometidas al ataque de la EEF desde la retaguardia. Propuso mantener dos divisiones en El Arish, trasladando allí su cuartel general, mientras su división montada avanzaría para volver a ocupar a Rafa (capturado por la Columna del Desierto el 9 de enero durante la Batalla de Rafa ). [3]
Con la decisión del Gabinete de Guerra del 11 de enero revocada por el Congreso del 26 de febrero, ahora se requería que la EEF capturara el bastión de Gaza como primer paso hacia la captura de Jerusalén. [5] La ciudad era una de las ciudades más antiguas del mundo, siendo una de las cinco ciudades de la Alianza Palestina, por la que se había peleado muchas veces durante sus 4.000 años de historia. [7] En 1917, Gaza tenía un importante depósito de cereales con un molino de vapor alemán. En la zona se cultivaba cebada, trigo, olivos, viñedos, naranjos y leña para combustible, así como el pastoreo de muchas cabras. La cebada se exportaba a Inglaterra para elaborar cerveza. En la mayoría de las localidades circundantes se cultivaban maíz, mijo, frijoles y sandías y se cosechaban a principios de otoño. [8] [9] [10]
Unidades montadas reorganizadas
Era necesaria una pausa en el avance de la EEF para permitir alargar y fortalecer las líneas de comunicación . Mientras se realizaba este trabajo, las brigadas montadas se reorganizaron en dos divisiones montadas. [11] [12] Esto fue provocado por la llegada de la 6ª Brigada Montada y la 22ª Brigada Montada de la campaña de Salónica . En lugar de agrupar las dos nuevas brigadas montadas con la 5ª Brigada Montada para formar una nueva División Imperial Montada , la 3ª Brigada de Caballos Ligeros fue transferida de la División Montada de Anzac a la nueva división y reemplazada por la 22ª Brigada Montada. La División Imperial Montada, establecida el 12 de febrero de 1917 en Ferry Post en el Canal de Suez bajo el mando del Mayor General Henry West Hodgson , se estableció con la 3ra Brigada de Caballos Ligeros y la 4ta Brigada de Caballos Ligeros (que estaba en proceso de formación en Ferry Post y estaba programado para partir hacia el frente el 18 de marzo) junto con la 5ª y la 6ª Brigadas Montadas. [13] [14] [15] Dentro de la Fuerza del Este de Dobell, el general Philip Chetwode comandaba la Columna del Desierto, que incluía la División Montada de Anzac, la División Montada Imperial parcialmente formada y la 53ª División (Galesa) de infantería. [2] Después de que la 42ª División (East Lancashire) partiera hacia el Frente Occidental , la Fuerza Oriental de Dobell consistía en cuatro divisiones de infantería; la 52ª División (Tierras Bajas) , la 53ª División (Galesa) , la 54ª División (East Anglian) y la 74ª División (Yeomanry) , que se habían formado recientemente al convertir regimientos de marineros en batallones de infantería. [2]
Redada de EEF en Khan Yunis
Dobell pensó que la victoria en Rafa debería aprovecharse rápidamente atacando a Gaza; "Un ataque sorpresa temprano era esencial ... de lo contrario, se creía ampliamente que el enemigo se retiraría sin luchar". [16] [17] Ordenó que Rafa fuera ocupado por tropas montadas mientras dos divisiones de infantería de Eastern Force permanecían en El Arish para defender su cuartel general. [3]
El 23 de febrero, la división montada de Anzac y la 53.a división (galesa), comandada por el general de división SF Mott, acamparon en la playa de Sheikh Zowaiid. Aquí se les unió la 22ª Brigada Montada, en sustitución de la V Brigada Montada que regresó a El Burj. [18] Ese día, los rifles montados de Nueva Zelanda y la 2.a Brigada de Caballos Ligeros comandados por Edward Chaytor hicieron un reconocimiento en fuerza a Khan Yunis a 8 km (5 millas) más allá de Rafa. Khan Yunis se mantuvo firme, y la Columna de Chaytor se retiró después de "un roce" con los defensores. Se descubrió que la ciudad era parte de una línea de fuertes puestos ocupados por el ejército otomano que protegía el sur de Palestina. Estos postes, conocidos como la línea Hans Yonus-El Hafir, consistían en trincheras bien excavadas. Estaban ubicados en Shellal, que era una posición particularmente fuertemente fortificada, en Weli Sheikh Nuran , en Beersheba y en Khan Yunis. [6] [19]
Como consecuencia del reconocimiento a Khan Yunis y la creciente fuerza de las unidades EEF en el área, las guarniciones del ejército otomano se dieron cuenta de que la línea era, sin embargo, demasiado débil para ser defendida con éxito. En febrero, Enver Pasha , Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein y Cemal Pasha se retiraron de la línea, retirándose a 14 millas (23 km) hacia el norte. Aquí establecieron defensas mucho más formidables frente a Gaza, para detener cualquier avance aliado por la costa. Esta retirada se completó a mediados de marzo cuando el Cuarto Ejército Otomano estaba en posición. [20] [21] [22] [23] Su nueva línea defensiva se extendía al norte y noreste, desde Gaza en el lado norte del Wadi Ghuzzee hasta Tel esh Sheria, donde el ferrocarril de Palestina cruzaba el Wadi esh Sheria. [23] [24]
El 28 de febrero, la Columna del Desierto de Chetwode ocupó Khan Yunis sin oposición y el cuartel general de la Columna se estableció en Sheikh Zowaiid, mientras que el cuartel general de la Fuerza Oriental permaneció en El Arish. [6] Se decía que la antigua ciudad de Khan Yunis en la carretera principal a Gaza era el lugar de nacimiento de Dalila. Con bazares, calles estrechas y un castillo, era uno de los varios pueblos de esta fértil zona del sur de Palestina, a 9,7 km al norte de Rafa y la frontera egipcio-otomana. Aquí se encontró el pozo más grande y profundo de la zona, y después de que los ingenieros instalaron una máquina de bombeo, proporcionó un suministro ilimitado de agua tanto para hombres como para caballos. El pueblo se convirtió rápidamente en un importante sitio avanzado para depósitos de suministros y vivaques. [8] [25] Alrededor de los jardines de Khan Yunis, la población local llevaba a cabo huertos de naranjos, plantaciones de higueras y pastoreo, mientras que en las áreas de Rafa y Sheikh Zowaiid se cultivaba cebada y trigo. [8] [9] [10]
El área al otro lado de la frontera ... era "un país encantador, cultivado a la perfección y los cultivos se ven bastante bien, si no mejor, que la mayoría de las granjas inglesas, principalmente cebada y trigo. Los pueblos eran muy bonitos: una masa de naranja, higo y otras frutas árboles ... El alivio de ver ese país después de millas y millas de arena desnuda valió cinco años de una vida ".
- Teniente Robert Wilson [26]
Bombardeo aéreo EEF
Una serie de bombardeos en el ferrocarril desde la estación Junction hasta Tel el Sheria tuvo como objetivo interrumpir las líneas de comunicación otomanas durante el período previo a la batalla. El escuadrón No. 1 Australian Flying Corps y el escuadrón No. 14 bombardearon Beersheba a mediados de febrero, destruyendo 3 aviones alemanes, y el 25 de febrero asistieron al bombardeo de Jaffa por un acorazado francés, dirigiendo el fuego del barco. El mismo día, el aeródromo alemán de Ramleh fue bombardeado. Luego, el 5 de marzo, seis aviones del Royal Flying Corps (RFC) llevaron a cabo ataques con bombas destinados a interferir con la retirada otomana de la línea Khan Yunis. Bombardearon Beersheba y el ferrocarril de Palestina en Tel esh Sheria, a 19 km al noroeste. Aunque el daño no fue grande, el ferrocarril en Tel esh Sheria continuó siendo bombardeado a la luz de la luna el 7 de marzo, por relevos de aviones. La estación de cruce y el depósito de suministros, un cruce importante de los ferrocarriles del sur de Palestina con el ferrocarril de Jaffa-Jerusalén a muchas millas al norte, también fueron bombardeados los días 9, 13 y 19 de marzo. [24] [27]
Preludio
Fuerza defensiva
Las estimaciones británicas de los defensores que se enfrentaban a la EEF en la región a principios de 1917 no eran más de 12.000, con la posibilidad de recibir como máximo una división como refuerzos. [3]
A principios de marzo, Gaza fue guarnecida por dos batallones, apoyados por dos baterías de artillería de campaña otomana. La guarnición del "Grupo Tiller" del Cuarto Ejército Otomano se incrementó más tarde a siete batallones. [28] [29] El grupo estaba formado por el 79º y el 125º Regimientos de Infantería otomanos, el 2º Batallón del 81º Regimiento de Infantería, un escuadrón de caballería y una compañía de camellos. [28] [29]
Kress von Kressenstein ordenó refuerzos adicionales de entre 10 000 y 12 000 soldados como resultado de los informes del 300 ° Destacamento de Vuelo sobre los avances de la EEF hacia Gaza. Al llegar antes de que Eastern Force hiciera su ataque, estos refuerzos consistían en la 3ª División de Infantería (31º y 32º Regimientos de Infantería) de Jemmame , y la 16ª División de Infantería (47º y 48º Regimientos de Infantería) de Tel esh Sheria. [28] [29] Fueron apoyados por 12 obuses de montaña pesados en dos baterías austriacas, dos cañones de 10 cm de largo en una batería alemana (de Pasha I ) y dos baterías de artillería de campaña otomanas. [28] [29]
Además, se ordenó a la 53ª División de Infantería otomana, que había estado guarnecida en Jaffa , que marchara hacia el sur, hacia Gaza, pero no se esperaba antes de la mañana del 27 de marzo. Kress von Kressenstein, el comandante de las defensas otomanas, trasladó su cuartel general de Beersheba a Tel esh Sheria, donde permaneció hasta junio. [28] [29] [30]
Sin embargo, el 20 de marzo, los británicos consideraban que el ejército otomano que defendía Gaza y dominaba la ruta costera desde Egipto a Jaffa se estaba "deteriorando constantemente". [5] De hecho, se había informado que Kress von Kressenstein se quejaba de "grandes pérdidas" causadas por los desertores, y entre la victoria de la EEF en Rafa a principios de enero y finales de febrero, 70 desertores habían llegado a las líneas de la EEF. Se pensaba que eran una "proporción muy pequeña" de la mayoría de árabes y sirios en particular, que desaparecieron del ejército otomano, "en las ciudades y pueblos de Palestina y Transjordania ". [31] La EEF desconocía los recientes refuerzos otomanos y pensaba que la guarnición en Gaza era de 2.000 efectivos. [32] Sin embargo, en vísperas de la batalla probablemente había casi 4.000 rifles defendiendo la ciudad, con hasta 50 cañones en el área circundante, mientras que una fuerza de 2.000 rifles guarnecía Beersheba. [33] [34] [35]
Defensas del ejército otomano
Entre Rafa y Gaza, al este de las dunas de arena de la costa, una meseta suavemente ondulada de suelo ligero y firme se elevaba lentamente hacia el interior, atravesada por varios wadis secos, que se convertían en corrientes torrenciales en la temporada de lluvias. En la primavera, después de las lluvias invernales, el área se cubrió de cultivos jóvenes o pasto fresco. [36] Durante milenios , Gaza había sido la puerta de entrada para los ejércitos invasores que viajaban por la ruta costera, hacia y desde Egipto y el Levante . [7] La ciudad y las fértiles áreas circundantes favorecieron fuertemente la defensa; Gaza está ubicada en una meseta de 200 pies (61 m) de altura que está separada del mar Mediterráneo por aproximadamente 2 millas (3,2 km) de colinas de arena al oeste. Hacia el norte, el oeste y el sur, los huertos rodeados de impenetrables setos de tunas se extendían a unas 3 o 4 millas (4,8 a 6,4 km) de la ciudad. Con la excepción de la cresta que se extendía hacia el sur, que culminaba en el Ali Muntar de 91 m (300 pies) de altura, el área de huertos se extendía desde la meseta alta hasta un hueco. [37] [38]
Además de estas defensas naturales, el ejército otomano construyó trincheras y reductos que se extendían desde el suroeste de la ciudad prácticamente todo el camino alrededor de la ciudad, excepto por una brecha hacia el noreste. En el proceso, incorporaron a Ali Muntar en los atrincheramientos de la ciudad mediante la construcción de defensas adicionales en la cresta al sur de la ciudad. [39] Aunque las trincheras solo estaban ligeramente reforzadas con alambre de púas, las del sur de Gaza dominaban laderas desnudas que estaban completamente desprovistas de cobertura alguna. [40]
Plan de defensa
Como resultado del avance de la EEF a Rafa y su prolongación de sus líneas de comunicación a lo largo de la costa, los ataques de flanco se convirtieron en una amenaza. Esto se debió a que las líneas de comunicación otomanas más hacia el interior se superpusieron al avance de la EEF en la costa, y se volvió importante guarnecer fuertemente la región. [41] El flanco derecho EEF no estaría en defensas preparadas y era potencialmente vulnerable a un asalto envolvente . [42]
Kress von Kressenstein, por lo tanto, desplegó la mayor parte de su ejército defensor lejos de Gaza para atacar las líneas de suministro de la EEF. La inteligencia británica pensó que los defensores no lucharían duro por Gaza, porque el plan de Kress von Kressenstein era utilizar la 3ª y la 16ª Divisiones de Infantería y la 3ª División de Caballería para rodear la fuerza atacante y cortar el ferrocarril del Sinaí y el oleoducto, en la parte trasera de el EEF. Un total de 12.000 de los 16.000 soldados otomanos disponibles se movían hacia el oeste, para estar en posición de lanzar un ataque al anochecer del día de la batalla. [42]
La principal fuerza otomana de entre dos y media y tres divisiones, estimadas entre 6.000 y 16.000 rifles, se desplegó en Tel el Negile y Huj con destacamentos en Tel esh Sheria, Jemmameh , Hareira, Beersheba y Gaza, para evitar que la EEF flanqueando Gaza. [7] [43] [44] La retaguardia de la EEF iba a ser atacada por la 16ª División otomana, en un punto donde la carretera de Khan Yunis a Gaza cruzaba el Wadi Ghuzze, y por el Grupo Beersheba que debía avanzar a través de Shellal, para atacar a Khan Yunis. [28]
Fuerza de ataque
La fuerza de ataque de 22.000 efectivos consistía en 12.000 infantes y 11.000 soldados montados, apoyados por entre 36 y 96 cañones de campaña y 16 obuses. Las unidades montadas debían impedir que los refuerzos otomanos de Tel el Sheria, Jemmameh, Hareira, Negile, Huj y Beersheba reforzaran la guarnición de Gaza mientras la infantería capturaba la ciudad. [37] [45] [Nota 1]
Para el ataque, Dobell desplegó Eastern Force de la siguiente manera:
Columna del desierto fue comandada por Chetwode
- 53ª División (Galesa) (Mayor General Alister Grant Dallas ) [46]
- 158a Brigada (Gales del Norte)
- 159a Brigada (Cheshire)
- Brigada 160 [Nota 2] - menos un batallón; más una sección (2 cañones de 60 libras ), décima batería pesada, artillería de la guarnición real (RGA) [47]
- Artillería de la 53a División: 2 Brigadas de Artillería de Campaña Real (RFA) (4 baterías cada una de 4 cañones de 18 libras ; 2 baterías de 4 obuses de 4,5 pulgadas cada una ) [Nota 3]
- División montada de Anzac (mayor general Harry Chauvel ) (menos la 1.a brigada de caballos ligeros)
- 2da Brigada de Caballos Ligeros
- Brigada de fusiles montados de Nueva Zelanda
- 22a Brigada Montada
- Artillería divisional montada en Anzac: 4 baterías Artillería a caballo real (RHA) (cada una de 4 × 18 – pdrs = 16 cañones)
- División Imperial Montada (Mayor General Henry West Hodgson ) (4ta Brigada de Caballos Ligeros aún no formada)
- 3ra Brigada de Caballos Ligeros
- Quinta brigada montada
- 6.a brigada montada
- Artillería Divisional Montada Imperial: 4 Baterías RHA (cada una de 4 × 18 – pdrs = 16 cañones) [48] [49] [50]
- Patrulla de coches ligeros No. 7
- Baterías de Motor Blindado Nos. 11 y 12. [51] [Nota 4]
- Destacamento de Money (Teniente Coronel N. Money)
- 2 / 4.o Batallón, Regimiento Royal West Kent (160a Brigada, 53a División)
- Húsares de Gloucester (5.a Brigada Montada, División Montada Imperial)
- Una sección (2 x 60 pdrs), 15ª batería pesada, RGA. [52]
Las unidades de la Fuerza del Este bajo el mando directo de Dobell que permanecieron en Rafa, debían proteger las líneas de comunicación, el cruce de Wadi el Arish y Khan Yunis, de un ataque en el flanco derecho. Esta fuerza estaba formada por 8.000 hombres en el
- 52.a División (Tierras Bajas) (Mayor General Wilfrid EB Smith ) [53]
- 155a Brigada (Escocia del Sur)
- 156a Brigada (Rifles Escoceses)
- 157ª Brigada ( Infantería Ligera de las Tierras Altas) [43] [54] [55]
También bajo el mando directo de Dobell estaban los
- 54a División (East Anglian) (Mayor General Steuart Hare ) [56] (menos una brigada en las Defensas del Canal de Suez)
- 161a Brigada (Essex)
- 162a Brigada (East Midland)
- 163a Brigada (Norfolk y Suffolk)
- Artillería de la 54a División: 2 Brigadas RFA (4 baterías de 4 x 18 pdrs cada una; 2 baterías de 4 obuses de 4,5 pulgadas cada una) [Nota 5]
- 74a División (Yeomanry)
- 229a brigada
- Brigada Imperial Camel Corps (General de Brigada S. Smith)
- 1er batallón (australiano)
- 2do batallón (británico)
- 3er batallón (australiano)
- Cuarto Batallón (Australia y Nueva Zelanda) [40] [57] [Nota 6]
- Imperial Camel Brigade's 1 Camel Pack Battery of 6 × 2.75-inch = 6 guns [58][59]
- Brigada Imperial Camel Corps (General de Brigada S. Smith)
- 5th Wing Royal Flying Corps
- No. 14 Squadron Royal Flying Corps
- No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps
- Army Troops: One 2-gun section from each of 3 RGA Batteries, two of which were detached see above). [48][49][50][60]
The chain of command during the first Battle of Gaza was:
- Murray's Advanced GHQ EEF at El Arish, without reserves; its role was to advise only,
- Dobell's Eastern Force headquarters near In Seirat commanded three infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a brigade of camels. This force was equivalent to an army of two corps, but only had a staff which was smaller than an army corps serving on the western front,
- Chetwode's Desert Column headquarters also near In Seirat, commanded the equivalent of a corps, with a staff the size of an infantry division.[61]
Lines of communication
The Ottoman withdrawal back from Khan Yunis and Shellal, put enough distance between the two forces to require a pause in the advance, while the railway was laid to Rafa.[62] By the end of February 1917, 388 miles (624 km) of railway had been laid (at a rate of 1 kilometre a day), 203 miles (327 km) of metalled road, 86 miles (138 km) of wire and brushwood roads, and 300 miles (480 km) of water pipeline had been constructed.[63] And the Royal Navy undertook to land stores on the beach at Deir el Belah as soon as required and until the railway approached the Wadi Ghazzee.[64]
By 1 March the railhead had reached Sheikh Zowaiid 30 miles (48 km) from Gaza, and by the middle of March the railway had reached Rafa, 12 miles (19 km) from Deir el Belah. Although the Rafa railway station opened on 21 March, it "was not ready for unloading supplies" until after the battle. The railhead was to eventually reached Khan Yunis.[4][41] However, with the arrival of the railway at Rafa, Gaza came within range of an EEF attack by mounted troops and infantry.[25]
Transport
With firmer ground the pedrails came off the guns and their teams of eight and ten horses were reduced to six. It also became possible to use wheeled vehicles, and in January the War Office agreed to the infantry divisions being re-equipped with wheeled transport trains. These were to replace camel transport, on the condition that drivers would be found locally, as no transfers from other campaigns were possible. Although camel trains remained important throughout the war, together with pack mules and donkeys, where roads were bad and in hilly trackless terrain, where the horse-drawn and mule-drawn wagons, motor lorries and tractors could not go, they began to be replaced. General service and limber wagons drawn by horses or mules were grouped in supply columns, with the transport wagons of the regiments, the machine–gun squadrons, and the field ambulances, to travel on easier but less direct routes. However, all these animals required vast quantities of food and water, which greatly increased pressure on the lines of communication. During the advance across the Sinai, although it was established that horses did better with two drinks a day instead of three, the volume remained the same.[3][65][66][67][68][69]
Supplying the infantry and mounted divisions was a vast undertaking, as one brigade (and there were six involved in the attack on Gaza) of light horse, mounted rifles, and yeomanry at war establishment consisted of approximately 2,000 soldiers as well as the division of infantry; all requiring food and drink, clothing, ammunition and tools, etc.[70]
Transport was organised, combining the horse-drawn and mule-drawn supply columns with the camel trains, to support Eastern Force operating beyond railhead for about 24 hours.[71][Note 7] "The wagons [of the Anzac Mounted Division] with their teams of mules, two in the pole and three in the lead, [were] driven by one man from the box." These wagons and mules were so successful that the five-mule team was "laid down for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ... ultimately almost supersed[ing] the British four or six horse ride-and-drive team."[72]
Plan of attack
Although Murray delegated the responsibility for the battle to Dobell, he set three objectives. These were to capture a line along the Wadi Ghuzzee in order to cover the laying of the railway line, to prevent the defenders withdrawing before they were attacked, and to "capture Gaza and its garrison by a coup de main."[7] The plan of attack produced by Dobell and his staff, was similar to those successfully implemented at Magdhaba by Chauvel and at Rafa by Chetwode, except that the EEF infantry were to have a prominent role. On a larger scale than the previous battles, the garrison at Gaza, established in fortified entrenchments and redoubts, was to be surrounded and captured, before Ottoman reinforcements could arrive.[44][73][74]
The main attack on the town and Ali Muntar hill would come from the south, by the Desert Column's 53rd (Welsh) Division commanded by Dallas, supported by one infantry brigade of Eastern Force's 54th (East Anglian) Division, commanded by Hare. The Anzac and Imperial Mounted Divisions, commanded by Chauvel and Hodgson respectively, were to establish a screen or cordon around Gaza to the north and east to isolate the garrison, cutting the main roads and preventing an incursion by Ottoman reinforcements reaching the town from their garrisons at Hareira, Beersheba, and Huj. If necessary, the mounted divisions were to be ready to reinforce the infantry attack, while the remaining infantry brigades of the 54th (East Anglian) Division extended the mounted screen to the southeast, just across the Wadi Ghuzzee.[2][74][75]
On 5 March, Murray agreed to Dobell's plan for the attack, which was to be launched at the end of March.[23] On 20 March Dobell moved his headquarters from El Arish to Rafa.[25][37] The next day, the Rafa Race Meeting took place, complete with trophies ordered from Cairo, and a printed programme. These races, complete with an enclosed paddock, totalizator, jumps, and a marked course, were contested by Yeomanry, Australian and New Zealand horses and riders.[58][76] On 22 March, all roads and tracks were reconnoitred as far as Deir el Belah and allotted to the different formations, and preliminary moves towards Gaza were begun.[58]
Dallas' orders were handed to the Anzac, Imperial Mounted, and the 54th (East Anglian) Divisions' commanders at 17:00 on 25 March. The 53rd (Welsh) Division's 158th (North Wales) and 160th Brigades were to begin crossing the Wadi Ghuzzeh at 03:30 and advance up the Burjabye and Es Sire ridges, while the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade which followed the 158th (North Wales) across the wadi, was to remain close to the wadi until further orders were received. Money's Detachment was to cross the wadi mouth and hold a position in the sand dunes between the Rafa-Gaza road and the sea to divert the Ottoman defenders' attention, and cover a section of the 15th Heavy Battery. A section of 91st Heavy Battery was to move into the wadi, while a section the 10th Heavy Battery of 60-pdrs was attached to the 160th Brigade Group. However, artillery ammunition was limited and was to mainly target the Labyrinth group of Ottoman defences. The mounted divisions were to isolate Gaza by stopping the Gaza garrison retiring, or any reinforcements from Huj and Hareira areas, attempting to reinforce Gaza. They were to pursue any hostile force that showed signs of retiring, and if necessary, support the main assault on Gaza, which was to be carried out by the 53rd (Welsh) Division. This division was to be reinforced if necessary by the 161st (Essex) Brigade of the 54th (East Anglian) Division.[77][78][79] At 18:00 Murray, the commander in chief of the EEF, established his headquarters in the carriage of a railway train at El Arish.[61]
Preliminary moves
On 25 March, the Anzac Mounted Division moved out of their bivouacs in two columns. The first column, consisting of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and the 22nd Mounted Yeomanry Brigades, marched up the beach from Bir Abu Shunnar at 02:30, to establish a line just south of the Wadi Ghuzzeh. This advance was to cover reconnaissances of the Wadi Ghuzzeh, which would search for the best places to cross this deep, dry, and formidable obstacle, for both infantry and mounted troops as they advanced towards Gaza.[80][81] The second column, consisting of Anzac Mounted Division's divisional headquarters, Signal Squadron, Field Artillery, and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (forming divisional reserve), arrived .75 miles (1.21 km) southwest of Deir el Belah. Here the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the artillery were ordered to water and bivouac at Deir el Belah. By 10:00, Chauvel's Anzac Mounted Division's headquarters and Chetwode's Desert Column headquarters had been established on Hill 310.[82]
While the Ottoman army positions at Gaza had been reconnoitred and photographed from the air, it was still necessary for the staff of the Anzac and Imperial Mounted Divisions, along with the Commander of the Royal Artillery (CRA), to carry out personal reconnaissances of the Wadi Ghuzzeh.[64] By the afternoon all likely crossings had been carefully reconnoitred, and the chosen crossing near the Wadi Sharta, which was to be used the next day, marked.[83]
At 15:30 the Imperial Mounted Division, led by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, marched out of camp at Marakeb, heading for Deir el Belah about six hours or 18 miles (29 km) away. The division's three brigades and their machine gun squadrons were accompanied by their mobile veterinary sections and the 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance. The troopers carried their day's rations, while rations for 26 and 27 March were to be transported forward during the night of 25/26 March, by the first line transport of camels and wagons. As it had been expected the division would be away five days, additional rations were carried on improvised packs, which accompanied the division as far as Deir el Belah.[58][84]
Approach marches 26 March
On the day of battle, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, moved out from Deir el Belah at 01:00 in four columns towards El Breij, followed by the artillery. At 02:30 the Anzac Mounted Division left Deir el Belah with the Imperial Mounted Division following at 03:00, heading for the Um Jerrar crossing of the Wadi Ghazze 4.5 miles (7.2 km) east of Deir el Belah.[85] Dallas commanding the infantry established his battle headquarters near El Breij at 03:45, while Chetwode arrived at Desert Column headquarters at In Seirat at 06:37, although he intended to continue moving on to Sheikh Abbas. Dobell commanding Eastern Force arrived from Rafa, at his battle headquarters just north of In Seirat at 06:45.[61]
Fog had begun to develop and from about 03:50 became very thick. It remained for about four hours, then began to lift. Just before dawn at 05:00, it was so dense that objects could not be seen 20 yards (18 m) away, but by this time most of the infantry had crossed the wadi. However, the fog made it impossible for Dallas to reconnoitre the proposed battleground, and he waited at El Breij for it to lift while his two leading brigades moved slowly forward. Visibility was improving about 07:30,[86][Note 8] and by 07:55 the fog had lifted sufficiently for heliographs to be used.[87] However, all aircraft in No. 1 Squadron had to return to their new landing ground at Rafa, as nothing of the ground could be seen from the air.[73] Dallas' 53rd (Welsh) Division was moving forward, despite the fog to make a direct assault on Gaza.[44][88][89] At 05:20, the division's 158th (North Wales) and the 160th infantry brigades were crossing the Wadi Ghuzze while the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade was in reserve. By 06:50 the 160th Brigade had moved towards Shaluf and the 158th (North Wales) Brigade was moving towards Mansura, but they were ordered to slow down because artillery support may not be available, if the fog were to suddenly lift.[90] By 07:50, the leading battalions were approaching Sheikh Seehan without having encountered any Ottoman defenders. Between 08:15 and 08:55 hostile planes flew over the advancing infantry, firing their machine guns into the columns. At 08:30 the 160th (Welsh) Brigade was about 2,400 yards (2,200 m) from Gaza, with their leading battalion 2 miles (3.2 km) southwest of the commanding heights of their main objective, Ali Muntar. The 158th (North Wales) Brigade had reached Mansura,[87][91] and by 09:30 they were three quarters of a mile (1.2 km) north of the 53rd (Welsh) Division's headquarters at Mansura.[90]
Meanwhile, the 54th (East Anglian) Division (less 161st Essex Brigade in Eastern Force reserve) was ordered to cross the Wadi Ghuzzeh immediately after the mounted troops, and take up a position at Sheikh Abbas to cover the rear of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, and keep the corridor open along which it was to attack.[32] The division took up position on Sheikh Abbas Ridge and began digging trenches facing east. The 161st (Essex) Brigade moved to El Burjabye, where it would be able to support either the 53rd (Welsh) Division, or the 54th (East Anglian) Division covering the right rear of the attack, at Sheikh Abbas.[92]
Money's Detachment moved towards the wadi in preparation for crossing at dawn, while the 91st Heavy Battery was covered by the Duke of Lancaster's Own Yeomanry and the divisional cavalry squadron, moved to a position on the Rafa-Gaza road.[93]
Encirclement
While the fog made navigation difficult, it also shielded the movement of large bodies of troopers, so the two mounted divisions with the Imperial Camel Brigade attached, rapidly cut the roads leading to Gaza from the north and east, isolating the Ottoman garrison, in a 15 miles (24 km) long cavalry screen.[19][44][55]
The leading division, the Anzac Mounted Division, first encountered hostile forces at 08:00. At that time the 7th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) was attacked near Sheikh Abbas. Shortly afterwards, hostile aircraft fired machine guns on these leading Desert Column mounted troops. As the mounted screen crossed the Gaza to Beersheba road, they cut the telegraph lines, and a patrol captured ten wagons, while other units captured 30 German pioneers and their pack-horses.[94] At this time, the German commander at Tel esh Sheria, Kress von Kressenstein, received an aerial report describing the advance of two enemy infantry divisions towards Gaza, and about three enemy cavalry divisions and armoured cars, had advanced north between Gaza and Tel esh Sheria. Major Tiller, commanding the Gaza garrison, reported later being attacked from the south, east, and northeast "in great strength." He was ordered to hold Gaza "to the last man."[28]
Soon after 09:00 the 2nd Light Horse Brigade reached Beit Durdis, closely followed by the remainder of their Anzac Mounted Division.[94] At 09:30 four "Officers Patrols" were sent forward towards Huj, Najd 3 miles (4.8 km) north northeast of Huj, Hareira, Tel el Sheria and towards the Ottoman railway line. The headquarters of the Anzac Mounted Division was established at Beit Durdis, and by 10:10 communications by cable with Desert Column, the Imperial Mounted Division, and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade were established. Heliograph stations were also set up and wireless communications established, but the wireless was blocked by a more powerful Ottoman transmitter at Gaza.[87][95] By 10:30, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade had taken up a position (known as Australia Hill) overlooking Gaza from the northeast, and had occupied the village of Jebaliye 2 miles (3.2 km) northeast of Gaza. Half an hour later, the 7th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) was pushing westwards and by 11:30 had reached the Mediterranean coast, to complete the encirclement of Gaza. In the process the regiment captured the commander of the Ottoman 53rd Division, not to be confused with the 53rd (Welsh) Division, and his staff, who had been on their way to strengthen the Gaza garrison. At this time, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was concentrated near Beit Durdis, while the 22nd Mounted Brigade formed up south of them. Two squadrons of the 8th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) moved towards Deir Sneid 7 miles (11 km) northeast of Gaza to watch and wait for the expected approach of reinforcements, moving to strengthen Gaza.[96][97]
The Imperial Mounted Division sent patrols towards Hareira, Tel esh Sheria, Kh. Zuheilika and Huj, during their advance to Kh er Reseim where they arrived at 10:00, to connect with the Anzac Mounted Division. Meanwhile, at 09:45, a squadron from the Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars (5th Mounted Brigade) had encountered hostile units northwest of Kh. el Baha which they charged, capturing 60 prisoners. A further two squadrons of the 5th Mounted Brigade pushed forward towards Kh. el Baha south east of Kh er Reseim, 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the Gaza to Beersheba road, where they remained in support.[95]
The two mounted divisions were now in position, watching for the expected Ottoman reinforcements. By between 11:00 and 11:35, more or less all mounted troops were under fire. This fire came from shells launched from Gaza, or from German or Ottoman planes flying over Beit Durdis, as well as a long range gun, while another gun also fired on the mounted units. The battery of the 5th Mounted Brigade fired on some small groups of Ottoman infantry, but the hostile long range gun accurately returned fire, causing this battery to change position. Very little fighting had yet taken place, so far as the mounted units were concerned, and the infantry attack had not made much progress. However, news was beginning to come in from the overwatching Desert Column patrols, reporting movements from the direction of Huj and the Beersheba railway line, and columns of dust in the direction of Tel esh Sharia, all indicating large scale Ottoman Army movements in progress.[96][98] However, by 12:00 Chetwode commanding Desert Column, had not yet received any reports of Ottoman reinforcements moving towards Gaza, and he sent a message to Chauvel commanding the Anzac Mounted Division and Hodgson commanding the Imperial Mounted Division, to prepare to send a brigade each to assist the infantry attack on Gaza.[99]
The Imperial Camel Brigade crossed the Wadi Ghuzzeh at Tel el Jemmi south of the crossings at Um Jerrar, to reach El Mendur on the bank of the Wadi esh Sheria. Here they established an outpost line between the right of the 5th Mounted Brigade and the Wadi Ghuzzeh.[100] The mobile sections of the field ambulances, followed by their immobile sections and ambulance camel transport, moved towards their outpost positions northeast and east of Gaza.[101][102] With the wadi crossed and strongly defended by the EEF, divisional engineers quickly began to pump water from below the dry bed of the Wadi Ghuzzeh, which was eventually sufficient for all troops engaged. Water was pumped into long rows of temporary canvas troughs for the horses.[93]
Batalla
Infantry attack
Gaza was now completely surrounded and, following Desert Column's orders, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which had not seen action since the Gallipoli campaign, made a direct attack from the south and east towards Ali Muntar. Their 160th Brigade advanced towards Esh Sheluf to get into position by 08:30, with the 158th (North Wales) Brigade advancing towards Mansura, while the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade, which had crossed the wadi by 08:25, had to wait an hour before Dallas ordered them to Mansura to support the 158th Brigade. This delay meant that the 159th could not get into position to take part in the attack until noon.[103] Dallas "had not yet decided" what to do with the 159th. While he met with his brigadiers at the 158th Brigade's headquarters at 10:15, to discuss detailed arrangements of the attack, he was out of communication with Chetwode. This lasted for two hours while his headquarters was moved forward. Dallas contacted Chetwode at 10:50, blaming the delay on the difficulty of bringing the artillery forward, but confirmed he would be ready to launch the attack at 12:00. Due to communication breakdown, Dallas was unaware of the position of the artillery. He had phoned Desert Corps at "10.4" [sic] to be told that the 161st (Essex) Brigade and the 271st RFA were at Sheikh Nebhan. However, they had moved to an exposed position at El Burjabye before finding a covered position in the valley between the Burjabye and Es Sire Ridges. The artillery was in fact already in position and had begun firing at 10:10, although communications had not been established with headquarters.[104] Fog has also been blamed for the delayed infantry attack.[105][106] The artillery bombardment began at 12:00, although there was no artillery program, and the Ottoman defences had not been identified.[107]
Dallas received his orders at 11:00, and half an hour later Dobell and Chetwode ordered him to launch his attack forthwith.[107] By 11:30, Desert Column staff considered that the 53rd (Welsh) Division was practically stationary, and the following message was sent to Dallas: "I am directed to observe that (1) you have been out of touch with Desert Column and your own headquarters for over two hours; (2) no gun registration appears to have been carried out; (3) that time is passing, and that you are still far from your objective; (4) that the Army and Column Commanders are exercised at the loss of time, which is vital; (5) you must keep a general staff officer at your headquarters who can communicate with you immediately; (6) you must launch your attack forthwith." A similar message was sent again at 12:00.[108][Note 9]
Dallas ordered the attack to begin at 11:45 on Ali Muntar by the 160th Brigade which advanced to attack their objective along the Es Sire Ridge, while the 158th (North Wales) which advanced from Mansura, also attacked Ali Muntar. These two infantry brigades had been in position awaiting orders for between three and four hours, while the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade rapidly deployed.[109] They were about 2.5 miles (4.0 km) from their objectives with patrols going forward, with the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade (less one battalion), covering their right, advancing to attack the hummock known as Clay Hill. This objective was located to the north of Ali Muntar, on the far side of the Gaza to Beersheba road. The attacking brigades were supported by two field artillery brigades, while a divisional reserve was formed by one battalion of the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade, until the arrival of the 161st (Essex) Brigade (Eastern Force's 54th Division).[107][Note 10] The attacking infantry brigades met with stubborn opposition from determined defenders, firing from strong entrenchments with a clear view of the infantry line of advance, over completely open ground. In these conditions, the attacking infantry's artillery support proved inadequate and a very high number of casualties was suffered.[55][110]
In support, the 54th (East Anglian) Division (less one brigade in Eastern Force reserve) was ordered to cross the Wadi Ghuzzeh immediately after the mounted troops and take up a position at Sheikh Abbas, to cover the rear of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, and keep open the corridor along which the attack was launched.[32] At 11:45 the 161st (Essex) Brigade (54th Division, Eastern Force) was ordered to advance to Mansura in support of the attacking brigades, but the message was apparently never received. At 13:10 an order which had originated from Eastern Force at 12:45 was finally received by hand from a staff officer.[111]
Combined attack
By noon, Chetwode was concerned that the strength of the opposition to the infantry attack, could make it impossible to capture Gaza before dark. As a consequence, he ordered Chauvel and Hodgson to reconnoitre towards Gaza, warning them to be prepared to supply one brigade each to reinforce the infantry attack. At 13:00 Chetwode put Chauvel in command of both mounted divisions, and by 14:00 Chauvel was ordering the whole of the Anzac Mounted Division to attack Gaza from the north, while the Imperial Mounted Division and Imperial Camel Brigade, supported by Nos 11 and 12 Light Armoured Motor Batteries and No. 7 Light Car Patrol, were to hold the outpost line and all observation posts. As the Anzac Mounted Division moved north, it was replaced in the mounted screen by the Imperial Mounted Division, which in turn was replaced by the Imperial Camel Brigade.[91][96][98][112]
It took time for the divisions to get into position, and to move Chauvel's headquarters to a knoll between Beit Durdis and Gaza, so he could oversee operations. It was not until during a meeting there at 15:15 that orders were issued for the Anzac Mounted Division's attack.[113] They deployed with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade on a front extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gaza to Jebalieh road, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade deployed from the Gaza-Jebalieh road to the top of the ridge running northeast, while the Lincolnshire Yeomanry and Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry regiments, of the 22nd Mounted Brigade, held from the right of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade to the track leading to Beit Durdis.[114][115][116]
During this time, the infantry attack on Gaza by the 53rd (Welsh) Division had been progressing. By 13:30, the 160th Brigade on the left had advanced rapidly to capture the Labyrinth, a maze of entrenched gardens due south of Gaza. Their 2/10th Middlesex Regiment established themselves on a grassy hill, while their 1/4th Royal Sussex Regiment advanced up the centre of the Es Sire ridge under intense hostile fire, suffering heavy casualties including their commanding officer. Having reached the crest, they were forced to fall back in some disorder by the Ottoman defenders. However, after being reinforced at 16:00 they recommenced their advance.[117] On the right the 158th (North Wales) Brigade's 1/5th Royal Welsh Fusiliers battalion reached the cactus hedges south of Ali Muntar, where they paused to wait for supporting battalions to come up on their right. Along with the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade, these two brigades slowly fought their way forward towards Clay Hill. Meanwhile, Dallas ordered the 161st (Essex) Brigade of the 54th (East Anglian) Division to capture Green Hill and fill the gap between the 158th (North Wales) and 160th Brigades (53rd Division). By 15:30 the 161st (Essex) Brigade had reached Mansura and they were in a position to launch their attack at 16:00 with the arrival of the 271st Brigade RFA. The fire from this artillery brigade dampened the hostile machine gun fire from Clay Hill, and at 15:50, 45 minutes after the 161st (Essex) Brigade joined the battle, the infantry succeeded in entering the defenders' trenches. They entered at two places to the east of the Ali Muntar mosque, capturing 20 German and Austrian soldiers and another 20 Ottoman soldiers. The 53rd (Welsh) Division reported the successful capture of Clay Hill, located within 600 yards (550 m) of Ali Muntar, at 16:45.[90][118]
Meanwhile the attack by the Anzac Mounted Division, began twenty minutes ahead of schedule at 15:40, before all the patrols had been relieved by the Imperial Mounted Division. The Anzac Mounted Division was supported by the Leicester and Ayrshire artillery batteries, which came into action at ranges of between 3,000 and 4,500 yards (2,700 and 4,100 m) from their targets, respectively.[114] Shortly after the attack began, Chetwode sent messages emphasising the importance of this attack, warning that the trench line northwest of Gaza between El Meshaheran and El Mineh on the sea, was strongly held and offering another brigade from the Imperial Mounted Division, which Chauvel accepted. Hodgson sent the 3rd Light Horse Brigade.[114][119]
At 16:15, five minutes after the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade captured the Clay Hill redoubt near Ali Muntar, the attack on Gaza from the north by the Anzac Mounted Division's 2nd Light Horse Brigade, supported by the Somerset artillery battery, had not been seriously engaged until they reached the cactus hedges. Here they were strongly resisted in close, intense fighting.[90][114][119] The cactus hedges had forced the light horsemen to dismount, however, the assault soon developed and progress was rapid.[38][Note 11] The 2nd Light Horse Brigade was supported by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, which moved forward with the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment in advance, and the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment in support. However, only three troops of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment were in position, the remainder being delayed in the mounted screen, by strong hostile columns of reinforcements advancing from Huj and Nejed.[90][114][119]
At 16:23, the high ridge east of Gaza was captured by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, while the 22nd Mounted Brigade on their left captured the knoll running west from the ridge.[114] The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's headquarters subsequently took up a position on the ridge, in an area later called "Chaytor's Hill". The Wellington and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments pressed on towards Gaza, supported by four machine guns attached to each regiment, the remaining four machine guns being held in reserve.[120] Between 16:30 and 17:00, Ali Muntar was captured by the infantry and the dismounted New Zealanders. The Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment had pushed along 'The Ridge' from the rear to assist in the attack, one squadron swinging south against Ali Muntar to enter the defenders' trenches just after the infantry.[55][114][120]
By dusk the light horsemen had reached the northern and western outskirts of the town. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's dismounted fighters advanced from Jebaliye against the east and northeast of Gaza to assist in the capture of Ali Muntar, before pushing on through a very enclosed region. This area was intersected with cactus hedges, buildings, and rifle pits occupied by defending riflemen, who strongly resisted the attackers. Despite considerable opposition the New Zealanders continued to slowly advance through the orchards and cactus hedges to the outskirts of the town. During this advance, the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment captured two 77-mm Krupp guns with limbers and ammunition. Shortly afterwards, their progress was stopped by snipers in several houses on the eastern outskirts of the town. The Krupp guns were pushed forward to fire at point blank, blowing up several houses and causing the surrender of 20 hostile soldiers. Meanwhile, the 22nd Mounted Brigade, advancing at the gallop along the track from Beit Durdis to Gaza, had also reached the outskirts of the town by dusk.[119][120][121]
By nightfall, the Anzac Mounted Division had fought their way into the streets of Gaza, suffering very few casualties during this advance. While the attack in the centre by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was progressing, the 22nd Mounted Brigade had come up on the New Zealanders' left, and it was this attacking force that entered the town. Meanwhile, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade had met stiff resistance from defenders holding entrenchments in the sand hills to the northwest of the town. Closest to the Mediterranean coast, the 7th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) met considerable opposition, but was eventually able to advance close up to the town.[115][121][122]
By 18:00, the position of the attacking force was most satisfactory, and by 18:30 the whole position had been captured, while the defenders were retreating into the town centre. The Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade were well into the northern outskirts of the town. Units of the 158th (North Wales) Brigade (53rd Division) and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment held Ali Muntar, the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade's right was holding trenches on Clay Hill, while its left was south of the town holding the Gaza to Beersheba road. The 161st (Essex) Brigade (54th Division) held Green Hill and the 160th Brigade (53rd Division) was holding a position to the north of the Labyrinth. By nightfall this combined force was consolidating its captured positions. Only on the western side of Gaza in the sand hills had the attack not been completely successful.[122][123]
Mounted screen attacked
At 14:20 Hodgson ordered his Imperial Mounted Division to move north and take over the Anzac Mounted Division's outpost positions. The 6th Mounted Brigade was to move to the east of Beit Durdis, while the 5th Mounted Brigade, currently astride the Gaza to Beersheba road, was to "fill the gap between it and the Camel Brigade," which had orders to move to Kh er Reseim. Owing to a delay in the Camel Brigade receiving its orders, this relief was not completed until two hours later, after 18:30 when the 5th Mounted Brigade moved 2 miles (3.2 km) north.[124]
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Fourth Army's 3rd and 16th Infantry Divisions prepared to launch a counterattack by 1,000 men advancing towards Gaza.[19][125] The two divisions were expected to be in action before dark, but the EEF cavalry and armoured cars were able to stop their advance before they were halfway from Tel esh Sheria to Gaza. Kress von Kressenstein did not persist with the attack but ordered a renewal of their attacks at dawn.[126] About 300 of these reinforcements had been seen at 15:50 (ten minutes after the combined attack on Gaza began) marching towards the town from the north. A little later three more columns were reported moving in the same direction, while another 300 soldiers had moved into the sand hills west of Deir Sineid, to the north of Gaza. A squadron from the 22nd Mounted Yeomanry Brigade was sent to oppose these forces.[114]
From the east, units of the Ottoman Army had first been reported at 14:20, advancing from the direction of Jemmameh (east of Huj).[127] When they were about one point five miles (2.4 km) from Beit Durdis, they attacked the Desert Column outposts holding Hill 405. Two squadrons and one troop of Berkshire Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade) defended the front. They reported being attacked by infantry, mounted troops, and some machine gun crews. Hodgson ordered the remainder of brigade, supported by the Berkshire Battery RHA, to reinforce this outpost front line. However, the remainder of the 6th Mounted Brigade was in the process of watering and could not start at once. The delay allowed the Ottoman force to capture the crest of Hill 405 at 17:15.[128][129]
At 17:00, Hodgson commanding the mounted screen, asked Chauvel commanding the mounted attack on Gaza, for reinforcements. Chauvel sent back the 8th and 9th Light Horse Regiments (3rd Light Horse Brigade), commanded by Brigadier General J. R. Royston. They moved back quickly under Royston's command to capture a high hill northwest of Hill 405, which enabled the units of the Berkshire Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade) to hold their position. The 8th and 9th Light Horse Regiments (3rd Light Horse Brigade) with the 1/1st Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade) held the line, while the 1/1st Nottinghamshire Royal Horse Artillery and the Berkshire Battery enfiladed the advancing hostile formations. Six hostile guns in their firing line, returned fire. When three additional hostile batteries were brought forward, they enfiladed the Berkshire Battery, forcing it to withdraw at about 18:30, just before dusk.[128][129]
After his divisional headquarters moved north, during his take over of the mounted screen, Hodgson discovered that he had lost contact with the 5th Mounted Brigade. It was nearly dark when, at 17:30, a gap occurred in the line between the 6th Mounted Brigade and Imperial Camel Brigade at Kh er Reseim. Fortunately, hostile soldiers did not attempt to investigate the area before Chauvel sent back his last divisional reserve, the 10th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade), to fill the gap. In the growing darkness the light horse regiment succeeded in reaching its position.[124][128]
The No. 7 Light Car Patrol was sent to reinforce units holding off Ottoman reinforcements advancing from Deir Sineid at 17:15. They strengthened the original two squadrons of the 6th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) which held the main road to the north of Gaza. They had been joined by a squadron of the 22nd Mounted Brigade and two more squadrons of the 6th Light Horse Regiment. The Nos. 11 and 12 Light Armoured Motor Batteries (LAMB) also reinforced the mounted screen holding off, about 4,000 Ottoman soldiers advancing from the direction of Huj and Jemmameh. These Ottoman Army units were reported to be 3,000 infantry and two squadrons of cavalry. The LAMBs reported to Royston and engaged the Ottoman Army until dark.[128][130]
Withdrawal of mounted divisions
During the battle the serious pressure from Ottoman forces advancing to relieve Gaza from the east had been expected and had begun to make an impact since 16:00. However, in view of the late start to the battle and the threat from these reinforcements, Dobell, the commander of Eastern Force, after talking with Chetwode, the commander of Desert Column, decided that unless Gaza was captured by nightfall, the fighting must stop and the mounted force withdrawn.[131][Note 12] By dusk, some of the strong Ottoman Army trenches and redoubts defending Gaza, remained in their control. The British had fired some 304 shells and 150,000 rounds of small arms ammunition, while their infantry casualties were substantial.[19][132] On the day of battle, 26 March 1917, the sun set at 18:00 (Cairo time). This occurred before Desert Column knew of the capture of Ali Muntar.[133] Therefore, with the approval of Dobell, at 18:10 Chetwode commanding Desert Column, ordered Chauvel to withdraw the mounted force and retire across the Wadi Ghuzzeh. As these orders were being dispatched, a report came in from Dallas that Ali Muntar had been captured, but this information did not change Chetwode's mind. It was not until some time later that he was informed of the capture of the entire ridge.[133] Chetwode's orders were to break off the action after dark and withdraw.[55][122][134]
According to Christopher Pugsley, the Anzac Mounted Division "saw victory snatched away from them by the order to withdraw."[81][Note 13] This decision to withdraw was puzzling to many of those fighting in and near the town, as the infantry held Ali Muntar and 462 German and Ottoman army prisoners, including a general who was a divisional commander. They had also captured an Austrian battery of two Krupp 77mm field guns, along with a complete convoy.[105][132][135] However, the whole attacking force was withdrawn to Deir el Belah and Khan Yunus on 27 and 28 March.[136][137] The first units to withdraw were the slow moving wheels and camels, which received their orders at 17:00 from Desert Column. They move back to Hill 310 via Sheikh Abbas.[90][128] With the Imperial Mounted Division, remaining in position to cover the retirement of the Anzac Mounted Division, the withdrawal of the fighting mounted units was slow and difficult, not because of hostile pressure (there was none until dawn), but because the units were intermixed and the dismounted troops were far from their horses. One unit, the 7th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) was nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) from their horses and all their wounded had not yet been collected.[138] The No. 7 Light Car Patrol reported to the headquarters of the Anzac Mounted Division at 18:40 and was ordered to return to base, while the cars of the Nos. 11 and 12 LAMB, camped in the vicinity of Kh er Reseim. At 19:05 Anzac Mounted Division's artillery began its retirement from divisional headquarters under escort, and the 43 wounded from the Anzac Mounted Division and 37 wounded from Imperial Mounted Division were collected and brought to the ambulances, while prisoners were sent back under escort. By 19:30 the 22nd Mounted Brigade was moving toward Divisional Headquarters and the 6th Mounted Brigade withdrew while Ottoman soldiers dug in on Hill 405.[89][128][139]
At about midnight the Anzac Mounted Division was clear of the battlefield, while the Imperial Mounted Division, with the assistance of the Imperial Camel Brigade and armoured motor cars, held off the Ottoman reinforcements.[128][136] At 02:00 when the guns of Anzac Mounted Division had reached Dier el Belah and the division was just passed Beit Dundis, Hodgson gave orders for the concentration of the Imperial Mounted Division's 3rd Light Horse, 5th, and 6th Mounted Brigades, while the Imperial Camel Brigade took up a line from the Wadi Guzzeh to the left of the 54th (East Anglian) Division's headquarters.[138][140]
At 04:30, the cars in the Nos. 11 and 12 LAMB broke camp near Kh er Reseim, and as they moved southwards encountered opposition from Ottoman Army units. After two hours of stiff fighting they managed to retire, while at 04:50 the No. 7 Light Car Patrol was moving along the Gaza to Beersheba road. It was not until 05:30 that an Ottoman attack in strength fell on the rear of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade (Imperial Mounted Division) just as the brigade was crossing the Gaza-Beersheba road near Kh Sihan. The No. 7 Light Car Patrol gave very effective support to the brigade, and together with the light horsemen, became heavily engaged, fighting the Ottoman Army advancing from Huj. The advancing reinforcements were stopped, and the light cars covered the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's retirement back to the Imperial Camel Brigade's position, at 07:00 on the morning of 27 March 1917.[132][138][Note 14]
I wish to draw special attention to the excellent service rendered by the Imperial Mtd Div under Major General H.W. Hodgson CB CVO, in holding off greatly superior forces of the enemy during the afternoon of the 26th and the night of 26/27th thus enabling the A & NZ Mtd Div to assist in the Infantry attack on Gaza and subsequently to withdraw after dark. Had the work of this Division been less efficiently carried out it would have been quite impossible to extricate the A & NZ Mtd Div without very serious losses.
— Chauvel commanding Anzac Mounted Division, Account of Operations dated 4 April 1917[132]
Withdrawal of infantry
At 17:38 Dobell commanding Eastern Force, ordered the 54th (East Anglian) Division to move 2 miles (3.2 km) to the west to Burjabye Ridge, and informed Desert Column. An hour later, at 18:35 (25 minutes after Chetwode ordered Chauvel to withdraw), Dobell informed Desert Column and the 54th (East Anglian) Division "that he contemplated withdrawing the whole force across the Wadi Ghazze if Gaza did not shortly fall."[141]
There have been claims that the infantry were the first to retire and that, due to a communications breakdown, the 53rd (Welsh) Division made a complete and premature retirement.[142][143] However, that infantry division had not been told of the movement of the 54th (East Anglian) Division and was still in position. It was not until just before 19:00 that Chetwode phoned Dallas, commander of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, to inform him of the withdrawal of the mounted troops, and the need for him to move his right to reestablish contact with the 54th (East Anglian) Division. Dallas was under the impression that he was to move back to Sheikh Abbas, 4 miles (6.4 km) from his right on Clay Hill, while Chetwode meant that the two divisions would reconnect 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Mansura and not much over 1 mile (1.6 km) from the 161st (Essex) Brigade, 54th (East Anglian) Division, at Green Hill. Dallas protested, instead asking for reinforcements to close the gap between the two divisions. This request was denied and when he prevaricated, asking for time to consider the order, Chetwode gave him the verbal order, believing the 53rd (Welsh) Division was moving its right back to gain touch with the 54th (East Anglian) Division near Mansura.[141] Falls notes that according to Dallas "he had explained on the telephone the full extent of his withdrawal to General Chetwode; the latter states that he did not understand his subordinate to mean that he was abandoning anything like so much ground. In any case the responsibility rests upon Desert Column Headquarters, since General Dallas had telegraphed to it the line he was taking up."[144]
As late as 21:12, the 53rd (Welsh) Division still held Ali Muntar, at which time they advised Desert Column they would have to evacuate towards Sheikh Abbas, to conform with a withdrawal occurring on their right.[90][128] At 22:30 Dallas, commander of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, issued orders for the whole of his force to withdraw to a line which stretched from the caves at Tell el Ujul, near the Wadi Ghuzzeh on the left through a point 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Esh Sheluf, and on to Mansura and Sheikh Abbas involving a retirement of 1 mile (1.6 km) on the Es Sire Ridge and 3 miles (4.8 km) between Clay Hill and Mansura. He informed Desert Column of this move.[145] By 23:00, Dobell commanding Eastern Force, had become aware of the extent of the 53rd (Welsh) Division's successes. He also received intercepted wireless messages, which had been unduly delayed, between Kress von Kressenstein at Tel esh Sheria and Major Tiller, the German officer commanding the Gaza garrison, indicating the desperate situation of the garrison. Dobell immediately ordered Chetwode and Dallas to dig in on their present line, connecting his right with the 54th (East Anglian) Division.[146]
Reoccupations and retreats
It was nearly midnight when Dallas commanding 53rd (Welsh) Division, discovered the 54th (East Anglian) Division was moving towards the north of Mansura – had he known of this move at the time, he would not have abandoned all of the captured positions.[145] At 05:00 on 27 March, when Chetwode learned that the 53rd (Welsh) Division had abandoned its entire position, and he ordered them back to Ali Muntar. Dallas ordered the 160th Brigade (53rd Division) and 161st (Essex) Brigades (54th Division) to push forward with strong patrols to the positions they had held on the previous evening. Both Green Hill and Ali Muntar were found to be unoccupied and one company of the 1/7th Battalion Essex Regiment, (161st Brigade) reoccupied Ali Muntar, while two companies of the same battalion reoccupied Green Hill. After the 2nd Battalion of the 10th Middlesex Regiment (160th Brigade) had pushed forward patrols beyond Sheluf, the 2nd Battalion of the 4th Royal West Surrey or 4th Royal West Kent Regiment (160th Brigade) was ordered to advance and "gain touch" with the 161st Brigade. However, as the battalion advanced in artillery formation, they could see the 161st Brigade to the northeast "falling back." Meanwhile the 1/1st Battalion, Herefordshire Regiment (158th Brigade, 53rd Division) had also been ordered to reoccupy their brigade's position and was advancing, when they too saw the 161st Brigade withdrawing.[147][148]
After dawn on 27 March the first Ottoman counterattacks recaptured Ali Muntar and a portion of Green Hill, but the 1/7th Battalion of the Essex Regiment, (161st Brigade, 54th Division), retook the positions before consolidating and re-establishing their posts. Meanwhile, the Ottoman force, which had attacked the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, appeared on Sheikh Abbas and shelled the rear of Dallas' position, "including his reserves, medical units and transport camels," but made no serious attack on the 54th (East Anglian) Division holding Burjabye Ridge.[149] The hostile artillery batteries at Sheikh Abbas targeted all the tracks across the Wadi Ghuzzeh, employed by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, who were at the time attempting to supply food, water and ammunition, to the forward units.[150] At 08:00 the 53rd (Welsh) Division came under orders of Eastern Force, and Dobell received an appreciation from Dallas at 09:15. This stated that if the present positions of the 53rd (Welsh) and 54th (East Anglian) Divisions were to be maintained, the German and Ottoman occupation of Sheikh Abbas must be ended. This was confirmed by G. P. Dawnay, Brigadier General General Staff (BGGS), Eastern Force. Dallas suggested Sheikh Abbas might best be recaptured by Desert Column, as the 52nd (Lowland) Division was too far away.[151]
However, by 08:10 the Imperial Mounted Division had arrived back at Deir el Belah and the Anzac Mounted Division was marching via Abu Thirig past Hill 310 where Chauvel met Chetwode. Chetwode ordered the horses of both divisions to water and return to a position near El Dameita to support an attempt by the infantry to retake Ali Muntar. At 08:30 when the Anzac Mounted Division also arrived back at Deir el Belah, Chetwode took over command of the two mounted divisions from Chauvel.[132] The Anzac Mounted Division returned to take up a position near El Dameita which it held until 16:00, while the 54th (East Anglian) Division remained near Sheikh Abbas engaging the advancing Ottoman units from Beersheba.[132][142]
Ali Muntar, which had been held by two battalions of the Essex Regiment (54th Division), was strongly attacked, and at 09:30 the British infantry were forced to withdraw, having suffered severe losses. They fell back to Green Hill where they were almost surrounded, but managed to withdraw to a line south of Ali Muntar halfway between that hill and Sheluf.[151] After first advising Murray, at 16:30 Dobell issued orders for the withdrawal to the left bank of the Wadi Ghuzzeh of the 53rd (Welsh) and the 54th (East Anglian) Divisions under the command of Dallas. This retirement, which began at 19:00, was completed without interference from the Ottoman Army.[150] An aerial reconnaissance on the morning of 28 March reported that no Ottoman units were within range of the British guns.[152] No large scale attacks were launched by either side, but very active aircraft bombings and artillery duels continued for a time.[153]
Casualties
British casualties amounted to 4,000; 523 killed, 2932 wounded and over 512 missing, including five officers and 241 other ranks known to be prisoners. These were mainly from the 53rd (Welsh) Division and the 161st (Essex) Brigade of the 54th (East Anglian) Division. The Ottoman Army forces suffered a total of 2,447 casualties. Of these, 16 Germans and Austrians were killed or wounded, 41 being reported missing, and 1,370 Ottoman soldiers were killed or wounded with 1,020 missing.[154] According to Cemal Pasha, Ottoman losses amounted to less than 300 men killed, 750 wounded, and 600 missing.[155] The Anzac Mounted Division suffered six killed, 43 or 46 wounded, and two missing, while the Imperial Mounted Division suffered 37 casualties.[132][137]
Secuelas
Both Murray and Dobell portrayed the battle as a success, Murray sending the following message to the War Office on 28 March: "We have advanced our troops a distance of fifteen miles from Rafa to the Wadi Ghuzzee, five miles west of Gaza, to cover the construction of the railway. On the 26th and 27th we were heavily engaged east of Gaza with a force of about 20,000 of the enemy. We inflicted very heavy losses upon him ... All troops behaved splendidly."[156] And Dobell wrote,
This action has had the result of bringing the enemy to battle, and he will now undoubtedly stand with all his available force in order to fight us when we are prepared to attack. It has also given our troops an opportunity of displaying the splendid fighting qualities they possess. So far as all ranks of the troops engaged were concerned, it was a brilliant victory, and had the early part of the day been normal victory would have been secured. Two more hours of daylight would have sufficed to finish the work the troops so magnificently executed after a period of severe hardship and long marches, and in the face of most stubborn resistance.
— General Dobell, Eastern Force[156]
The British press reported the battle as a success, but an Ottoman plane dropped a message that said, "You beat us at communiqués, but we beat you at Gaza."[157] Dallas, the commander of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, resigned after the battle, owing to a "breakdown in health."[158] Judged by Western Front standards, the defeat was small and not very costly. Murray's offensive power had not been greatly affected and preparations for a renewal of the offensive were quickly begun. The Second Battle of Gaza began on 17 April 1917.[159]
A report in the Daily Telegraph said on 26 March that British troops were severely delayed until early afternoon by a dense morning fog, during which delay they drank much of their water rations, leaving the men short of water; and that the main aim was to seize the Wadi Ghuzzeh to cover the advance of a supply railway which the British were building.[160]
Notas
- Footnotes
- ^ The numbers of British troops involved are approximate only. One instance of a report telegraphed to Britain stated a division's strength at about 9,000 "when its battalions were only 400 strong in action." [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. ix]
- ^ The 160th had originally been the Welsh Border Brigade, but had been broken up in 1914 and reconstituted with battalions from Home Counties regiments.[Becke; Dudley Ward, pp. 12–4.]
- ^ One RFA brigade was absent from each of 53rd and 54th Divisions, and the 18-pdr batteries only had four of their six guns. [MacMunn & Falls, pp. 285, 304.]
- ^ Although listed under Dobell's direct command, [Wavell 1968, pp. 92–4, Powles 1922, pp. 84, 278–9, Preston 1921, p. 331–3] these cars assisted Desert Column hold off the approaching Ottoman reinforcements. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 301]
- ^ See 53rd Divisional Artillery
- ^ The ICB battalions have also been described in an April 1917 Order of Battle as the 1st (Australian and New Zealand), the 2nd (Imperial) and the 3rd (Australian and New Zealand) battalions. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 397]
- ^ Falls notes there was insufficient transport to support operations at any considerable distance from railhead and while the infantry had wheeled transport the mounted divisions still had camel transport. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 280]
- ^ There are varying accounts of exactly when the fog lifted from 07:00 to 11:00. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 290 note]
- ^ There is no mention of any units of the 53rd (Welsh) Division in Desert Column's War Diary between 09:30 when the division established headquarters at Mansura and 13:10, when the 159th (Cheshire) Brigade came into action beside the 158th (North Wales) Brigade. [Desert Column War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-64-3 Part 1-1]
- ^ It has been claimed that at 10:15 the commander of 53rd (Welsh) Division ordered the attack on Gaza and fifteen minutes later the attack commenced. [Hill 1978 pp. 103–4, 22nd Mounted Brigade Headquarters War Diary AWM4–9–2–1 Part 1]
- ^ While fighting on foot, one quarter of a light horse and mounted rifle brigade were holding the horses. A brigade was then equivalent in rifle strength to an infantry battalion. [Preston 1921 p. 168]
- ^ It is claimed that the need to water the horses was "constantly on their minds." The horses had been watered as they crossed the Wadi Ghuzzee and small quantities had been found by the mounted divisions and reported to headquarters during the day.[Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 305]
- ^ The Australian history claims Chauvel protested strongly. [Gullett 1941 p. 282] While the British history notes no written record of Chauvel's protest is "on the record." [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 307 note]
- ^ Lieutenant McKenzie commander of No. 7 Light Car Patrol gives a description of making full use of the patrol's capabilities during their retirement. [Gullett 1941 pp. 288–9 and Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 308]
- Citations
- ^ Falls 1930. Vol. 1 p. 272
- ^ a b c d Bruce 2002, pp. 92–3
- ^ a b c d e Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 273
- ^ a b Falls 1930. Vol. 1 p. 279.
- ^ a b c Woodward 2006, p. 68–9
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 276
- ^ a b c d Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 281
- ^ a b c McPherson 1985 pp. 172–3
- ^ a b Secret Military Handbrook 23 January 1917 Supplies pp. 38–49 Water pp. 50–3 Notes pp. 54–5
- ^ a b Moore 1920 p. 68
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 272, 278
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 88
- ^ Bou 2009, pp. 162–3
- ^ Imperial Mounted Division War Diary AWM4-1-56-1 Part 1
- ^ 3rd Light Horse Brigade War Diary AWM4-10-3-26
- ^ Bruce 2002, p. 90
- ^ Carver 2003, pp. 196–7
- ^ Powles 1922, p. 82
- ^ a b c d Erickson 2001, p. 161
- ^ Powles 1922, pp. 83–4
- ^ Keogh 1955, pp. 78–9
- ^ Bruce 2002, pp. 90–1
- ^ a b c Downes 1938, p. 616
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 277–8
- ^ a b c Blenkinsop 1925 p. 184
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 87
- ^ Cutlack 1941, pp. 56–9
- ^ a b c d e f g Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 321 note 1
- ^ a b c d e Erickson 2007 pp. 99–100
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 57 note
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 277 and note
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 285
- ^ Bruce 2002, p. 93
- ^ Gullett 1941, pp. 253–254
- ^ Keogh 1955, p. 84
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 281–2
- ^ a b c Downes 1938, p. 618
- ^ a b Powles 1922, p. 91
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 Appendix No. 54 Sketch Map showing position of attacking infantry and mounted divisions at about 09:30 on 25 March 1917.
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 283
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 280
- ^ a b Erickson 2007, p. 100
- ^ a b Keogh 1955, p. 83
- ^ a b c d Bruce 2002, p. 92
- ^ Gullett 1941 p. 265
- ^ Becke, pp. 117–23.
- ^ MacMunn & Falls, p. 286.
- ^ a b Wavell 1968, pp. 92–4
- ^ a b Powles 1922, pp. 84, 278–9
- ^ a b Preston 1921, p. 331–3
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 301
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 285 note3
- ^ Becke, pp. 109–15.
- ^ Bruce 2002, pp. 93, 95
- ^ a b c d e Blenkinsop 1925 p. 185
- ^ Becke, pp. 125–31.
- ^ "Imperial Camel Corps". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d Powles 1922, p. 84
- ^ Wavell 1968, pp. 92–3
- ^ MacMunn & Falls, pp. 285–8, 304.
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 289
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 278
- ^ Gullett 1941, pp. 337–8, 347
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 284
- ^ Preston 1921, p. 315
- ^ Gullett 1941, pp. 244–5
- ^ Downes 1938, p. 615
- ^ Moore 1920, p. 82
- ^ Lindsay 1992, pp. 346, 379
- ^ Mounted Service Manual 1902, p. 10
- ^ Hill 1978, pp. 99–100
- ^ Powles 1922 p. 23
- ^ a b Cutlack 1941 p. 59
- ^ a b Moore 1920 p. 65
- ^ Powles 1922 p. 87
- ^ Hill 1978 pp. 100–1
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 pp. 1–2
- ^ Keogh 1955, pp. 85–6
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 285–6
- ^ Powles 1922 pp. 84–5
- ^ a b Pugsley 2004 p. 138
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 1 10:00
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 1 14:40
- ^ 3rd Australian Light Horse Brigade War Diary AWM4-10-3-26 Order No. 15
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 287–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 289–90
- ^ a b c Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 2
- ^ Dennis et al 2008, p. 407
- ^ a b Downes 1938, p. 619
- ^ a b c d e f g Desert Column War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-64-3 Part 1-1
- ^ a b Hill 1978, pp. 103–4
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 293
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 288
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 291
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 292
- ^ a b c Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 3
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 291–2
- ^ a b Powles 1922, p. 90
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 297
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 292–3
- ^ Hill 1978, p. 101
- ^ Downes 1938, pp. 618–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 293–4, 301
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 294–5
- ^ a b Bou 2009 p. 160
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 289–90, 293
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 296
- ^ Gullett 1941 p. 273
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 296–7
- ^ Powles 1922, p. 89
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 295–6
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 297–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 298
- ^ a b c d e f g h Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 4
- ^ a b 22nd Mounted Brigade Headquarters War Diary AWM4–9–2–1 Part 1
- ^ Powles 1922 p. 90–1
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 302
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 301–3
- ^ a b c d Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 299
- ^ a b c Powles 1922, pp. 92–3
- ^ a b Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 pp. 4–5
- ^ a b c Powles 1922, p. 93
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 303
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 299–300
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 99
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 321–2 note
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 4 14:20
- ^ a b c d e f g h Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 5
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 300
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 300–1
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 305
- ^ a b c d e f g Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 6
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 307
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 p. 5 18:10
- ^ McPherson et. al, 1985, pp. 171–2
- ^ a b Powles 1922, p. 94
- ^ a b Downes 1938, p. 620
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 308
- ^ Powles 1922, pp. 93–4
- ^ Anzac Mounted Division War Diary March 1917 AWM4-1-60-13 Appendix 54 pp. 5–6
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 307, 309
- ^ a b Powles 1922, pp. 94–5
- ^ Bruce 2002, p. 97
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 311 note
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 311
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 309–10
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 311–2
- ^ Burrows, pp. 143–70.
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 312–3
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 314
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 313
- ^ Cutlack 1941, pp. 59–60
- ^ McPherson 1985 p. 173
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 315, 322
- ^ Erickson 2001, p. 161.
- ^ a b Keogh 1955, p. 102
- ^ Moore 1920, p.67
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 332 note
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 320, 326–350
- ^ Daily Telegraph, Tuesday 3 April 1917, reprinted in Daily Telegraph, Monday 3 April 2017, page 24
Referencias
- "3rd Light Horse Brigade War Diary". First World War Diaries AWM4, 10-3-15, 17, 20, 26, 44. April, June, September 1916 & March 1917, September 1918. Canberra: Australian War Memorial.CS1 maint: others (link)
- "22nd Mounted Brigade Headquarters War Diary". First World War Diaries AWM4, 9-2-1. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. March 1917.
- "Anzac Mounted Division General Staff War Diary". First World War Diaries AWM4, 1-60-13 Part 1. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. March 1917.
- "Desert Column, Headquarters War Diary". First World War Diaries AWM4, 1-64-3 Part 1. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. March 1917.
- Mounted Service Manual for Mounted Troops of the Australian Commonwealth. Sydney: Government Printer. 1902. OCLC 62574193.
- Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, ISBN 1-847347-39-8.* Blenkinsop, Layton John; Rainey, John Wakefield, eds. (1925). History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services. London: H.M. Stationers. OCLC 460717714.
- Bou, Jean (2009). Light Horse: A History of Australia's Mounted Arm. Australian Army History. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19708-3.
- Bruce, Anthony (2002). The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5432-2.
- Burrows, John Wiliam (1932). Essex Territorial Infantry Brigade (4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Battalions), Also 8th (Cyclist) Battalion, The Essex Regiment. Essex Units in the War 1914–1919. Volume 5. Southend: John H. Burrows & Sons. OCLC 59801713.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - Carver, Michael, Field Marshal Lord (2003). The National Army Museum Book of The Turkish Front 1914–1918 The Campaigns at Gallipoli, in Mesopotamia and in Palestine. London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-283-07347-2.
- Cutlack, Frederic Morley (1941). The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Volume VIII (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 220900299.
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has extra text (help) - Downes, Rupert M. (1938). "The Campaign in Sinai and Palestine". In Butler, Arthur Graham (ed.). Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea. Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918. Volume 1 Part II (2nd ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. pp. 547–780. OCLC 220879097.
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has extra text (help) - Dennis, Peter; Jeffrey Grey; Ewan Morris; Robin Prior; Jean Bou (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press, Australia & New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
- Maj C.H. Dudley Ward, History of the 53rd (Welsh) Division (T.F.) 1914–1918, Cardiff: Western Mail, 1927/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, ISBN 978-1-845740-50-4.* Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. OCLC 43481698.
- Erickson, Edward J. (2007). John Gooch; Brian Holden Reid (eds.). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. No. 26 of Cass Series: Military History and Policy. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
- Falls, Cyril; G. MacMunn (1930). Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 1. London: HM Stationery Office. OCLC 610273484.
- Grainger, John D. (2006). The Battle for Palestine, 1917. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-263-8.
- Gullett, Henry S. (1941). The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine, 1914–1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Volume VII (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 220900153.
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has extra text (help) - Hill, Alec Jeffrey (1978). Chauvel of the Light Horse: A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-522-84146-6.
- Keogh, E. G.; Joan Graham (1955). Suez to Aleppo. Melbourne: Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. OCLC 220029983.
- McPherson, Joseph W. (1985). Barry Carman; John McPherson (eds.). The Man Who Loved Egypt: Bimbashi McPherson. London: Ariel Books BBC. ISBN 978-0-563-20437-4.
- Moore, A. Briscoe (1920). The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai & Palestine: The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs. OCLC 156767391.
- Powles, C. Guy; A. Wilkie (1922). The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Volume III. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs. OCLC 2959465.
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has extra text (help) - Preston, R. M. P. (1921). The Desert Mounted Corps: An Account of the Cavalry Operations in Palestine and Syria 1917–1918. London: Constable & Co. OCLC 3900439.
- Pugsley, Christoper (2004). The Anzac Experience: New Zealand, Australia and Empire in the First World War. Auckland: Reed Books. ISBN 978-0-7900-0941-4.
- Wavell, Field Marshal Earl (1968) [1933]. "The Palestine Campaigns". In Sheppard, Eric William (ed.). A Short History of the British Army (4th ed.). London: Constable & Co. OCLC 35621223.
- Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2383-7.
Otras lecturas
- Martin, Glen (2018). Gaza 1917: First Battle 26 March and Second Battle 19 April. Paragon. ISBN 978-1-78222-560-7.
Coordinates: 31°29′21″N 34°28′25″E / 31.4893°N 34.4737°E / 31.4893; 34.4737