La crisis del agua de Flint fue una crisis de salud pública que comenzó en 2014 y duró hasta 2019, [2] después de que el agua potable de la ciudad de Flint, Michigan se contaminó con plomo y posiblemente con la bacteria Legionella . [1] En abril de 2014, durante una crisis presupuestaria, Flint cambió su fuente de agua del agua tratada del Departamento de Agua y Alcantarillado de Detroit (procedente del lago Huron y el río Detroit ) al río Flint . Los residentes se quejaron del sabor, olor y apariencia del agua. Los funcionarios no aplicaron inhibidores de corrosiónal agua, lo que provocó que el plomo de las tuberías viejas se filtrara al suministro de agua, lo que exponía a unos 100.000 residentes a niveles elevados de plomo. [7] Un par de estudios científicos confirmaron que la contaminación por plomo estaba presente en el suministro de agua. [8] [9] La ciudad cambió de nuevo al sistema de agua de Detroit el 16 de octubre de 2015. [10] Más tarde firmó un contrato de 30 años con la nueva Autoridad del Agua de los Grandes Lagos (GLWA) el 22 de noviembre de 2017. [11 ]
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Hora | 25 de abril de 2014 - 18 de febrero de 2019 [1] [2] |
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Duración | 2014-2019 [1] [2] [3] |
Localización | Flint, Michigan , Estados Unidos |
Coordenadas | 43 ° 0′36 ″ N 83 ° 41′24 ″ O / 43.01000 ° N 83.69000 ° WCoordenadas : 43 ° 0′36 ″ N 83 ° 41′24 ″ O / 43.01000 ° N 83.69000 ° W |
Tipo |
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Participantes | Residentes de Flint, Michigan |
Salir | |
Acusado | 15 cargos faciales |
Convicto | 1 - Corinne Miller |
Oración | Corinne Miller: un año de libertad condicional, 300 horas de servicio comunitario y una multa de $ 1,200. [6] |
El 5 de enero de 2016, el gobernador de Michigan, Rick Snyder, declaró el estado de emergencia en el condado de Genesee , del cual Flint es el principal centro de población. Poco después, el presidente Barack Obama declaró el estado de emergencia federal, autorizando ayuda adicional de la Agencia Federal para el Manejo de Emergencias y el Departamento de Seguridad Nacional . [12] Entre 6.000 y 12.000 niños estuvieron expuestos a agua potable con altos niveles de plomo. [4] Los niños están particularmente expuestos a los efectos a largo plazo del envenenamiento por plomo, que pueden incluir una reducción del funcionamiento intelectual y del coeficiente intelectual , y una mayor probabilidad de padecer la enfermedad de Alzheimer . El cambio en el suministro de agua se consideró una posible causa de un brote de la enfermedad del legionario en el condado que mató a 12 personas y afectó a otras 87, pero nunca se encontró la fuente original de la bacteria. [13] [14] [15] Cuatro funcionarios del gobierno, uno de la ciudad de Flint, dos del Departamento de Calidad Ambiental de Michigan (MDEQ) y uno de la Agencia de Protección Ambiental (EPA), renunciaron por el mal manejo de la crisis. y otro miembro del personal de MDEQ fue despedido. Se han presentado quince casos penales contra funcionarios locales y estatales, [16] pero solo se ha obtenido una condena menor y todos los demás cargos han sido desestimados o retirados.
Desde 2016 se ha llevado a cabo un extenso esfuerzo de reemplazo de tuberías de servicio de plomo, con técnicas innovadoras como el aprendizaje automático que se utiliza para predecir el número y la ubicación de las tuberías de plomo. [17] A principios de 2017, algunos funcionarios afirmaron que la calidad del agua había vuelto a niveles aceptables, pero en enero de 2019, los residentes y funcionarios expresaron dudas sobre la limpieza del agua. [18] [19] [20] Se estimaba que en abril de 2019 seguían instaladas 2.500 tuberías de servicio de plomo. [21]
Al 25 de diciembre de 2020, se habían excavado e inspeccionado 26,750 líneas de servicio de agua, lo que resultó en el reemplazo de 9,912 tuberías de plomo. [22] Al 8 de diciembre, aún faltaban inspeccionar menos de 500 líneas de servicio. La ciudad espera terminar de hacerlo antes del 31 de diciembre de 2020. [23] [ necesita actualización ] El 20 de agosto de 2020, las víctimas de la crisis del agua recibieron un acuerdo combinado de $ 600 millones, con el 80% para las familias de los niños. afectados por la crisis. [24] En noviembre, el acuerdo aumentó a $ 641 millones. [25]
En enero de 2021, el gobernador de Michigan, Rick Snyder, y otros ocho funcionarios fueron acusados de 34 delitos graves y siete delitos menores —41 cargos en total— por su papel en la crisis. [26] Dos funcionarios fueron acusados de homicidio involuntario . [27]
Cronología
La siguiente es una secuencia de eventos relacionados con la crisis del agua de Flint. [28]
Pre-cambio
- 1967–2013: la ciudad de Flint recibe su agua del Departamento de Agua y Alcantarillado de Detroit, procedente del lago Huron. La ciudad opera bajo un plan para usar el río Flint como fuente de agua de emergencia.
- 29 de noviembre de 2011 - Tres semanas después de que la ciudad declarara el estado de emergencia financiera , el gobernador Snyder nombra a Michael Brown como Gerente de Emergencias de la ciudad , a partir del 1 de diciembre. [29] Él es el primero de cuatro gerentes de este tipo que efectivamente tomarán el lugar de alcalde hasta 2015, cuando se nombrará una Junta Asesora de Transición de la Sindicatura. [30]
- 22 de marzo de 2012: los funcionarios del condado anuncian planes para una nueva tubería para reducir los costos de suministro de agua desde el lago Huron hasta Flint.
- 16 de abril de 2013: la ciudad aprueba el contrato de la Autoridad del Agua de Karegnondi .
- 17 de abril de 2013: Detroit rescinde su contrato de servicio de agua. [31]
2014
- 25 de abril: después de los retrasos en la construcción, se completa el cambio de la fuente de agua al río Flint. Esta fecha se considera el inicio de la crisis del agua. [1]
- Junio: aunque no se anunció hasta 2016, comienza un brote de la enfermedad del legionario y continúa hasta noviembre de 2015. [13] [14] [28]
- 14 de agosto: la ciudad anuncia una advertencia de hervir el agua para algunas partes de la ciudad. La advertencia se levanta el 20 de agosto. Se emite una segunda advertencia en septiembre. [28]
- Octubre - La planta de ensamblaje de camiones de General Motors de Flint deja de usar agua del grifo de Flint porque los altos niveles de cloro corroen las partes del motor. [28]
2015
- 12 de enero: los funcionarios de la ciudad rechazan una oferta para volver a conectarse al agua del lago Huron, preocupados por las tarifas de agua más altas. [28]
- 21 de enero - Los residentes de Flint se quejan de problemas de salud causados por el agua de la ciudad. Los residentes traen botellas de agua del grifo descolorida a una reunión comunitaria. [28]
- 26 de febrero: el gerente de la EPA, Miguel Del Toral, detecta que los niveles de plomo en el agua de la casa de LeeAnne Walters, residente de Flint, son siete veces mayores que el límite aceptable de la EPA. [28]
- 23 de marzo: los miembros del Concejo Municipal de Flint votan para volver a conectarse al agua de Detroit. El gerente de emergencias Jerry Ambrose anula la votación. [28]
- 24 de junio: Del Toral declara en un memorando que los científicos de Virginia Tech , dirigidos por el experto en agua Marc Edwards , encontraron niveles de plomo extremadamente altos en cuatro hogares. [28]
- 9 de julio: la alcaldesa de Flint, Dayne Walling, bebe agua del grifo de Flint en la televisión local en un intento de disipar el miedo de los residentes a beber agua. [28]
- 13 de julio - En respuesta al memorando de Del Toral, un funcionario del Departamento de Calidad Ambiental de Michigan (MDEQ) le dice a Michigan Radio : "Cualquiera que esté preocupado por el plomo en el agua potable en Flint puede relajarse". [28]
- 8 de septiembre: el equipo de estudio del agua de Virginia Tech informa que el 40% de las casas de Flint tienen niveles elevados de plomo. [28]
- 9 de septiembre: Brad Wurfel, portavoz de MDEQ, afirma que Flint necesita actualizar su infraestructura, pero se muestra escéptico sobre el estudio del agua de Virginia Tech. [28]
- 11 de septiembre: Virginia Tech recomienda que el estado de Michigan declare que el agua de Flint no es segura para beber o cocinar. [28]
- 24 de septiembre: la pediatra del Centro Médico Hurley, Mona Hanna-Attisha, publica su estudio que muestra un mayor número de niños con altos niveles de plomo en la sangre después de que la fuente de agua se cambió al río Flint. [28]
- 15 de octubre: el gobernador de Michigan, Rick Snyder, firma un proyecto de ley por $ 9.35 millones para volver a conectarse al sistema de agua de Detroit y brindar alivio. El cambio se realiza al día siguiente. [28]
- 15 de diciembre: la alcaldesa de Flint, Karen Weaver, declara el estado de emergencia. [28]
- 29 de diciembre: dimite el director de MDEQ, Dan Wyant. [28]
- 30 de diciembre: el gobernador Snyder se disculpa en público por la crisis. [32]
2016
- 5 de enero: el gobernador Snyder declara el estado de emergencia en el condado de Genesee. [28]
- 6 de enero: el gobernador Snyder se disculpa nuevamente por la crisis del agua en Flint. [33]
- 12 de enero: la Guardia Nacional de Michigan se moviliza para ayudar a distribuir agua en Flint. [28]
- 13 de enero: el gobernador Snyder anuncia que ocurrió un brote de la enfermedad del legionario en el área de Flint entre junio de 2014 y noviembre de 2015. [28]
- 14 de enero: el gobernador Snyder le pide al presidente Barack Obama que declare un desastre en Flint. [28]
- 16 de enero: el presidente Obama declara el estado de emergencia en Flint y autoriza una ayuda de 5 millones de dólares. [28]
- 3 de febrero: el Comité de Supervisión y Reforma del Gobierno de la Cámara de Representantes celebra una audiencia sobre la crisis del agua en Flint. [28]
- 4 de febrero: las líneas de servicio de agua se identifican como la principal fuente de plomo en el agua del grifo, pero casi no hay materiales de línea de servicio verificados en Flint debido a registros desactualizados. El alcalde Weaver nombra a Michael CH McDaniel, un general de brigada retirado de la Guardia Nacional, para supervisar el grupo que lidera el proyecto de reemplazo de la línea de servicio principal, el Flint Action and Sustainability Team (FAST). [34]
- 8 de febrero: el gobernador Snyder rechaza una segunda invitación para testificar en una audiencia del Congreso sobre la crisis. [28]
- 17 de marzo: el gobernador Snyder testifica ante el Comité de Supervisión y Reforma Gubernamental de la Cámara de Representantes. [28]
- 20 de abril: se presentan cargos penales contra los empleados gubernamentales Mike Glasgow, Stephen Busch y Mike Prysby. [28]
- 4 de mayo: el presidente Obama visita Flint para escuchar de primera mano cómo los residentes han soportado la crisis del agua de la ciudad y para destacar la asistencia federal a las agencias estatales y locales. [28]
- 29 de julio: seis trabajadores estatales son acusados penalmente mientras continúan las investigaciones. [28]
- Septiembre: la ciudad comienza a utilizar un modelo de aprendizaje automático desarrollado por dos profesores de la Universidad de Michigan, que utiliza varios datos sobre el hogar y el vecindario para predecir la probabilidad de tener una línea de servicio de plomo. [17] El modelo se utiliza a lo largo de 2016 y 2017 para priorizar las excavaciones, lo que arroja una tasa de aciertos de aproximadamente el 80%.
- 10 de noviembre: un juez federal ordena la implementación de la entrega puerta a puerta de agua embotellada a todos los hogares que no tengan un filtro de grifo debidamente instalado y mantenido. [35]
- 19 de diciembre - La Oficina del Asesor Jurídico Especial del Estado de Michigan publica el Informe del Investigador sobre el caso del Fiscal General 16-0003 (acusados Earley , Ambrose, Croft y Johnson). [36]
- 20 de diciembre - Cuatro funcionarios son acusados de delitos graves de falsos pretextos y conspiración. [28]
2017
- 24 de enero: el MDEQ declara que, en un estudio de seis meses de duración, el agua de la ciudad se analizó por debajo del límite federal. [37]
- 8 de febrero: el funcionario estatal Richard Baird informa a los residentes de Flint que el subsidio de la factura del agua estatal de un año terminará a partir del 1 de marzo de 2017. [38]
- 16 de febrero: los Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades (CDC) encuentran el primer vínculo genético entre la enfermedad del legionario y el suministro de agua de Flint. [39]
- 20 de febrero: el estado considera poner fin a la distribución de agua embotellada. [40]
- 1 de marzo: el estado pone fin oficialmente a los subsidios a las facturas de agua para los residentes de Flint. [41]
- 15 de marzo: el presidente Donald Trump se reúne con el alcalde Weaver para discutir el financiamiento de infraestructura para Flint. [42]
- 16 de marzo: Snyder crea la Comisión de Eliminación de la Exposición al Plomo de los Niños en un esfuerzo por evitar futuros brotes de intoxicación por plomo. [43]
- 28 de marzo: se llega a un acuerdo entre los demandantes y la ciudad, lo que resulta en que un juez federal apruebe $ 97 millones en fondos para que Michigan examine y reemplace las líneas de servicio de agua con plomo para 18,000 hogares de Flint, que se completará en un plazo de tres años. [44]
- 18 de abril: Weaver recomienda quedarse con la Autoridad del Agua de los Grandes Lagos , que revertiría una decisión de 2012 que inició la crisis del agua. [45] El gobernador Snyder está de acuerdo con su decisión. [46]
- 20 de abril - En una reunión del ayuntamiento sobre la crisis, seis personas son arrestadas en una iglesia de Flint por conducta desordenada e interferir con la policía. La reunión es criticada por violar la Ley de Reuniones de Apertura de Michigan. [47]
- 28 de abril: Weaver anuncia que la ciudad tiene planes de eliminar las tuberías de plomo en 6.000 hogares para fin de año. El proyecto está financiado por una subvención de $ 100 millones aprobada por el Congreso a principios de esa semana. [48]
- 3 de mayo: un aviso que advierte a 8.000 residentes de que se les cortará el agua por falta de pago provoca una controversia en la ciudad. [49]
- 17 de mayo: se informa que 128 análisis de sangre en Flint pueden haber registrado niveles de plomo falsamente bajos. [50]
- 14 de junio: el Procurador General Bill Schuette acusa a cinco funcionarios de homicidio involuntario y a un funcionario de obstrucción a la justicia y mentir a un oficial de policía. [51]
- 20 de junio: el MDEQ amenaza a Flint con acciones legales si no se aprueba un contrato de agua antes del 26 de junio de 2017. El alcalde Weaver pide al consejo de la ciudad de Flint que apruebe un contrato de 30 años con la Autoridad del Agua de los Grandes Lagos. [52]
- 26 de junio: después de varias horas de debate, el ayuntamiento decide posponer la votación sobre la aprobación del contrato GLWA (Autoridad del Agua de los Grandes Lagos) de 30 años hasta septiembre de 2017. [53]
- 28 de junio: Michigan demanda a Flint, alegando que el hecho de que el ayuntamiento no aprobara una recomendación para comprar agua a largo plazo de la GLWA está poniendo en peligro al público. [54] Flint contrata a un abogado para luchar contra los cargos y renegociar el contrato con el estado. [55]
- 24 de julio - La iniciativa Flint Fast Start anuncia que más de 2,500 de las aproximadamente 30,000 casas que necesitan nuevas líneas de servicio de agua han completado el reemplazo de las tuberías. [56]
- 11 de agosto - MDEQ publica una carta que indica que Flint tiene "deficiencias significativas", que entre otros problemas incluyen fuentes de agua, finanzas, sistema de distribución, administración y operaciones. [57]
- 29 de agosto: un estudio publicado en la publicación Environmental Science & Technology de la American Chemical Society afirma que el río Flint fue "un probable desencadenante que contribuyó al aumento de la incidencia de la enfermedad del legionario". [58]
- 15 de septiembre: el agua de 138 hogares de Flint analizada durante el mes anterior por Virginia Tech registra niveles de plomo muy por debajo de las pautas federales. Marc Edwards afirma que es probable que sea la última vez que tal muestreo coordinado por Virginia Tech sea necesario en Flint. [59]
- 20 de septiembre: se publica un estudio realizado por los profesores David Slusky y Daniel Grossman que demuestra que las tasas de fertilidad disminuyeron en un 12 por ciento entre las mujeres Flint y las tasas de muerte fetal aumentaron en un 58 por ciento desde el cambio al río Flint en 2014. [60]
- 9 de octubre: los fiscales estatales anuncian que Eden Wells, la principal funcionaria médica de Michigan, será acusada de homicidio involuntario por su papel en la crisis del agua, que se relacionó con un brote de la enfermedad del legionario que causó al menos 12 muertes. [61]
- 9 de octubre: el ayuntamiento de Flint contrata a un consultor ambiental con sede en Dakota del Norte por $ 150,000 para realizar un análisis de las posibles fuentes de agua futuras de la ciudad. [62]
- 10 de octubre: un estudio del Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos de Michigan concluye que el agua del río Flint no contribuyó al aumento de muertes infantiles y mortinatos en Flint. [63]
- 17 de octubre: un juez federal ordena a la ciudad de Flint que elija una fuente de agua a largo plazo antes del 23 de octubre de 2017 [64].
- 26 de octubre: un informe de la EPA encuentra fallas en la supervisión de Michigan del sistema de agua potable de Flint, y atribuye la mayor parte de la culpa al MDEQ. [sesenta y cinco]
- 31 de octubre: el ayuntamiento vota para extender su contrato con la GLWA por otros 30 días mientras está pendiente un acuerdo a largo plazo. [66]
- 21 de noviembre: el consejo de la ciudad vota 5 a 4 para firmar un contrato de 30 años con GLWA. [11]
2018
- Enero: la ciudad contrata a una empresa de consultoría privada, AECOM, para que se haga cargo de las excavaciones de la línea de servicio de agua y detiene el uso del modelo de aprendizaje automático. Durante 2018, se realizaron 10,531 excavaciones, lo que arrojó una tasa de aciertos de solo el 15%. [17]
- 8 de enero: Eric Oswald, funcionario del MDEQ, le dice a la EPA que también le preocupa la "capacidad técnica, administrativa y financiera a largo plazo" de Flint para manejar la responsabilidad y que "la ciudad enfrenta numerosos desafíos en la dotación de personal para su planta de tratamiento de agua limitada". [67]
- 12 de enero: un estudio del MDEQ para el primer semestre de 2017 afirma que el 90% de las muestras de agua tenían 7 partes por mil millones (ppb) de plomo o menos, y un funcionario afirmó que "la calidad del agua se ha restaurado" de la ciudad. Durante la crisis se analizaron más de 30.000 muestras de agua de Flint. [68] [69] [70]
- 5 de febrero: un estudio de Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences sobre las causas de un brote de la enfermedad del legionario en Flint en 2014 y 2015 encuentra que los niveles bajos de cloro fueron la causa. [71] El cloro, que mata a los microbios responsables de la enfermedad, también reacciona con metales pesados como el plomo y el hierro. Los altos niveles de plomo y hierro en el agua de Flint pueden haber sido responsables de la disminución de la cantidad de cloro disponible. [72]
- 12 de marzo - Los datos de MDEQ Quality muestran el aumento en las muestras de las escuelas primarias de Flint que arrojaron pruebas por encima de 15 ppb de plomo, el umbral según la regla de plomo y cobre de la EPA . [73]
- 26 de marzo: un estudio publicado en The Journal of Pediatrics muestra que los niveles de plomo en sangre en niños de Flint de 5 años o menos alcanzaron un mínimo histórico en 2016. [74]
- 2 de abril: un nuevo estudio del MDEQ informa que se encontraron niveles elevados de plomo en el 4 por ciento de las muestras finales de agua de las escuelas comunitarias de Flint . Los resultados de una escuela muestran niveles de plomo de 100 ppb, seis veces el nivel de acción federal. [75]
- 6 de abril: el estado anuncia que finaliza la distribución de agua embotellada gratuita en la ciudad. Los centros de distribución de agua cerrarán en los próximos días, aunque todavía habrá agua y cartuchos de repuesto disponibles. [76] En respuesta, el alcalde Weaver dice que la ciudad planea demandar al estado para que pueda continuar. El programa se financió mediante un préstamo federal de 450 millones de dólares, que no se había agotado. Michigan planeó poner fin a la distribución ya que las pruebas del agua de Flint muestran niveles bajos de plomo. La distribución continúa hasta que se agota el suministro.
- 7 de abril: cientos de residentes de Flint huyen a los centros de distribución de botellas de agua para recoger las botellas de agua gratuitas restantes. Los residentes todavía están preocupados por el agua potable de los grifos, ya que no se han cambiado todas las tuberías. [77]
- 12 de abril: un juez federal aprueba un acuerdo de $ 4.1 millones que se utilizará para realizar pruebas de envenenamiento por plomo a los niños de Flint. [78]
- 13 de abril: el Consejo de Defensa de los Recursos Naturales anuncia que los resultados de las pruebas de 92 hogares con líneas de servicio de plomo muestran que el percentil 90 para el plomo es de 4 ppb. [79]
- 23 de abril: LeeAnne Walters, residente de Flint, recibe el Premio Ambiental Goldman por su papel en la exposición de la crisis del agua. [80] [81]
- 26 de abril: la EPA aprueba una subvención de $ 1.9 millones al profesor de Virginia Tech, Marc Edwards, para la investigación a nivel nacional de la contaminación por plomo en el agua potable, a fin de garantizar la seguridad de las generaciones futuras. La subvención se utilizará para ayudar a las personas en las que se sospeche que hay plomo en el agua potable, pero los funcionarios del gobierno no actúan al respecto. Se dice que este proyecto se enfocará inicialmente en Michigan y Louisiana, y luego se expandirá a otras áreas. [82]
- 10 de mayo: el alcalde Weaver anuncia que Nestlé donará 1,6 millones de botellas de agua (100.000 botellas de agua por semana) hasta el 3 de septiembre de 2018. El agua estará disponible para los residentes de Flint en los centros de distribución de toda la ciudad. [83]
- 16 de mayo: el director del Departamento de Obras Públicas de Flint, Robert Bincsik, envía una carta a la EPA diciendo que todavía hay 14.000 líneas de servicio de plomo en la ciudad, un 15% más que las proyecciones anteriores. [84]
- 27 de mayo: Jordan Chariton Reports, el canal de YouTube y el sitio web de informes, publica un artículo de investigación sobre TruthDig que muestra que la ciencia y los datos utilizados para declarar que el agua es segura en Flint eran sospechosos. [85] El informe aparece en el episodio del 31 de mayo de 2018 del Programa Thom Hartmann . [86]
- 14 de junio: Michigan promulga la ley más estricta de los Estados Unidos para el plomo en el agua potable, imponiendo un límite de 12 ppb, a diferencia del límite federal que es de 15 ppb. Se prevé que esto se logre para 2025. [87]
- 15 de junio: George Krisztian, subdirector de la Oficina de Agua Potable y Asistencia Municipal del MDEQ, dice que el percentil 90 de Flint para el plomo fue de 6 ppb en los primeros seis meses del año, desde que el estado detuvo las entregas de agua embotellada a la ciudad en Abril. El MDEQ también dice que está listo para devolver el programa de pruebas a la ciudad. [88]
- 11 de julio - Elon Musk declara en Twitter: "Por favor, considere esto como un compromiso de que financiaré la reparación del agua en cualquier casa en Flint que tenga una contaminación del agua por encima de los niveles de la FDA. No es broma". [89]
- 30 de julio: el MDEQ anuncia que en junio y julio de 2018, de las 420 muestras de agua filtrada de las escuelas públicas de Flint analizadas, el 100 por ciento tenía menos de 15 ppb de plomo y más del 99 por ciento cumplía con el estándar de agua embotellada de 5 ppb. [90]
- 21 de agosto: el NRDC y varios grupos locales participan en una audiencia sobre dos cuestiones importantes: si la ciudad puede defender sus métodos de inventario de líneas de servicio de plomo y si se debe exigir a la ciudad que instale filtros de agua domésticos inmediatamente después de los reemplazos de las líneas de servicio para mitigar los picos de plomo en agua potable. [91]
- 24 de septiembre: la oficina del alcalde informa que se han excavado un total de 15.031 tuberías en las casas de Flint. Esto incluye líneas de servicio a 7.233 hogares que han sido identificados como plomo y / o acero galvanizado que han sido reemplazados, incluyendo 1.005 hogares recién descubiertos en 2018. [92]
- 28 de septiembre: un informe del Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos de Michigan dice que el Departamento de Salud del Condado de Genesee no ayudó al 85% de los niños diagnosticados con niveles altos de plomo en sangre en 2016. [93]
- 5 de octubre: Elon Musk dona aproximadamente $ 480,000 al sistema escolar de Flint para pagar los dispositivos de filtración UV en las 12 escuelas; Se espera que la instalación esté completa para enero de 2019. [94]
- 26 de diciembre: en una entrevista publicada, la gobernadora electa Gretchen Whitmer se compromete a restaurar la distribución gratuita de agua a los residentes de Flint. [95]
2019
- 2 de enero: en su primer acto como gobernadora, Whitmer firma una directiva ejecutiva que requiere que los empleados estatales informen inmediatamente al director de su departamento o agencia sobre cualquier amenaza a la salud o seguridad pública, una acción inspirada en las decisiones tomadas por la administración de su predecesora que llevaron a la Crisis de agua. [96]
- 4 de enero: la procuradora general de Michigan, Dana Nessel, ofrece al fiscal del condado de Wayne, Kym Worthy, el puesto de fiscal especial en los casos penales de la crisis del agua de Flint, sucediendo a Todd Flood. [97] Worthy acepta el trabajo el 21 de febrero. [98] Flood es reasignado como asistente del fiscal general especial el 25 de febrero, mientras que varios otros abogados se unen a los equipos de la fiscalía. [99] El 29 de abril, Flood es despedido por el procurador general Fadwa Hammoud , quien afirma que no logró "completa y adecuadamente" buscar pruebas potencialmente importantes en casos penales relacionados con la crisis del agua de Flint. [100]
- 18 de febrero: un informe publicado en línea por el MDEQ dice que el percentil 90 para 51 hogares de alto riesgo evaluados en Flint de mayo a diciembre de 2018 fue de 4 ppb de plomo, menos de la mitad del nivel actual de acción federal y estatal futura. [3]
- 28 de marzo: el acuerdo de marzo de 2017 se modifica para exigir que la ciudad reemplace miles de líneas de servicio de plomo y vuelva a usar el modelo de aprendizaje automático. [101] [102] Para junio de 2019, la tasa de impacto de la tubería de plomo aumenta al 60-70% para las excavaciones. [103]
- 23 de abril: Status Coup , una red de informes de investigación independiente cofundada por Jordan Chariton y Jenn Dize, lanza el documental Flushing Flint , que afirma que las pruebas de agua realizadas por MDEQ fueron manipuladas por el personal de MDEQ que tomó muestras de agua después de descargar el agua corriente de los grifos para varios minutos antes de tomar las muestras, contrario a los procedimientos normales para las pruebas de agua para el cobre y el plomo, y por el personal de MDEQ que les dice a los residentes que deben tomar muestras de agua después de enjuagar el agua corriente de los grifos durante varios minutos. [19] [104] Esto claramente contravendría la guía de la EPA de que las muestras tomadas deben ser "muestras de primera extracción en grifos en casas / edificios". [105]
- 30 de mayo: un nuevo estudio de los profesores de Virginia Tech Marc Edwards y Sid Roy publicado en la revista revisada por pares Water Research se basa en años de datos de mediciones de rutina de metales en el lodo de aguas residuales de Flint, que muestra una conexión entre los niveles crecientes de plomo en los desechos urbanos. , niveles de plomo en sangre en niños y uso del río Flint como fuente de agua. [106]
- Junio: los investigadores responsables del desarrollo del modelo de aprendizaje automático, Eric Schwartz y Jake Abernethy, forman BlueConduit, una empresa social con fines de lucro destinada a aprovechar la ciencia de datos y el aprendizaje automático para encontrar y eliminar tuberías de plomo en todo el país. [107]
- 3 de junio - Los teléfonos emitidos por el gobierno de 65 funcionarios estatales, incluido el ex gobernador Snyder, son incautados en una investigación criminal sobre la crisis. [108]
- 13 de junio: la procuradora general Nessel anuncia que se retirarán los cargos contra ocho personas y se reiniciarán las investigaciones por el escándalo. [109] [110]
- 31 de julio: la ciudad no cumple con su fecha límite autoimpuesta para reemplazar todas las líneas de servicio y no cumple con su fecha límite legalmente vinculante del 1 de enero de 2020. [111]
- 10 de octubre: la EPA propone actualizaciones de la Norma sobre el plomo y el cobre, que se ha mantenido relativamente sin cambios desde 1991. [112]
- 31 de diciembre: después de no cumplir con el mandato de presentar los resultados de las pruebas de nivel de plomo de al menos 60 hogares, la ciudad solicita una extensión hasta el 30 de junio de 2020 para hacerlo. [113]
2020
- 21 de febrero - A la fecha se han excavado 25,042 líneas de servicio de agua, lo que resultó en el reemplazo de 9,516 tuberías de plomo y la verificación de 15,526 tuberías de cobre existentes. [22]
- 16 de abril: se publica un artículo en el que se ofrecen detalles de la evidencia de corrupción y un encubrimiento por parte del gobernador Snyder y su "reparador" Rich Baird, y se indica que el plazo de prescripción de algunos de los delitos más graves de conducta indebida en el cargo expirará el 16 de abril. 25 de abril de 2020. [114] Las autoridades del estado de Michigan niegan que se acerque una fecha límite y dicen que seguirán los enjuiciamientos penales. [115] [116]
- 25 de junio: BlueConduit lanza el Mapa de la línea de servicio de Flint , que permite a los usuarios ver la probabilidad de que una residencia en particular esté conectada a una línea de servicio principal y ver el progreso de los esfuerzos de reemplazo. [117]
2021
- 13 de enero - La procuradora general de Michigan, Dana Nessel, anuncia cargos de negligencia intencional en el cargo contra el exgobernador Rick Snyder. Otras ocho personas también fueron nombradas en la acusación. [118] [119]
- Mayo de 2021: el Fondo Estratégico de Michigan aprobó la autorización de hasta $ 700 millones en financiamiento de actividades privadas como parte del acuerdo de resolución de la "crisis del agua de Flint" entre las partes estatales y el asesor legal de los demandantes que recibió la aprobación preliminar de la corte a principios de 2021. [120]
Fondo
Algunas líneas de servicio de agua en Flint se instalaron entre 1901 y 1920. [121] Al igual que con muchos otros municipios en ese momento, todas las líneas de servicio desde las tuberías principales de hierro fundido hasta los hogares de los usuarios finales se construyeron con plomo, porque era relativamente económico y fácil de trabajar. El plomo de las tuberías puede filtrarse al agua, especialmente si hay ciertos contaminantes presentes. Sin embargo, el agua del Departamento de Agua y Alcantarillado de Detroit, donde Flint había obtenido su agua desde 1967, había sido tratada lo suficientemente bien como para que la lixiviación de las tuberías de plomo estuviera a niveles considerados aceptables por las agencias estatales y federales de protección ambiental. [122] Se estima que hay 43.000 líneas de servicio en la ciudad; Estos incluyen 3.500 líneas de plomo, 9.000 líneas de acero galvanizado conocidas y 9.000 líneas de servicio desconocidas. [123]
La exposición al plomo en los EE. UU. Ha disminuido drásticamente desde la década de 1980, pero ningún nivel de plomo en sangre se considera completamente seguro. Los niños menores de cinco años, y especialmente los bebés y los niños por nacer, corren el mayor riesgo de sufrir resultados de salud nocivos e irreversibles. [8] De 2012 a 2016, los CDC establecieron un "nivel de referencia" de 5 microgramos por decilitro (µg / dL), con el fin de apuntar para el manejo de casos al 2.5% de los niños estadounidenses pequeños con los niveles más altos de plomo en la sangre. A 45 µg / dL, se considera la terapia de quelación . [124] Entre las muchas formas en que el plomo puede ingresar al torrente sanguíneo de un estadounidense moderno es a través de las tuberías de plomo. El agua ácida facilita que el plomo que se encuentra en las tuberías, las soldaduras con plomo y los grifos de latón se disuelva y entre en el agua potable de una casa. Por lo tanto, los sistemas públicos de tratamiento de agua están obligados legalmente a utilizar medidas de control para hacer que el agua sea menos ácida. Las tuberías que contienen plomo se encuentran a menudo en edificios construidos en la década de 1980 y antes. [125]
Emergencia financiera
De 2011 a 2015, el gobernador Snyder nombró a cuatro administradores de emergencias para controlar las finanzas de Flint. [126] Después de 2015, la ciudad continuó recibiendo orientación financiera bajo la supervisión menor de una Junta Asesora de Transición de la Sindicatura . [127]
Transición a una nueva fuente de agua
En 2011, el condado de Genesee inició el cambio a la Autoridad del Agua de Karegnondi (KWA); la KWA suministraría agua tanto al condado de Genesee como a Flint. [128] El 25 de marzo de 2013, el Ayuntamiento de Flint aprobó la compra de 16 millones de galones estadounidenses (61.000 m 3 ) por día a la KWA. [129] La KWA informó al consejo que podían excavar en el lago Huron (el nuevo suministro de agua) en 30 meses utilizando un túnel aburrido. [130] Ed Kurtz, gerente de emergencias de Flint, junto con el alcalde Dayne Walling y el Ayuntamiento de Flint, aprobaron la acción y esperaron la aprobación del Tesorero del Estado. [131] Tras esta decisión, el Departamento de Agua y Alcantarillado de Detroit (DWSD) negoció con los funcionarios de Flint ofreciendo reestructurar los pagos del agua. Flint se negó, prefiriendo utilizar KWA. [132]
El 1 de abril de 2013, DWSD exigió que el estado rechazara la solicitud de Flint, ya que iniciaría una guerra por el agua , lo que perjudicaría a DWSD. El comisionado de drenaje Wright del condado de Genesee acusó al DWSD de negociación con los medios y luego respondió: "No tendría precedentes que el estado obligara a una comunidad a firmar un acuerdo con otra, simplemente para ayudar artificialmente a una comunidad a expensas de la otra ... esto es exactamente lo que argumenta [el Departamento de Agua y Alcantarillado de Detroit] ... " [133]
El 15 de abril de 2013, el tesorero estatal Andy Dillon aprobó el contrato de compra de agua con la KWA. [134] El gerente de emergencias, Kurtz, firmó el acuerdo de compra de agua de KWA al día siguiente. [135] El 17 de abril, el DWSD entregó su aviso de terminación de un año después de que Flint rechazara su última oferta. El DWSD esperaba que Flint reembolsara las inversiones para el sistema de agua que benefició a los clientes regionales. Flint y el condado de Genesee rechazaron tal responsabilidad pero indicaron su disposición a comprar oleoductos.
En abril de 2014, para ahorrar alrededor de $ 5 millones en dos años, [135] [136] [137] Flint comenzó a tratar el agua del río Flint en lugar de comprar el agua del lago Huron en Detroit. Anteriormente, el río Flint era la fuente de agua de respaldo. [135] [138] En junio de 2014, el Gerente de Emergencias de Flint, Darnell Earley, finalizó la venta de una sección de nueve millas (14 km) de tubería de agua al condado de Genesee por $ 3.9 millones. Esta tubería alimentaba el agua del DWSD al condado y, después de que la tubería KWA estuviera activa, también daría servicio a la parte este del condado. [139] Para diciembre de 2014, la ciudad había invertido $ 4 millones en su planta de agua. [135] El 1 de julio de 2014, Earley otorgó autoridad operativa al alcalde Dayne Walling sobre dos departamentos de la ciudad, incluida la de Obras Públicas. [140] Más tarde se informó que al no agregar un inhibidor de corrosión, Flint iba a ahorrar alrededor de $ 140 por día. [141]
Contaminación temprana del agua
Después del cambio permanente al río Flint, los residentes de la ciudad comenzaron a quejarse del color, el sabor y el olor de su agua. En agosto y septiembre de 2014, los funcionarios de la ciudad detectaron niveles de bacterias coliformes , por lo que se recomendó a los residentes que hervieran el agua. MDEQ determinó que el clima frío, el envejecimiento de las tuberías y la disminución de la población eran la causa de estas bacterias. Según Stephen Busch, supervisor de distrito del MDEQ, la ciudad tomó las medidas adecuadas para limitar la recurrencia. General Motors (GM) hizo la primera queja sobre la corrosividad del agua. GM dejó de usar agua Flint en octubre de 2014, después de informar que el agua corroía las piezas de los automóviles. [142] General Motors solicitó volver a la fuente de agua DWSD, que luego fue aprobada por los funcionarios de la ciudad. [143]
Antes de agosto de 2014, se había agregado cloro adicional para eliminar las bacterias del río Flint. Esta es probablemente la causa de un aumento en los trihalometanos , subproductos peligrosos del cloro, en una de las ocho ubicaciones de agua. [144] La exposición prolongada a estos productos químicos se ha relacionado con el cáncer y otras enfermedades. Después de esta prueba, el MDEQ colocó a Flint en una notificación de infracción, pero no reveló la información a los residentes hasta enero de 2015. Los empleados de la Biblioteca Pública de Flint declararon que el agua no era potable después de notar que estaba descolorida, a pesar de la afirmación de la ciudad de que el agua era segura. . Desde 2014, la biblioteca ha proporcionado agua potable para el público junto con el proveedor de agua embotellada más importante del estado. [145] Las pruebas realizadas en enero y febrero de 2015 mostraron que el agua de la ciudad cumplía con todos los estándares de salud y seguridad. [146] Sin embargo, el DWSD ofreció volver a conectar Flint, renunciando a una tarifa de conexión de $ 4 millones, pero fue rechazado por el Gerente de Emergencia Jerry Ambrose. Los funcionarios del MDEQ indicaron que no existe una "amenaza inminente para la salud pública", ya que la naturaleza del problema fue "mal comunicada". [142]
Regreso al agua de Detroit
En marzo de 2015, Flint votó para volver al DWSD. Esta votación fue motivada por quejas residenciales y recomendaciones de Veolia North America para evitar que la ciudad siga violando la Ley de Agua Potable Segura . Ambrose no estuvo de acuerdo con la reintroducción de la fuente de agua de Detroit. Ambrose argumentó que "el agua de Flint hoy es segura según todos los estándares de la Agencia de Protección Ambiental y del Departamento de Calidad Ambiental de Michigan, y la ciudad trabaja a diario para mejorar su calidad". [146] En agosto de 2015, se descubrió que las organizaciones locales observaron que las altas concentraciones de cloruro provocaban que el agua fuera de color naranja y que el agua contenía altos niveles de plomo. Los niveles de plomo se debieron a la omisión de tratamientos con ortofosfato, lo que provocó una corrosión excesiva de la tubería. En consecuencia, las tres organizaciones, "... entregaron más de 26.000 firmas de peticiones en línea al alcalde Dayne Walling, exigiendo que la ciudad ponga fin al uso del río Flint y se vuelva a conectar al sistema de agua de Detroit". [147] El suministro de agua de Flint se cambió de nuevo a DWSD en octubre de 2015. [10] [148] Posteriormente, Flint comenzó a agregar ortofosfato adicional al agua para reconstruir el revestimiento de la tubería. [149]
El 8 de octubre de 2015, Snyder solicitó que los legisladores de Michigan contribuyan con $ 6 millones de los $ 12 millones para que Flint regrese al agua del lago Huron. La ciudad de Flint pagaría $ 2 millones y la Fundación Charles Stewart Mott, con sede en Flint , pagaría $ 4 millones. [150] [151] Jim Ananich , el senador estatal que representa a Flint, exigió que el estado reembolsara los $ 2 millones a la ciudad. Ananich también solicitó más fondos de emergencia del estado y fondos a largo plazo para abordar los efectos de la contaminación por plomo. [152] El 2 de marzo de 2016, Michigan declaró que regresar al sistema de agua de Detroit debe ser aprobado por el estado. Cuando se aprobó, la ciudad recibió un préstamo de emergencia de $ 7 millones. [153] El 27 de septiembre de 2016, los funcionarios de Flint anunciaron que la ciudad continuará usando agua de Detroit hasta que se construya un nuevo tramo de tubería y la KWA pruebe y trate el río Flint. [154]
Desde agosto de 2015 hasta noviembre de 2016, los niveles medios de plomo en el agua comenzaron a bajar nuevamente según el tipo de tuberías de servicio de agua que tuviera cada hogar. En los hogares con tuberías de cobre, el nivel medio de plomo en el agua se redujo de 3,0 microgramos por litro (µg / L) a <1 µg / L; Las líneas de servicio de acero galvanizado cayeron de un nivel medio de plomo en el agua de 7,2 µg / L a 1,9 µg / L, y las líneas de servicio de plomo bajaron de un nivel medio de plomo en el agua de 9,9 µg / L a 2,3 µg / L. [155] 1 µg / L equivale a 1 parte por mil millones. [156] El 9 de diciembre de 2016, el MDEQ informó que más del 96 por ciento de las muestras de agua en las residencias de Flint estaban por debajo del umbral de plomo de la EPA de 15 ppb. [157] El 15 de marzo de 2017, la Junta Asesora de Servicios de Agua y Residuos del Condado de Genesee votó para construir una nueva tubería; sería un conector de 110 cm (7 millas) (11 km) y 42 pulgadas (110 cm) a la tubería de KWA. La tubería permitiría el tratamiento del agua sin tratar del lago Huron, por lo que la ciudad de Flint podría continuar comprando agua pretratada a la Autoridad del Agua de los Grandes Lagos . El proyecto de $ 12 millones permitirá a Flint seguir siendo cliente de GLWA hasta al menos 2019. [158]
Hallazgos de exposición al plomo
En enero de 2015 se llevó a cabo una reunión pública, donde los ciudadanos se quejaron del "agua mala". [159] Los residentes se quejaron del sabor, olor y apariencia del agua durante 18 meses antes de que un médico de Flint encontrara niveles elevados de plomo en sangre en los niños de Flint. Durante ese período de tiempo, MDEQ había insistido en que el agua era segura para beber. [160] Un estudio realizado por investigadores de Virginia Tech (ver la sección a continuación) determinó que el agua del río, que debido a una mayor concentración de cloruro, es más corrosiva que el agua del lago, estaba lixiviando el plomo de las tuberías viejas. [147] Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, un toxicólogo ambiental con sede en Ann Arbor , dijo que este nivel de exposición al plomo es comparable con lo que ha experimentado el pueblo iraquí desde la ocupación estadounidense en 2003. [161]
Mientras que la protesta local sobre la calidad del agua de Flint estaba creciendo a principios de 2015, los funcionarios de agua de Flint presentaron documentos ante los reguladores estatales que pretendían mostrar que "las pruebas en la planta de tratamiento de agua de Flint no habían detectado plomo y las pruebas en los hogares habían registrado niveles aceptables de plomo". [162] Los documentos afirman falsamente que la ciudad había analizado el agua del grifo de los hogares con líneas de servicio de plomo y, por lo tanto, los mayores riesgos de envenenamiento por plomo; sin embargo, la ciudad no conocía la ubicación de las líneas de servicio de plomo, lo que los funcionarios de la ciudad reconocieron en noviembre de 2015 después de que el Flint Journal / MLive publicara un artículo que revelaba la práctica, utilizando documentos obtenidos bajo la Ley de Libertad de Información de Michigan. El Journal / MLive informó que la ciudad había "ignorado las reglas federales que le exigían buscar casas con plomería de plomo para realizar pruebas, lo que podría llevar a la ciudad y al estado a subestimar durante meses el alcance de la lixiviación de plomo tóxico en el agua del grifo de Flint". [163]
En un informe publicado el 1 de marzo de 2016, 37 de los 423 sitios centinela evaluados recientemente obtuvieron resultados por encima del límite de 15 ppb. Ocho de las muestras excedieron los 100 ppb. [164] Un estudio de 2017 mostró que significativamente más muestras excedieron el límite de 15 ppb en el programa de muestreo voluntario o impulsado por el propietario por el cual los ciudadanos preocupados decidieron adquirir un kit de prueba y realizar muestreos por su cuenta (sitios no centinela). [165]
Estudios
See Education and research section for later studies.
Hurley Medical Center study I (2015)
On September 24, 2015, Hurley Medical Center in Flint released a study led by Mona Hanna-Attisha, the program director for pediatric residency at Hurley Children's Hospital, confirming that the proportion of infants and children with elevated levels of lead in their blood had nearly doubled since the city switched from the Detroit water system to using the Flint River as its water source.[162][166] Using hospital records, Hanna-Attisha found that a steep rise in blood-lead levels corresponded to the city's switch in water sources.[162] The study was initially dismissed by MDEQ spokesman Brad Wurfel, who repeated a familiar refrain: "Repeated testing indicated the water tested within acceptable levels."[162] Later, Wurfel apologized to Hanna-Attisha.[162] The team's study appears in the February 2016 issue of American Journal of Public Health.[8]
Hanna-Attisha's research found that the average proportion of Flint children with elevated blood-lead levels (above five micrograms per deciliter, or 5 × 10–6 grams per 100 milliliters of blood) rose from 2.4% (2013, before the change in water source) to 4.9% (2015, after the change in water source). In areas where water lead levels were considered high at ≥ 15 ppb, which is the maximum amount of lead allowed in water per the Safe Drinking Water Act Lead and Copper Rule, the average proportion of Flint children with elevated blood-lead levels rose from 4% to 10.6%.[8] Michigan Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program data agree an increase occurred, suggesting an increase from 2.2% of children (May 2013 – April 2014) to 3.0% (May 2014 – April 2015). Hanna-Attisha's data were taken from hospital laboratory records for children less than five years old.
Hanna-Attisha's sample numbers were large, both for the pre-switch and post-switch time periods and for Flint children (1,473) and for children not exposed to Flint water (2,202). Demographics were meaningfully different among the two groups. In terms of race, 24.4% of the children outside of Flint were African American, while 76.8% of the children in areas of high water lead levels (≥ 15 ppb) were African American, and 67.0% of the children in areas of lower water lead levels (< 15 ppb) were African American. Children outside of Flint had a younger average age (1.86 years) compared to areas inside Flint (2.04-2.09 years). Socioeconomic status also represented a meaningful difference with children inside of Flint being more disadvantaged than those children who lived outside of Flint.[8] In conclusion, the study demonstrated that elevated lead levels in children's blood was correlated with elevated lead levels in Flint water. Because lead screening is not completed for all children, such data may be skewed toward higher-risk children and thus overestimate lead exposure, especially in non–high-risk areas.[8]
Hanna-Attisha and Flint resident LeeAnne Walters were awarded PEN America's Freedom of Expression Courage Award on May 16, 2016.[167]
Hurley Medical Center study II (2018)
In June 2018 the Journal of Pediatrics published[168] a much expanded study of blood lead levels measured at Hurley Medical Center. The original 2015 study of Hurley records involved a total of 1,473 children "younger than 5 years" whose address could be mapped to a site inside Flint in two pre/post 8.5 month periods. The 2018 study, led by Hernán F. Gómez, involved 15,817 children "aged ≤ 5 years" over the 11-year period 2006–2016. Data for 2012–2016 were available from center's Epic EMR system; records for earlier years were scrounged from legacy systems. The results show an increase in the fraction of children with elevated lead blood levels immediately pre/post the water switch (from 2.2% to 3.7%); invoking a Bonferroni correction, Gómez argues the change is not statistically significant. These results are consistent with a CDC report[169] which found that the fraction of "all children under age 6" with elevated lead blood level "was nearly 50 percent higher after the switch to Flint River water." The striking result of Gómez et al. however is that during the 11-year period, the "crisis years" are actually the third and fourth lowest years for lead blood levels. That is, the upward blip during the water switch sits on a rapid declining curve (presumably because of the many lead mitigation projects that have been initiated nationally) so that blood lead levels during the crisis are actually lower than those two years earlier.
Virginia Tech water study
In September 2015 a team from Virginia Tech arrived in Flint. Led by Marc Edwards, an expert on municipal water quality, the team came to perform lead level testing on the Flint water supply, working under a National Science Foundation grant. Edwards had been contacted by Flint resident LeeAnne Walters, whose family suffered from extreme health problems almost immediately following the switch to the Flint River water. Walters had attempted to act locally, but she was repeatedly ignored by city, state, and EPA officials.[170] The study found that Flint water was "very corrosive" and "causing lead contamination in homes". It concluded in its report that "Flint River water leaches more lead from plumbing than does Detroit water. This is creating a public health threat in some Flint homes that have lead pipe or lead solder."[147][171][172]
Edwards was shocked by the extent of the contamination, but even more so by the inaction of the proper authorities after being made well aware of the contamination. Edwards and his team found that at least a quarter of Flint households had levels of lead above the federal level of 15 ppb and that in some homes, lead levels were at 13,200 ppb. Edwards said, "It was the injustice of it all and that the very agencies that are paid to protect these residents from lead in water, knew or should've known after June at the very very latest of this year, that federal law was not being followed in Flint, and that these children and residents were not being protected. And the extent to which they went to cover this up exposes a new level of arrogance and uncaring that I have never encountered."[172] Edwards' team created a website called "Flint Water Study", with the main purposes of informing, and creating support for, Flint residents during the crisis. The site also summarized study results and became a comprehensive public database for all information related to the study.[9]
On January 11, 2016, the Virginia Tech research team led by Edwards announced that it had completed its work. Edwards said, "We now feel that Flint's kids are finally on their way to being protected and decisive actions are under way to ameliorate the harm that was done." Edwards credited the Michigan ACLU and the group Water You Fighting For with doing the "critical work of collecting and coordinating" many water samples analyzed by the Virginia Tech team. Although the labor of the team (composed of scientists, investigators, graduate students, and undergraduates) was free, the investigation still spent more than $180,000 for such expenses as water testing and payment of Michigan Freedom of Information Act costs. A GoFundMe campaign has raised over $116,000 of the $150,000 needed for the team to recover its costs.[173][174] On January 27, the city of Flint retained Edwards to monitor the city's water testing efforts.[175]
On March 1, 2016, the Virginia Tech team was given $80,000 from an EPA grant to re-test the lead levels in 271 Flint homes.[176] On August 11, 2016, Kelsey Pieper, a member of Edwards' research team, said 45 percent of residents that collected samples in July for the lead testing program had no detectable level of particulate lead in their water supply. She added the study yielded a lead reading of 13.9 ppb, just below the federal action level of 15 ppb. However, Pieper acknowledged the sampling, which was conducted by volunteer residents, does not fulfill the testing requirements of the federal Lead and Copper Rule. State testing of the most-recent six month monitoring period, which began January 1 and complied with Lead and Copper Rule regulations, showed a 90th percentile lead reading of 20 ppb, which exceeds the federal action level. Roughly 93 percent of samples from the third round of expanded state sentinel site testing showed results below the lead action level. Edwards called the results the "beginning of the end" of the public health disaster associated with the water crisis.[177] On December 2, 2016, Edwards said lead was not detected in 57 percent of 154 Flint homes tested in November 2016 – up from 44 percent in July 2016. He also advised people to continue using filters.[178]
Other test results
On January 24, 2017, the MDEQ told Mayor Weaver that the lead content of Flint water had fallen below the federal limit. The 90th percentile of lead concentrations in Flint was 12 ppb from July 2016 through December 2016—below the "action level" of 15 ppb. It was 20 ppb in the prior six-month period.[179] On the next day, Flint spokeswoman Kristin Moore said that anywhere from 18,000 to 28,000 homes in the city still needed service lines replaced, and that the city was planning to complete 6,000 homes per year through 2019.[180]
On March 7, 2017, MDEQ reported that Flint water sampled in February registered below the federal threshold for lead with 90 percent of samples at or below 8 ppb. February's water tests marked the seventh straight month in which city water was below the action level. February's testing also showed 95.8 percent of samples taken at homes at risk of high lead levels were at or below 15 ppb.[181] On June 9, 2017, the MDEQ reported their May 2017 testing showed 90 percent of Tier I samples at or below 6 ppb of lead with 93.1 percent of the samples at or below 15 ppb.[182]
On April 23, 2019, Status Coup released the documentary Flushing Flint which claimed that the water testing conducted by MDEQ was falsified by MDEQ staff taking water samples after flushing running water from taps for several minutes before taking the samples, contrary to normal procedures for water testing, and by MDEQ staff telling residents that they should take water samples after flushing running water from their taps for several minutes.[19][104] This would clearly contravene the EPA guidance that samples taken must be "first-draw samples at taps in homes/buildings".[105] These claims cast doubt on the MDEQ reports of improvements in water quality over previous years.
Posible vínculo con el aumento de la enfermedad del legionario
On January 13, 2016, Snyder said that 87 cases of Legionnaires' disease, a waterborne disease, were reported in Genesee County from June 2014 – November 2015, resulting in 12 deaths (two more people later died from the disease). Although the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) said that there is no evidence of a clear link between the spike in cases and the water system change,[14] Edwards stated the contaminated Flint water could be linked to the spike.[183] In a second report released January 21, state researchers had still not pin-pointed the source of the outbreak.[184] The next day, an official at McLaren Regional Medical Center in Flint confirmed that there was a spike in Legionella cases in Flint and elsewhere in Genesee County, but noted that there was "no definitive data to support that McLaren Flint is the source of exposure for any patient testing positive for the Legionella antigen."[185] The family of one of the people who died of Legionnaires filed a $100 million lawsuit against McLaren.[186]
The Flint Journal obtained documents via the Michigan Freedom of Information Act on the Legionnaires' outbreak and published an article on them on January 16, 2016. The documents indicated that on October 17, 2014, employees of the Genesee County Health Department and the Flint water treatment plant met to discuss the county's "concerns regarding the increase in Legionella cases and possible association with the municipal water system." By early October 2014, officials at MDEQ were aware of a possible link between the water in Flint and the Legionnaires' outbreak, but the public was never informed, and the agency gave assurances about water safety in public statements and at public forums. An internal email on January 27, 2015, from a supervisor at the health department said that the Flint water treatment plant had not responded in months to "multiple written and verbal requests" for information.
In January 2015, following a breakdown in communication between the city and the county on the Legionnaires' investigation, the county filed a FOIA request with the city, seeking "specific water testing locations and laboratory results ... for coliform, E-coli, heterotrophic bacteria and trihalomethanes" and other information. In April 2015, the county health department contacted the CDC, and in April 2015 a CDC employee wrote in an email that the Legionnaires' outbreak was "very large, one of the largest we know of in the past decade and community-wide, and in our opinion and experience it needs a comprehensive investigation." However, MDHHS told the county health department at the time that federal assistance was not necessary.[187]
Emails obtained by Progress Michigan in February 2016 indicate Snyder's office knew about the outbreak since March 2015, despite Snyder's claim he was only informed in January 2016.[188] On March 11, 2016, Governor Snyder ordered an investigation of the MDHHS regarding the outbreak.[189] On February 16, 2017, the CDC discovered the first genetic links between city water and patients diagnosed with Legionnaires' disease in Genesee County. "The presence of Legionella in Flint was widespread," said Janet Stout, a research associate professor at the University of Pittsburgh and a national expert on the disease. "The (laboratory) results show that strains (of the bacteria) were throughout the water system." Virginia Tech researcher Amy Pruden published a study that found Legionella levels up to 1,000 times higher than normal tap water in Flint, and said finding a patient whose clinical isolates—or bacteria—matched the McLaren water sample without having been hospitalized there "suggests that same strain may have been elsewhere."[39][190]
On March 10, 2017, affidavits filed by experts in court supported the conclusion that Flint water was connected to the Legionnaires' disease outbreak. Janet Stout wrote in an affidavit: "(It) is my opinion to a reasonable degree of probability that the source water change and the subsequent management of the municipal water system caused conditions to develop within the municipal water distribution system that promoted Legionella growth and dispersion, amplification, and the significant increases in cases of Legionnaires' disease in Genesee County in 2014 and 2015." J. David Krause, director of Forensic Analytical Consulting Services, and Hung K. Cheung, a doctor specializing in environmental and occupational medicine agreed with her claims.[191]
On February 5, 2018, a study published in the journals Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and mBio concluded that the 2014-2015 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Flint was caused by low levels of chlorine which, at higher levels, would have made it difficult for bacteria to replicate.[71] Because chlorine reacts with heavy metals like lead and iron, high levels of both in Flint's water may have been responsible for the decreased amount of chlorine available.[72] On December 4, 2019, research institute KWR from the Netherlands published the results of their re-investigation of the outbreak in Environmental Health Perspectives. They found evidence for three sources: strong evidence for exposure to a Flint hospital in 2014 and 2015 for 42 of 86 confirmed cases, and weaker evidence for exposure to city water at home or living in the proximity of a specific cluster of cooling towers, both only in 2014. Each source could be associated with only a proportion of cases. They concluded that focus on a single source may have delayed recognition and remediation of other significant sources of L. pneumophila and provided recommendations to improve Legionella prevention.[192]
Consultas, investigaciones, renuncias y divulgación de documentos
One focus of inquiry is when Snyder became aware of the issue, and how much he knew about it.[114][193] In a July 2015 email, Dennis Muchmore (Snyder's chief of staff) wrote to a Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) official, "I'm frustrated by the water issue in Flint. I really don't think people are getting the benefit of the doubt. These folks are scared and worried about the health impacts and they are basically getting blown off by us (as a state we're just not sympathizing with their plight)."[193][194] In a separate email sent on July 22, 2015, MDHHS local health services director Mark Miller wrote to colleagues that it "Sounds like the issue is old lead service lines." These emails were obtained under the Michigan Freedom of Information Act by Virginia Tech researchers studying the crisis and were released to the public in the first week of January 2016.[194]
In October 2015, it was reported that the city government's data on lead water lines in the city was stored on 45,000 index cards (some dating back a century) located in filing cabinets in Flint's public utility building.[195][196] The Department of Public Works said that it was trying to transition the data into an electronic spreadsheet program, but as of October 1, 2015, only about 25% of the index card information had been digitized.[195] On October 21, 2015, Snyder announced the creation of a five-member Flint Water Advisory Task Force, consisting of Ken Sikkema of Public Sector Consultants and Chris Kolb of the Michigan Environmental Council (co-chairs) and Matthew Davis of the University of Michigan Health System, Eric Rothstein of the Galardi Rothstein Group and Lawrence Reynolds of Mott Children's Health Center in Flint.[197] On December 29, 2015, the Task Force released its preliminary report, saying that MDEQ bore ultimate blame for the Flint water crisis.[198][199]
The task force wrote that the MDEQ's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance adopted a "minimalist technical compliance approach" to water safety, which was "unacceptable and simply insufficient to the task of public protection." The task force also found that "Throughout 2015, as the public raised concerns and as independent studies and testing were conducted and brought to the attention of MDEQ, the agency's response was often one of aggressive dismissal, belittlement, and attempts to discredit these efforts and the individuals involved. We find both the tone and substance of many MDEQ public statements to be completely unacceptable." The task force also found that MDEQ has failed to follow the federal Lead and Copper Rule. That rule requires "optimized corrosion control treatment," but MDEQ staff instructed city of Flint water treatment staff that corrosion control treatment (CCT) would not be necessary for a year. The task force found that "the decision not to require CCT, made at the direction of the MDEQ, led directly to the contamination of the Flint water system."[198] The Flint Water Advisory Task Force's final report, released March 21, 2016, found the MDEQ, MDHHS, Governor's office, and the state-appointed emergency managers "fundamentally accountable" for the crisis, saying the people of Flint were "needlessly and tragically" exposed to toxic levels of lead and other hazards.[200][201][202] The task force's findings prompted the resignation of MDEQ director Dan Wyant and communications director Brad Wurfel.[203][204] Flint Department of Public Works director Howard Croft also resigned.[205]
On January 8, 2016, the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Eastern District of Michigan said that it was investigating.[137] A month later, they said they were working with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the EPA's Office of Inspector General, the EPA's Criminal Investigation Division, and the Postal Inspection Service on the investigation.[206] The EPA "battled Michigan's Department of Environmental Quality behind the scenes for at least six months over whether Flint needed to use chemical treatments to keep lead lines and plumbing connections from leaching into drinking water" and "did not publicize its concern that Flint residents' health was jeopardized by the state's insistence that such controls were not required by law".[207] In 2015, EPA water expert Miguel A. Del Toral "identified potential problems with Flint's drinking water in February, confirmed the suspicions in April and summarized the looming problem" in an internal memo[208] circulated on June 24, 2015.[207] Despite these "dire warnings" from Del Toral,[209] the memo was not publicly released until November 2015, after a revision and vetting process.[207] In the interim, the EPA and MDEQ engaged in a dispute on how to interpret the Lead and Copper Rule. According to EPA administrator Susan Hedman, the EPA pushed to immediately implement corrosion controls in the interests of public health, while MDEQ sought to delay a decision on corrosion control until two six-month periods of sampling had been completed.[207] Meanwhile, Wurfel called Del Toral a "rogue employee" for his whistle-blowing efforts.[210] Marc Edwards, who investigated the lead contamination, wrote that Del Toral had made a "heroic effort" that was stymied by the EPA and MDEQ spending months "wrangling over jurisdiction, technicalities and legalities."[211]
In an interview with the Detroit News published on January 12, 2016, Hedman said that "the recommendation to DEQ (regarding the need for corrosion controls) occurred at higher and higher levels during this time period. And the answer kept coming back from DEQ that 'no, we are not going to make a decision until after we see more testing results.'" Hedman said the EPA did not go public with its concerns earlier because (1) state and local governments have primary responsibility for drinking water quality and safety; (2) there was insufficient evidence at that point of the extent of the danger; and (3) the EPA's legal authority to compel the state to take action was unclear, and the EPA discussed the issue with its legal counsel, who only rendered an opinion in November. Hedman said the EPA discussed the issue with its legal counsel and urged the state to have MDHHS warn residents about the danger.[207] On January 21, Hedman's resignation (effective February 1) was accepted.[212]
Assessments of the EPA's action varied. Edwards said that the assessment in Del Toral's original June memo was "100 percent accurate" and criticized the EPA for failing to take more immediate action. State Senate Minority Leader Jim Ananich, Democrat of Flint, said, "There's been a failure at all levels to accurately assess the scale of the public health crisis in Flint, and that problem is ongoing. However, the EPA's Miguel Del Toral did excellent work in trying to expose this disaster. Anyone who read his memo and failed to act should be held accountable to the fullest extent of the law."[207] Del Toral later told The Flint Journal, "I was stunned when I found out they did not have corrosion control in place. In my head, I didn't believe that. I thought: That can't be true ... that's so basic." He also confirmed that unfiltered Flint water is still unsafe to drink, and did not know when that would change.[213]
On January 15, 2016, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette announced that his office would open an investigation into the crisis, saying the situation in Flint "is a human tragedy in which families are struggling with even the most basic parts of daily life."[214][215] To oversee the his office's probe, Schuette appointed Todd Flood as special prosecutor and Andrew Arena as chief investigator, who led a team of nine full-time investigators. At a media roundtable in February 2016, Flood said that the investigation could result in involuntary manslaughter charges, if there was gross negligence leading to a death. Critics have questioned the objectivity of the investigation.[216]
In his annual State of the State address on January 19, 2016, Snyder announced that he would release all of his emails from 2014 and 2015 regarding the crisis.[217] The following day, the governor's office released 274 pages of emails. The New York Times summarized, "the documents provide a glimpse of state leaders who were at times dismissive of the concerns of residents, seemed eager to place responsibility with local government and, even as the scientific testing was hinting at a larger problem, were reluctant to acknowledge it."[126] Later that month in a class action lawsuit related to the crisis, Snyder and the MDEQ were served subpoenas for the release of additional emails dating back to the beginning of 2011.[218] Emails highlighted by Progress Michigan in January 2016 indicate that Michigan state officials were trucking in bottled water to some of their own employees stationed in Flint as early as January 2015 in regards to the unsafe levels of trihalomethanes.[219]
On January 22, 2016, two MDEQ employees (Liane Shekter Smith, former chief of the department's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance; and Steve Busch, former district supervisor in the division) were suspended, pending an investigation, as a result of questions regarding actions related to water testing in Flint. In response, Snyder said, "Michiganders need to be able to depend on state government to do what's best for them and in the case of the DEQ that means ensuring their drinking water is safe. Some DEQ actions lacked common sense and that resulted in this terrible tragedy in Flint. I look forward to the results of the investigation to ensure these mistakes don't happen again."[209][220] Smith was fired on February 5, 2016.[221]
On January 25, 2016, the Genesee County Commission approved a request from Genesee County Prosecuting Attorney David Leyton for $25,000 to conduct an investigation into the crisis. The money will be used to hire two special prosecutors.[222] On February 12, 2016, Governor Snyder released additional emails between his office and the MDEQ which about the Legionnaires' outbreak.[223] On February 26, Snyder's office released several thousand more emails regarding the crisis that date back to 2011.[224] An additional batch of emails was released on March 10.[225] On March 4, 2016, a report released by the Michigan Auditor General's office called the MDEQ's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance "not sufficient" in its oversight of the state's Community Water Supply Program.[226]
On July 13, 2016, the Mackinac Center for Public Policy sued MDEQ over the department's 121-day delay in responding to Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests surrounding Flint, including a request for all emails from Shekter-Smith and Bush from 2013 through 2015 containing the word "Flint" and a list of "any employees transferred, reassigned, or suspended as a result of the Flint water issues."[227] The case was settled in November 2017, with a joint statement saying in part, "The parties also note there are circumstances for which the FOIA currently lacks certainty when documents must be provided. This lack of clarity can foster litigation over what response times are reasonable."[228]
On April 16, 2020, an article was published giving details of evidence of corruption and a coverup by Snyder and his "fixer" Rich Baird, and stating that the statute of limitations on some of the most serious felony misconduct-in-office charges would expire on April 25, 2020.[114] Responses from Michigan state authorities denied that a deadline was approaching and said that criminal prosecutions would follow.[115][116]
Audiencias legislativas
Federal
On January 14, 2016, U.S. Representative Brenda Lawrence formally requested congressional hearings on the crisis, saying: "We trust our government to protect the health and safety of our communities, and this includes the promise of clean water to drink."[229] The House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform began their hearings on the crisis on February 3. U.S. Representative Dan Kildee from Flint gave an opening statement. The first witnesses were EPA acting deputy assistant administrator Joel Beauvais, Marc Edwards, new MDEQ Director Keith Creagh, and Flint resident LeeAnne Walters (who alerted EPA water expert Miguel A. Del Toral to the problem).[230][231]
On March 15, the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee examining the Flint water crisis revealed the EPA, state, and municipal officials attempted to fix the situation behind the scenes according to hearing witness and former EPA regional administrator, Susan Hedman, who cited legal and enforcement challenges as the causes for her actions. Ex-Emergency Financial Manager Darnell Earley, Former Fint Mayor Dayne Walling, and Professor Marc Edwards also testified on that date's hearing.[232] Governor Snyder and EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy testified before that committee on March 17.[233]
On February 10, 2016, a separate committee, the U.S. House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee, held a hearing on the crisis in which Hurley Medical Center pediatrician Mona Hanna-Attisha; Yanna Lambrinidou, president of Parents for Nontoxic Alternatives, an environmental health group; Flint schools Superintendent Bilal Kareem Tawwab; Eric Scorsone, an expert in local government finances from Michigan State University, and Mayor Karen Weaver testified.[234] On April 13, 2016, the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Environment and the Economy and Energy Subcommittee on Health held a joint hearing on the crisis in which Keith Creagh of MDEQ, Nick Lyon from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, and Mona Hanna-Attisha of Hurley Medical Center testified.[235][236]
State
On February 23, 2016, the Michigan State Legislature started a committee to investigate the crisis.[237] On March 1, one of its members, Senator Jim Ananich of Flint, introduced a resolution that would grant state lawmakers probing the Flint water crisis subpoena power over the governor's office, which is immune to the state Freedom of Information Act.[238] The committee's first hearing was on March 15, 2016.[239] On March 29, 2016, the state's Joint Committee on the Flint Water Public Health Emergency held a hearing on the crisis in Flint during which residents and local experts testified.[240]
Estado de emergencia y respuestas de emergencia
Local
On December 15, 2015, Mayor Weaver declared the water issue as a citywide public health state of emergency to prompt help from state and federal officials.[166] Weaver's declaration said that additional funding will be needed for special education, mental health, juvenile justice, and social services because of the behavioral and cognitive impacts of high blood lead levels.[137] It was subsequently declared a countywide emergency by the Genesee County Board of Commissioners.[241]
Starting on January 7, 2016, Genesee County Sheriff Robert Pickell had work crews of offenders sentenced to community service begin delivering bottled water, water filters and replacement cartridges, primarily to residents living in homes built between 1901 and 1920, whose plumbing systems were most likely leaching lead into the water. The next week, he ordered his department to begin using reverse 911 to advise homebound residents on how to get help.[121]
On January 10, Mayor Weaver stressed to residents that it was important to also pick up the testing kits, as the city would like to receive at least 500 water test samples per week.[242] On January 12, officers from the Michigan State Police and Genesee County Sheriff's Department started delivering cases of water, water filters, lead testing kits and replacement cartridges to residents who needed them.[243] The American Red Cross has also been deployed to Flint to deliver bottled water and filters to residents.[244]
On January 14, it was announced that Mona Hanna-Attisha would lead a Flint Pediatric Public Health Initiative that includes experts from the Michigan State University College of Human Medicine, Hurley Children's Hospital, the Genesee County Health Department, and the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services to help Flint children diagnosed with lead poisoning.[245]
State
On January 5, 2016, Governor Snyder declared Genesee County to be in a state of emergency.[246] On January 6, Snyder ordered the Michigan Emergency Operations Center, operated by the Michigan State Police Emergency Management and Homeland Security Division, to open a Joint Information Center to coordinate public outreach and field questions from the residents about the problems caused by the crisis.[247] The State Emergency Operations Center recommended that all Flint children under six years old get tested for lead levels as soon as possible, either by a primary care physician or the Genesee County Health Department.[248] They also advised residents to call the United Way to receive additional help if needed.[249]
On January 11, Snyder signed an executive order creating a new committee to "work on long-term solutions to the Flint water situation and ongoing public health concerns affecting residents."[250] On January 13, Snyder activated the Michigan Army National Guard to assist the American Red Cross.[251][217] On January 27, Snyder announced the establishment of the new 17-member Flint Water Interagency Coordinating Committee to "make recommendations regarding the health and welfare of people exposed to lead, study Flint's water infrastructure and determine potential upgrades, review Flint Water Task Force recommendations, and establish ways to improve communication between local and state government."[252] On March 2, Snyder announced the state would partner with the employment agency Michigan Works! Association to hire 81 Flint residents to work at water distribution sites throughout the city.[253] On March 21, Governor Snyder released a 75-point relief plan for addressing the crisis, which includes programs in the fields of health and human services, education, water supply and infrastructure replacements, and jobs and economic development.[254] On April 6, the state began offering up to $100,000 in grant money from the Disaster and Emergency Contingency Fund to local governments affected by the water crisis.[255]
On March 16, 2017, Governor Snyder created the Child Lead Exposure Elimination Commission and appointed Mona Hanna-Attisha of Flint's Hurley Medical Center, Rebecca Meuninck of Ann Arbor, deputy director of the Ecology Center; Paul Haan of Grand Rapids, executive director of the Healthy Homes Coalition of West Michigan, Inc.; and Lyke Thompson of Ann Arbor, director of the Center for Urban Studies at Wayne State University as its members. "Eliminating the risk of child lead exposure will require the coordination and expertise of people across all sectors," Snyder said in the announcement. "Creating this permanent commission will help advance the strategies recommended to better protect Michigan children from lead exposure."[43] On the same day, Governor Snyder said will lower Michigan's "action level" from 15 ppb to 10 ppb.[256] Snyder sent $28 million to Flint for supplies, medical care, and infrastructure upgrades[257] and later budgeted an additional $30 million to Flint to provide water bill credits of 65% for residents and 20% for businesses.[258] Another $165 million for lead pipe replacements and water bill reimbursements was approved by Snyder on June 29, 2016.[259] On January 6, 2017, Snyder signed a bill that accelerated the public notice requirement for lead in drinking water to three business days, from the previous time of 30 days.[260]
Federal
On January 9, 2016, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) sent two liaison officers to the Michigan Emergency Operations Center to work with the state to monitor the situation.[261][262] On January 15, Snyder asked President Obama to grant a federal emergency/major disaster designation for Genesee County, seeking federal financial aid for emergency assistance and infrastructure repair in order to "protect the health, safety and welfare of Flint residents."[263][264][265] The following day, Obama signed an emergency declaration giving Flint up to $5 million in federal aid to handle the crisis.[266] FEMA released a statement that said:
The President's action authorizes the Department of Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), to coordinate all disaster relief efforts which have the purpose of alleviating the hardship and suffering caused by the emergency on the local population, and to provide appropriate assistance for required emergency measures, authorized under Title V of the Stafford Act, to save lives and to protect property and public health and safety, and to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in Genesee County. FEMA is authorized to provide equipment and resources to alleviate the impacts of the emergency. Emergency protective measures, limited to direct federal assistance, will be provided at 75 percent federal funding. This emergency assistance is to provide water, water filters, water filter cartridges, water test kits, and other necessary related items for a period of no more than 90 days.[267]
After Snyder's request for a "Major Disaster Declaration" status was turned down, FEMA Administrator W. Craig Fugate wrote a letter to Snyder saying that the water contamination "does not meet the legal definition of a 'major disaster'" under federal law because "[t]he incident was not the result of a natural catastrophe, nor was it created by a fire, flood or explosion."[268] In response, Snyder asked Obama for emergency funding under FEMA's Individuals and Households Program, which provides housing assistance and replacement of personal property. He will also ask for money and emergency protective measures, according to the release.[269] On March 3, 2016, Governor Snyder filed a second appeal for federal help to replace lead pipes and provide medical support and supplies for affected residents which said the estimated economic impact of the Flint water crisis is beginning to exceed $140 million.[270] FEMA rejected his request again on March 16.[271]
The EPA issued a Safe Drinking Water Act Emergency Order and took over collecting and testing of water samples, while ordering state agencies to send them previously collected data, on January 21.[272] A week later they advised residents to continue using water filters and drink only bottled water.[273] On February 12, the USDA extended their nutrition programs for Flint children diagnosed with high blood lead levels.[274] On the next day, Governor Snyder asked for additional help from Medicaid and the State Children's Health Insurance Program for affected Flint children.[275] The Department of Health and Human Services granted his request on February 18, providing an additional $500,000 in Medicaid expansion for affected Flint children and pregnant women.[276] On March 3, a waiver request to include pregnant women and people up to 21 years of age was approved.[277] On March 1, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services announced plans to expand its Head Start Program to more Flint children affected by the crisis.[278] On March 23, the U.S. Department of Labor announced up to $15 million in National Dislocated Worker Grants will help provide temporary jobs to assist with Flint's water crisis recovery. About 400 temporary jobs at water distribution centers throughout the city will be created through the grant. The workers will take the place of the Michigan National Guard soldiers who have been in place since January.[279]
On March 25, 2016, the EPA and FEMA extended the federal emergency until August 14, 2016.[280] The state took over the emergency response after that date.[281] A $170 million stopgap spending bill for repairing and upgrading the city of Flint's water system and helping with healthcare costs was approved by the U.S. House of Representatives on December 8, 2016.[282] The Senate approved it the next day.[283] $100 million of the bill is for infrastructure repairs, $50 million for healthcare costs, and $20 million to pay back loans related to the crisis.[284]
Procesos penales
2016
On April 20, 2016, criminal charges were filed against three people in regards to the crisis by Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette. Former MDEQ employees Michael Prysby and Stephen Busch are charged with misconduct in office, conspiracy to tamper with evidence, tampering with evidence, a treatment violation of the Michigan Safe Drinking Water Act, and a monitoring violation of the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act;[285] former city water plant operator Michael Glasgow was charged with willful neglect of office, a misdemeanor, and felony tampering with evidence.[286] On May 4, 2016 Glasgow accepted a plea deal with prosecutors, admitting to filing false information about lead in Flint water and agreeing to cooperate in other prosecutions.[287] Exactly a year later, the case against Glasgow was dismissed, with prosecutors acknowledging his cooperation and the fact that he was the person who reported the crimes of his colleagues to the MDEQ.[288]
On July 29, 2016, Schuette charged six additional people with crimes in the crisis, three from MDEQ and three from the MDHHS. From MDEQ, Liane Shekter-Smith was charged with misconduct in office and willful neglect of duty; Adam Rosenthal was charged with misconduct in office, conspiracy to tamper with evidence, tampering with evidence, and neglect; Adam Cook was charged with misconduct in office, conspiracy to engage in misconduct in office, and neglect of duty. From the MDHHS, Nancy Peeler, Corinne Miller, and Robert Scott were charged with misconduct in office, conspiracy to commit misconduct in office, and willful neglect of duty.[289][290][291] MDEQ and MDHHS released a joint statement later that day indicating Peeler, Scott, Cook, and Rosenthal had been suspended without pay. Miller retired in April and Shekter-Smith was fired in February.[292]
The cases were consolidated for preliminary hearing purposes on August 9, since the same witnesses were to testify against all defendants. On September 14, 2016, Miller pleaded no contest to the neglect of duty charge and agreed to testify against the other defendants.[293] She was later sentenced to a year probation, 300 hours of community service, and fined $1,200.[6] On December 20, 2016, Schuette filed false pretenses, conspiracy to commit false pretenses, willful neglect of duty and misconduct in office charges against former Emergency Managers Darnell Earley and Jerry Ambrose; and false pretenses and conspiracy to commit false pretenses charges against former Flint Utilities Administrator Daugherty Johnson and former Flint Department of Public Works Director Howard Croft.[16] On November 28, 2017, Daugherty Johnson pleaded no contest to failing to furnish water documents to a Genesee County Health Department employee investigating a possible connection between Flint water and Legionnaires' disease outbreaks.[294] Charges were dismissed in 2018 because of his cooperation with prosecutors.[295]
2017
On June 14, 2017, Schuette announced new involuntary manslaughter charges—15-year felonies—against MDHHS Director Nick Lyon, former Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley, former Flint Department of Public Works director Howard Croft, former Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Office of Drinking Water chief Liane Shekter-Smith and MDEQ District Supervisor Stephen Busch. Also charged was Eden Wells, chief medical executive of MDHHS, who faces allegations of obstruction of justice and lying to a police officer. Lyon was also charged with a single count of misconduct in office after being accused of having received notice of the Legionnaires' outbreak at least a year before informing the public and the governor, while Wells is also accused of threatening to withhold funding to the Flint Area Community Health and Environment Partnership unless the partnership ceased its investigation into the source of the Legionnaires' outbreak.[296] On October 9, 2017, Wells was charged with involuntary manslaughter and misconduct in office.[297] On December 20, 2017, Adam Rosenthal pleaded no contest to a public records charge, a one-year misdemeanor, which was officially dismissed on September 27, 2018, following his cooperation in other prosecutions.[298][299]
2018
On August 20, 2018, District Court Judge David Goggins found probable cause for a trial for two cases of involuntary manslaughter that were linked to Legionnaires Disease against Michigan's Health Director, Nick Lyon.[300] On December 26, MDEQ employees Michael Prysby and Stephen Busch pleaded guilty to misdemeanors in exchange for their testimony against other defendants.[301]
2019
On December 18, 2019, the cases against former MDEQ employees Steven Busch and Michael Prysby were dismissed by a Genesee County judge.[302]
2020
On January 8, 2020, a Genesee County judge dismissed a misdemeanor charge of disturbance of a lawful meeting against Liane Shekter-Smith.[303] On April 16, 2020, an article was published giving details of evidence of corruption and a coverup by Governor Snyder and Rich Baird, and stating that the statute of limitations on some of the most serious felony misconduct-in-office charges would expire on April 25, 2020.[114] Responses from Michigan state authorities denied that a deadline was approaching, and said that criminal prosecutions would follow.[115][116]
2021
New criminal charges were filed against Snyder and other officials by the state of Michigan on January 13, 2021, for their roles in the water crisis, with Snyder facing two counts of willful neglect of duty that could led to up to one year in prison and up to $1,000 in fines. The charges stem from the decision to switch the water supply from the Detroit water system to the Flint River in 2014 as a cost-cutting measure without properly assessing the potential impact on residents' health.[304]
Juicios civiles
As of February 21, 2019, a total of 79 civil lawsuits have been filed in regards to the crisis.[5]
2015
On November 13, 2015, four families filed a federal class-action lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan in Detroit against Governor Snyder and thirteen other city and state officials, including Mayor Walling and Darnell Earley, who was in charge of the city when the switch to the Flint River was made. The complaint alleges that the officials acted recklessly and negligently, leading to serious injuries from lead poisoning, including autoimmune disorders, skin lesions, and "brain fog."[305][306][307] The complaint alleges that the officials' conduct was "reckless and outrageous" and "shocks the conscience and was deliberately indifferent to ... constitutional rights."[307] The case was dismissed on February 3, 2017, with the judge stating his court has lack of subject-matter jurisdiction in the matter. Their attorneys filed an appeal on February 6.[308][309]
The legal doctrines of sovereign immunity (which protects the state from suit) and official immunity (which in Michigan shields top government officials from personal liability, even in cases of gross negligence) resulted in comparatively few lawsuits being filed in the Flint case, and caused large national plaintiffs' law firms to be reluctant to become involved with the case.[310]
2016
On January 14, 2016, a separate class-action lawsuit against Snyder, the state of Michigan, the city of Flint, Earley, Walling, and Croft was filed by three Flint residents in Michigan Circuit Court in Genesee County.[311][312] This suit targets lower-level officials who (under Michigan law) do not have immunity from claims arising from gross negligence.[310] A separate suit was filed in January 2016 in the Michigan Court of Claims against the governor and state agencies; that suit alleges violations of the state constitution.[310] In Michigan, the Court of Claims is the only court with subject-matter jurisdiction over claims against the state and its subdivisions.[313]
A federal lawsuit filed on January 27, 2016, seeks the replacement of all lead service lines in Flint at no cost to residents following claims city and state leaders violated federal laws designed to protect drinking water. It is also asking the court to force city and state officials to provide safe drinking water to Flint residents and require them to follow federal regulations for testing and treating water to control for lead.[314]
On February 2, 2016, a class action lawsuit in U.S. District Court was filed on behalf of Beatrice Boler, a Flint mother of two, Flint pastor Edwin Anderson with his wife, Alline Anderson, and a company, Epco Sales LLC. against Snyder, the MDEQ, two former state appointed emergency managers and Mayor Walling that seeks more than $150 million in refunds and compensation for damages for "water that was extraordinarily dangerous, undrinkable and unusable."[315] It was dismissed on April 19, 2016, after the judge ruled the allegations fall under the federal Safe Drinking Water Act, which prevents challenges to the law being ruled on in U.S. District Court and states they must be addressed by the EPA, and the case should be re-filed in the Michigan Court of Claims.[316] Also on February 2, a lawsuit was filed in Michigan Circuit Court on behalf of four Genesee County residents who contracted Legionnaires' disease during the Flint water crisis, including one woman who died seven days after entering the emergency room with a headache. The suit names McLaren Regional Medical Center and several MDEQ officials as defendants. Lawyer Geoffrey Fieger represents the plaintiffs.[317]
On February 8, 2016 the parents of a two-year-old girl diagnosed with high blood lead levels filed a lawsuit in federal court, naming as defendants the city of Flint, the state of Michigan, Snyder, Earley, and Walling.[318][319] The case was dismissed on February 7, 2017, with the judge citing his court has a lack of subject matter jurisdiction.[309] On March 3, 2016, a lawsuit was filed in state court by LeeAnne Walters, the Flint mother who informed the EPA water expert Miguel Del Toral of the health problems her family experienced after the water switch, against multiple corporate entities and three current and former government employees for their role in the city's water crisis.[320] On March 7, 2016, another class action lawsuit was filed on behalf of seven residents alleging that tens of thousands of residents have suffered physical and economic injuries and damages. It argues officials failed to take action over "dangerous levels of lead" in drinking water and "downplayed the severity of the contamination."[321]
On March 8, 2016, a federal class action lawsuit was filed on behalf of 500 county inmates against the Genesee County Sheriff's Department in regards to the water quality at the Genesee County Jail. The suit seeks only an injunction that will order the sheriff's department to continue to serve inmates only bottled water and dry food that doesn't require water to prepare.[322]
On March 24, the City of Flint filed a notice of intent sue in the Court of Claims against the State of Michigan, the MDEQ and four MDEQ employees for their mishandling of the crisis.[323] A week later, Mayor Weaver said she has no intentions to proceed with a lawsuit, and the move is to "protect the future interest of the city."[324] On March 25, a federal lawsuit filed by the ACLU asked for an order requiring water to be delivered to homes of people without access to transportation or who are physically disabled.[325] The case was settled a year later for $87 million (with an additional $10 million in reserve), which will be used to replaced 18,000 lead pipes by 2020.[326]
On April 6, 2016, a class action lawsuit brought by 15 Flint residents accused Governor Snyder and several state agencies and government officials of being in violation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act in regards to the crisis.[327]
On May 18, 2016, the NAACP sued the state of Michigan and Governor Snyder, seeking compensation for property damages, pain and suffering damages, emotional distress damages and medical monitoring for Flint residents and businesses.[328]
On June 22, 2016, the Michigan Attorney General's Office filed a civil suit against engineering firms Veolia North America and Lockwood, Andrews & Newnam (LAN) who were hired to consult Flint water plant officials after the switch to the Flint River in April 2015. The lawsuit accuses Veolia and LAN of professional negligence and public nuisance. Veolia is also accused of fraud. Veolia called the accusations "baseless, entirely unfounded and [appearing] to be intended to distract from the troubling and disturbing realities that have emerged as a result of this tragedy," and then added, "In fact, when Veolia raised potential lead and copper issues, city officials and representatives told us to exclude it from our scope of work because the city and the EPA were just beginning to conduct lead and copper testing."[329] Michigan Attorney General Dana Nessel amended the complaint on April 12, 2019, stating the companies "made multiple missteps by designing water treatment measures that made the water corrosive. Those failures ultimately resulted in bacterial problems in Flint's water, potentially dangerous disinfectant byproducts, the corrosion of the city's water distribution system, and high lead levels."[330] On May 28, 2019, Veolia denied responsibility for the crisis, instead blaming state and location officials for the crisis, and filed a motion for summary disposition on that date.[331] In November 2019, a Genesee County judge dismissed four of the plaintiff's five charges against Veolia and LAN.[332]
On June 27, 2016, Flint residents Shari Guertin, on behalf of her minor child, and Diogenes Muse-Cleveland, filed a lawsuit accusing several officials of violating their "bodily integrity" by exposing them to lead-contaminated water and hiding it. The defendants are city and state officials including former Flint Department of Public Works Director Howard Croft, former emergency managers Darnell Earley and Gerald Ambrose and former DEQ officials Liane Shekter-Smith, Stephen Busch, Michael Prysby and Bradley Wurfel. Several charges in the case were dismissed by the original trial court on June 5, 2017.[333] The charges were re-instated by the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals on January 4, 2019.[334]
On November 15, 2016, Chief Judge Richard B. Yuille, Circuit Court of Genesee County, entered a Case Management Order, wherein he appointed attorney Corey Stern, of Levy Konigsberg, L.L.P., "Lead Counsel" for all plaintiffs maintaining claims in the Circuit Court of Genesee County for personal injuries and property damage sustained as a result of the Flint water crisis. Attorney Wayne B. Mason, of Drinker, Biddle & Reath, L.L.P., was appointed "Lead Counsel" for the Defendants. Judge Yuille called for a small number of lawsuits related to the Flint water crisis to serve as bellwethers, cases that will be fully developed and tried to verdict with the idea that they will help attorneys in other cases evaluate whether to settle or take their cases to trial.[335]
2017
On January 30, 2017, a class action lawsuit with over 1,700 plaintiffs against the EPA seeking $722.4 million was filed, charging them with a violation of section 1431 of the Safe Drinking Water Act, which states, "upon receipt of information that a contaminant that is present in or likely to enter a public water system or an underground source of drinking water, or there is a threatened or potential terrorist attack or other intentional act, that may present an imminent and substantial endangerment to the health of persons, the EPA Administrator may take any action she deems necessary to protect human health".[336][337]
2020
Two of the lawsuits had reached the Sixth Circuit Appeals Court; in both cases, the Court rejected the city officials' claims of immunity to allow the cases to continue. The Sixth Circuit asserted the citizens had a right to remedy since the officials' decision to switch water sources in 2014 harmed the citizens' Constitutional right to "bodily integrity". The officials had petitioned to the Supreme Court of the United States on the question of immunity, but in January 2020, the Supreme Court declined to hear either case, allowing both cases to proceed at the lower court.[338]
Reparaciones de infraestructura y tratamiento médico
2016
On January 7, 2016, Flint Mayor Karen Weaver said that estimates of the cost of fixing water infrastructure in Flint, such as aging pipes, range from millions up to $1.5 billion. These figures encompass infrastructure alone, excluding any public health costs of the disaster. DEQ interim director Keith Creagh said that estimation of total costs would be premature.[339][340] However, in a September 2015 email released by Snyder in January 2016, the state estimated the replacement cost to be $60 million, and said it could take up to 15 years to do.[341]
On January 18, 2016 the United Way of Genesee County estimated 6,000–12,000 children have been exposed to lead poisoning and kicked off a fundraising campaign to raise $100 million over a 10–15 year span for their medical treatment.[4] On January 27, 2016 Mona Hanna-Attisha started a fundraiser for the $80,000 needed for the medical treatment of Flint children affected by lead poisoning. Meridian Health Plan of Detroit has agreed to donate up to $40,000 in matching funds to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint for long-term needs Hanna-Attisha expects to arise from the lead issue.[342]
At his annual State of the State address on January 19, Snyder apologized again, and asked the Michigan Legislature to give Flint an additional $28 million in funding for filters, replacement cartridges, bottled water, more school nurses and additional intervention specialists. It also will fund lab testing, corrosion control procedures, a study of water-system infrastructure, potentially help Flint deal with unpaid water bills, case management of people with elevated lead-blood levels, assessment of potential linkages to other diseases, crisis counseling and mental health services, and the replacement of plumbing fixtures in schools, child care centers, nursing homes and medical facilities.[217] The Michigan House Appropriations Committee passed the bill the next day, while the Senate approved it on January 28.[343][344] Snyder signed it the next day.[257]
On January 21, 2016 President Obama gave an $80 million loan to Michigan for infrastructure repairs, but the amount going to Flint is uncertain.[345][346]
On January 28, 2016 Democratic U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow and Gary Peters and Representative Dan Kildee proposed an amendment to pending federal energy legislation to add the special appropriation of up to $400 million to replace and repair the lead service lines in Flint and $200 million more to create a center for lead research in Flint. They also said the state could choose to match up to $400 million for its share of infrastructure repairs in Flint.[347] The newly amended bill was rejected by the Senate on February 4.[348] A new $220 million bill to address the crisis was proposed in the U.S. Senate on February 24.[349]
At a news conference on February 9, 2016, Flint mayor Karen Weaver said that the city would remove and replace all of the city's 15,000 water service lines containing lead piping. Work was expected to begin in March 2016. The project will receive technical advice from the Lansing Board of Water and Light, which removed over 13,000 lead pipes in Lansing, Michigan. Lansing mayor Virg Bernero volunteered to provide the assistance. Weaver appointed Michael C.H. McDaniel, a retired National Guard brigadier general, to oversee the group leading the project, the Flint Action and Sustainability Team (FAST). The city government hopes to complete the project within a year, using 32 work crews, with priority given to the most at-risk households.[350][351][352]
The project is expected to cost $55 million, and the funding sources are not yet secured, but the city plans to seek it from local, state, and federal sources.[352][353] The crews began working on March 4.[354]
On February 16, 2016 the state hired Flint-based engineering firm Rowe Professional Services to begin the process of locating, removing, and eventually replacing lead pipes in the highest risk areas of Flint.[355]
On February 18, 2016 the state gave Flint a $2 million grant that will go towards replacing lead service lines.[356]
On March 6, 2016 Union Labor Life Insurance Company donated $25 million for lead pipe replacements in the city.[357]
On July 18, 2016 city council approved a $500,000 contract with three companies for the second phase of lead pipe replacements: WT Stevens, and Johnson & Wood were awarded $320,000 contracts to do no more than 50 homes each. Goyette was awarded $619,500 to tackle replacing lead lines at 150 Flint homes. The city is using $25 million in funding approved by the Michigan legislature in June that was allocated for replacing Flint lead tainted pipes for Fast Start's third phase which will replace infrastructure at an estimated 5,000 homes in Flint.[358]
On October 10, 2016 city council approved contracts to replace pipes at 788 more homes before winter.[359] The third phase will be funded using a portion of $25 million approved by the Michigan Legislature in June that was allocated for replacing Flint lead tainted pipes for Fast Start's third phase, which will replace infrastructure at an estimated 5,000 homes in Flint. Goyette will be paid $1,663,300.60 for replacements at 260 addresses in city wards two, six and eight. WT Stevens will be paid $2,306,384 for replacements at 488 addresses in city wards three, four, eight and nine.[360]
On October 17, 2016 the second phase of the program was completed on 218 homes. The project was completed by WT Stevens Construction Inc., Johnson & Wood Mechanical, and Goyette Mechanical.[359] By November 22, 2016, the total number of homes with new pipes was 460.[361]
Flint's water service line records were largely unreliable, meaning the city could not say how many lead pipes existed, nor where they were. The City therefore started using a machine learning model to prioritize excavations starting in September 2016.[17] Researchers from the University of Michigan developed this predictive model, using utility and parcel-level data to develop a more accurate service line inventory and calculate the probability that a given service is connected with a lead line. As pipes are dug up and more data is gained, the model updates accordingly and yields more accurate results. Using the model to prioritize excavations throughout 2016 and 2017 yielded a hit rate of about 80%.
A University of Michigan study, conducted by the same researchers responsible for developing the machine learning model, was released on December 1, 2016, stating a total of 29,100 pipes, from all parcels regardless of occupancy, were estimated to be lead.[362] This was based on a representative sample taken of the city's water service lines (approximately 200 homes) using Hydrovac method, which revealed the problem was more extensive than the city anticipated. After the report, the city's estimates of lead/galvanized jumped from 10-20% to about 50%.[363]
2017
On January 19, 2017, an engineer at the Flint Water Plant said the facility is in need of $60 million worth of upgrades, which wouldn't be finished until well into 2019.[364] On February 7, 2017, another report said the cost would be $108 million.[365]
On February 6, 2017, the Genesee Intermediate School District received $6.5 million for the Early On Genesee program to provide free evaluations to as many as 5,000 children up to 5 years old facing possible lead-related developmental delays from the state of Michigan.[366]
On March 17, 2017, Flint received a $100 million grant from the EPA for water infrastructure repairs.[367]
On June 30, 2017, the Genesee County Health Department's Healthy Start Program received $15 million to provide health and social services for people who have had or are at risk for lead exposure stemming from Flint water crisis.[368]
2018
In January 2018, the city contracted a private consulting firm, AECOM, to take over water service line excavations and consequently stopped using the machine learning model. During 2018, 10,531 excavations were performed, yielding a hit rate of only 15%.[17]
On March 26, 2018, a U.S. federal court mandate requires the city to return to using the machine learning model to prioritize excavations.[369] As a result, the hit rate has steadily increased since early 2019 and is now close to 70%.[103]
Efectos a largo plazo del envenenamiento por plomo
Childhood lead exposure causes a reduction in intellectual functioning and IQ, academic performance, and problem-solving skills, and an increased risk of attention deficit disorder, aggression, and hyperactivity. According to studies, children with elevated levels of lead in the blood are more likely as adults to commit crimes, be imprisoned, be unemployed or underemployed, or be dependent on government services.[370][371][372] While changes in IQ may appear small from the elevated blood levels, it has been estimated that each increase in an IQ point raises worker's productivity by 1.76–2.38%, and that the economic benefit for each year of 3.8 million 2-year-old children could be from $110 to $319 billion.[373]
In addition, early-life exposure to lead may increase risk of later-life neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease,[374] and this risk is likely to persist into late life long after lead has been removed from the body.[375] A 2014 study by researchers at Risk Science Center at the University of Michigan, completed before the Flint water crisis came to light, estimated the annual cost of childhood lead exposure in Michigan at $330 million ($205 million in decreases in lifetime earnings, $105 million in additional criminal justice system expenditures, $18 million in health expenditures to diagnose lead positioning and lead-linked attention deficit disorder), and $2.5 million in additional special education expenditures.[370]
Because the developmental effects of lead exposure appear over a series of years,[376] the total long-term cost of the Flint water crisis "will not be apparent in the short term."[377] However, the cost is expected to be high. Philippe Grandjean of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, an expert in the effects of environmental pollution on brain development, said that "when calculated from the loss of lifetime income, the societal costs from lead exposure (across the United States) reach billion-dollar amounts."[377]
Respuestas políticas
Federal government
Dan Kildee, the Democratic party congressman in the House of Representatives representing the Michigan 5th district which includes Flint, along with Republican Michigan Representative Fred Upton, sponsored H.R. 4470, the Safe Drinking Water Act Improved Compliance Awareness Act, which would ensure that the public promptly learns of excessive lead levels in their drinking water by setting forth how and when states, EPA, and public utilities communicate their findings. It has passed the House, but has yet to be passed by the Senate, where it has been read twice and referred to the Committee on Environment and Public Works.[235][378]
Among the Michigan congressional delegation, only Representative Justin Amash, Republican of Cascade Township, opposed federal aid for Flint. Amash opined that "the U.S. Constitution does not authorize the federal government to intervene in an intrastate matter like this one."[379]
In December 2016, President Barack Obama signed Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act of 2016 (co-sponsored by Debbie Stabenow in the Senate)[380] which earmarked $170 million to address the Flint water crisis. The first $100 million was released in March 2017, by the US Environmental Protection Agency after President Trump had taken office.[381]
President Donald Trump's plan to fix the crisis in Michigan has been folded into his federal infrastructure plan.[382] Trump's infrastructure plan proposes $1 trillion in spending on new infrastructure by offering corporations who invest in infrastructure projects tax credits, with the corporations investing approximately $167 billion.[383][384] This plan would require a return of 9–10% to investors to remain feasible.[383] This plan has no direct reference to or specific proposal for the crisis in Flint and as of his election he has not proposed a direct federal intervention.[383]
Dan Kildee, the Democratic party congressman in the House of Representatives representing the Michigan 5th district which includes Flint, re-introduced on July 10, 2019 a bill[385] in the House, originally introduced in 2017, as HR 3677, the National Opportunity for Lead Exposure Accountability and Deterrence Act (NO LEAD) of 2017. Tammy Duckworth, Democratic Senator for Illinois, announced on the same day, July 10, 2019, the introduction of a bill[386] in the Senate as S. 2086, the National Opportunity for Lead Exposure Accountability and Deterrence (NO LEAD) of 2019. The nearly-identical bills aim to help ensure drinking water across the USA is safe from lead and copper contamination, and would update the Lead and Copper Rule, lowering the lead action level from 15 parts per billion (ppb) currently, to 10 ppb by 2020 and 5 ppb by 2026. The bill would also create a lead-service-line inventory to help monitor contaminated service lines and ensure the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops a universal testing protocol to make sure the entire lead service line is replaced if water contamination is detected, as partial replacement does not eliminate the risk of contamination.
State legislature
On January 4, 2016, citing the Flint water crisis, Michigan Representative Phil Phelps, Democrat of Flushing, announced plans to introduce a bill to the Michigan House of Representatives that would make it a felony for state officials to intentionally manipulate or falsify information in official reports, punishable by up to five years' imprisonment and a $5,000 fine.[387][needs update]
On March 2, House Democratic leader Tim Greimel called on Governor Snyder to resign, due to his "negligence and indifference" in his handling of the Flint water crisis.[388] Also on that date, State Democratic Party Chairman Brandon Dillon called for Michigan Treasurer Nick Khouri to resign due to his role in a loan agreement from April 2015 that blocked Flint from switching back to the Detroit system.[389]
2016 presidential election
Donald Trump
On January 19, 2016, then-Republican-candidate Donald Trump said, "It's a shame what's happening in Flint, Michigan. A thing like that shouldn't happen."[390] After clinching the Republican nomination, Trump visited Flint on September 14, 2016 and toured the water plant and a Flint church, where he promised to fix the water crisis, and in a brief speech there, he blamed NAFTA for General Motors' abandonment of Flint and the area's subsequent ongoing recession caused by it, saying, "It used to be that cars were made in Flint and you couldn't drink the water in Mexico. Now cars are made in Mexico, and you can't drink the water in Flint. That's terrible."[391]
Hillary Clinton
Democratic Presidential nominee Hillary Clinton repeatedly mentioned the crisis during her campaign, saying: "The people of Flint deserve to know the truth about how this happened and what Governor Snyder and other leaders knew about it. And they deserve a solution, fast. Thousands of children may have been exposed to lead, which could irreversibly harm their health and brain functioning. Plus, this catastrophe—which was caused by a zeal to save money at all costs—could actually cost $1.5 billion in infrastructure repairs."[392] In a subsequent interview, Clinton referred to her work on lead abatement in housing in upstate New York while a U.S. Senator and called for further funding for healthcare and education for children who will suffer the negative effects of lead exposure on behavior and educational attainment.[393]
The crisis was also the catalyst for a town hall style debate in Flint between Clinton and Democratic rival Bernie Sanders on March 6, 2016, two days before the Michigan Presidential primary election. It was hosted by CNN anchors Anderson Cooper and Don Lemon. Both candidates called for Governor Snyder to resign during the event.[394]
Otras respuestas
Lead poisoning and aging infrastructure problems in other cities
An investigative report by Reuters released December 19, 2016 found nearly 3,000 areas in the United States with lead contamination rates at least double those in Flint.[395] The Trump Administration blocked publishing a federal health study on the nationwide water-contamination crisis.[396]
The water disaster called attention to the problem of aging and seriously neglected water infrastructure nationwide.[397][398] The Flint crisis recalled recent lead contamination crises in the tap water in various cities, such as the lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water (2001), Columbia, South Carolina (2005); Durham and Greenville, North Carolina (2006); Jackson, Mississippi (2015); and Sebring, Ohio (2015). The New York Times notes, "Although Congress banned lead water pipes 30 years ago, between 3.3 million and 10 million older ones remain, primed to leach lead into tap water by forces as simple as jostling during repairs or a change in water chemistry." Inadequate regulation was cited as one reason for unsafe lead levels in tap water and "efforts to address shortcomings often encounter push-back from industries like agriculture and mining that fear cost increases, and from politicians ideologically opposed to regulation." The crisis called attention to a "resource gap" for water regulators. The annual budget of the EPA's drinking water office declined 15% from 2006 to 2015, with the office losing over 10% of employees, and the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators reported in 2013 that "federal officials had slashed drinking-water grants, 17 states had cut drinking-water budgets by more than a fifth, and 27 had cut spending on full-time employees," with "serious implications for states' ability to protect public health."[398]
In the aftermath of the water crisis, it was noted that elevated blood-lead levels in children are found in many cities across Michigan, including Detroit, Grand Rapids, Muskegon, and Adrian. Although statewide childhood lead-poisoning rates have dramatically declined since the removal of lead from gasoline, certain areas of the state (particularly low-income areas with older housing stock) continue to experience lead poisoning, mostly from lead paint in homes built before 1978 and lead residue in dust and soil. Lead abatement efforts are slow.[399]
Reforming the Lead and Copper Rule
The water crisis in Flint, Michigan has made it apparent that reform needs to be made nationwide to improve water infrastructure. Michigan, as the center of the water crisis, has since strengthened its Lead and Copper Rule, making it the strongest advocate against lead contaminated water in the country. The new Lead and Copper Rule in Michigan requires that all lead contaminated pipes be replaced within the next twenty years. In 2019, the Environmental Protection Agency suggested the first change to the Lead and Copper Rule in almost three decades to set more strict protocols for when lead is identified in water.[400]
After the crisis in Flint, Michigan, Trump’s administration created a new set of regulations that would allow states to react more effectively and in a faster manner in the event of a public health crisis. These changes, proposed in amendments to the Lead and Copper Rule, still allow lead water lines to service communities, which has drawn a lot of criticisms from the public. This new proposal highlighted four changes in the Lead and Copper Rule, a rule that previously has not been revised in years. The proposed revisions consist of:
- Requiring water systems to create a database of where the lead pipes are located, and when the water running through the pipes reaches lead levels greater than 15 parts per billion, the problem must be investigated and fixed.
- Create an alert when water samples reach 10 parts per billion so that communities can determine how to lower the lead levels in the water before it reaches 15 parts per billion.
- Require water systems to alert customers within a one-day period if their water sample tests higher than 15 parts per million.
- Require water systems to replace water service lines to a home if they are contaminated with lead, and if the homeowner chooses to replace the piping. Every year thereafter, the water system must replace three percent of the lead contaminated water system.[401]
However, critics are calling for the replacement of all lead service lines in communities; a project that would cost billions of dollars, which was not a part of the proposed amendments to the Lead and Copper Rule.
The problem with the current Lead and Copper Rule is that it allows states to test their own water systems. This can cause problems because the water systems in individual homes affect the quality of the water there.[402] Therefore, water pipes could be contaminated and never get tested, or the test results are never reported. Since the crisis in Flint, the Environmental Protection Agency has called for more aggressive replacement of contaminated pipes, as well as improved education so people know to test their water. The crisis in Flint spurred the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) to test water systems across the nation for possible contaminants. The study showed that every state in the country had areas which tested positive for matter that could be harmful to human health.[403] This highlights the sheer number of violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, of which the Lead and Copper Rule is a part of. These violations could be positive results of contaminated water, failing to test water and water systems, and the failure to report contaminated water systems to the proper authorities.
Accusations of environmental racism
Civil rights advocates characterized the crisis as a result of environmental racism (Flint's population is 56.6% African American per the 2010 census),[404] a term primarily referring to the disproportionate exposure of ethnic minorities to pollution as a result of "poverty and segregation that has relegated many blacks and other racial minorities to some of the most industrialized or dilapidated environments."[405] Columnist Shaun King, for example, wrote that the crisis was "a horrific clash of race, class, politics and public health."[406]
Flint residents themselves have identified racism as a contributing factor to the crisis. In a qualitative study done by The Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture and Health (CRECH) at the University of Michigan, researchers investigated Flint youth's perceptions of the Flint water crisis. The young Flint residents, with 93% identifying as black, were asked questions regarding the socioeconomic factors that attributed to the crisis.[407] In these interviews, themes of race, genocide, and oppression became apparent as youth expressed opinions on how their "poor Black city" was stigmatized and deprioritized by those in power.[407] Researchers noted that these results can help academics study the racialized mental trauma and stress among youth who experienced the Flint water crisis.[407]
The Michigan Civil Rights Commission later reiterated this belief in a 138-page report titled "The Flint Water Crisis: Systemic Racism Through the Lens of Flint". Its writers said of it, "Policy makers, government leaders, and decision makers at many levels failed the residents of Flint," said Agustin Arbulu, Director of the Michigan Department of Civil Rights. "By not challenging their assumptions, by not asking themselves the tough questions about how policy and decisions play out in different communities, especially communities primarily made up of people of color, those decisions and actions – or in some cases, lack of action – led to the tragedy taking place in Flint." "We strongly believe that the actions that led to the poisoning of Flint's water and the slow response resulted in the abridgement of civil rights for the people of Flint," said Arthur Horwitz, co-chair of the Commission during the time of the investigation. "We are not suggesting that those making decisions related to this crisis were racists, or meant to treat Flint any differently because it is a community of color. Rather, the response is the result of implicit bias and the history of systemic racism that was built into the foundation of Flint. The lessons of Flint are profound. While the exact situation and response that happened in Flint may never happen anywhere else, the factors that led to this crisis remain in place and will most certainly lead to other tragedies if we don't take steps to remedy them. We hope this report is a step in that direction."[408][409]
The Governor's office responded: "Some findings of the report and the recommendations are similar to those of the (Flint Water Advisory Task Force and) the legislative panel and the Flint Water Interagency Coordinating Committee," said Gov. Rick Snyder spokeswoman Anna Heaton. "The Governor takes the reporting of each of these panels very seriously, and appreciates the public input that was shared." The findings were no surprise for State Senate Minority Leader Jim Ananich. "The presence of racial bias in the Flint water crisis isn't much of a surprise to those of us who live here, but the Michigan Civil Rights Commission's affirmation that the emergency manager law disproportionately hurts communities of color is an important reminder of just how bad the policy is. Now is the time to address this flawed law," Ananich said. He went on to say, "The people of Flint deserve the same level of safety, opportunity and justice that any other city in Michigan enjoys".[410]
Media responses
On October 8, 2015, the editorial board of the Detroit Free Press wrote that the crisis was "an obscene failure of government" and criticized Snyder.[411]
On December 31, 2015, the editorial board of the MLive group of Michigan newspapers called upon Snyder to "drop executive privilege and release all of his communications on Flint water," establish a procedure for compensating families with children suffering from elevated lead blood levels, and return Flint to local control.[32]
Some of the most important reporting on the crisis was conducted by investigative reporter Curt Guyette, who works not for a news organization but for the American Civil Liberties Union's Michigan Democracy Watch Project. The work of Guyette and the ACLU was credited with bringing the water contamination to public light.[412][413]
MSNBC host Rachel Maddow has extensively reported on the water crisis on her show since December 2015, keeping it in the national spotlight.[414][415] She has condemned Snyder's use of emergency managers (which she termed a "very, very radical" change "to the way we govern ourselves as Americans, something that nobody else has done") and said, "The kids of Flint, Michigan have been poisoned by a policy decision."[415] Maddow visited Flint and hosted a town hall with government officials and other involved experts on her show on January 27.[416] On October 5, 2017, Maddow won an Emmy Award for the special.[417]
In February 2018, "Jordan Chariton Reports", the YouTube channel and reporting website, released an investigative piece on TruthDig showing that the science and data used to declare the water safe in Flint, Michigan was suspect.[85] This report was later featured on the Thom Hartmann Program.[86]
On April 23, 2019 Status Coup, an independent investigative reporting network co-founded by Jordan Chariton and Jenn Dize, released the documentary Flushing Flint which claimed that the water testing by Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) was falsified by MDEQ staff taking water samples after flushing running water from taps for several minutes before taking the samples, contrary to normal procedures for water testing, and by MDEQ staff telling residents that they should take water samples after flushing running water from their taps for several minutes.[104][19] This would clearly contravene the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidance that samples taken must be "first-draw samples at taps in homes/buildings".[105]
On April 16, 2020, an article was published giving details of evidence of corruption and a cover-up by former Governor Rick Snyder and his "fixer" Rich Baird, and stating that the statute of limitations on some of the most serious felony misconduct-in-office charges would expire on April 25, 2020. The article was published by Vice News, written by Jordan Chariton and Jenn Dize, the co-founders of Status Coup, with photos by Brittany Greeson.[114] Responses from Michigan state authorities denied that a deadline was approaching, and said that criminal prosecutions would follow.[115][116]
Groups
In January 2016, a coalition of local and national groups, including the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), filed suit seeking federal court intervention to secure access to safe drinking water for the people of Flint, Michigan.[418] In November 2016, a federal judge ordered the implementation of door-to-door delivery of bottled water to every home without a properly installed and maintained faucet filter.[35] In March 2018, a settlement was reached that required the City to replace thousands of lead service lines and return to using the predictive model.[419]
In June 2019, the University of Michigan researchers responsible for developing the model, Jake Abernethy and Eric Schwartz, founded BlueConduit, a company aimed at leveraging data science and machine learning to find and remove lead pipes in other municipalities.[107] Retired Brigadier General Michael C.H. McDaniel, who was appointed by Flint Mayor Karen Weaver to serve as program manager for the lead service line replacement programs in Flint, joined BlueConduit as Director of Government and Customer Services.
The watchdog group Common Cause called upon Snyder to release all documents related to the Flint water crisis. The governor's office is not subject to the Michigan Freedom of Information Act.[420]
The hacktivist group Anonymous released a YouTube video calling for the arrest of Snyder.[421]
Prominent figures
Michael Moore, a Genesee County native and director-producer of several movies related to Flint, called for Snyder's arrest for mishandling the water crisis in an open letter to the governor, writing, "The facts are all there, Mr. Snyder. Every agency involved in this scheme reported directly to you. The children of Flint didn't have a choice as to whether or not they were going to get to drink clean water." A spokesman for the governor called Moore's call "inflammatory".[422][423] Later, after hearing of the Legionnaires' outbreak, Moore termed the state's actions "murder".[424] Speaking to reporters in Flint, he emphasized that "this was not a mistake ... Ten people have been killed here because of a political decision. They did this. They knew."[425] Moore also criticized Barack Obama's trip to Flint, where he drank water, "disappointing."[426]
In a post on her Facebook page, environmental activist Erin Brockovich called the water crisis a "growing national concern" and said that the crisis was "likely" connected to the Legionnaires' disease outbreak. Brockovich called for the U.S. Environment Protection Agency to become involved in the investigation, saying that the EPA's "continued silence has proven deadly."[424]
On January 16, 2016, the Reverend Jesse Jackson met with Mayor Weaver in Flint and said of the crisis, "The issue of water and air and housing and education and violence are all combined. The problem here obviously is more than just lack of drinkable water. We know the problems here and they will be addressed."[427] Jackson called Flint "a disaster zone" and a "crime scene" during a rally at a Flint church the next day.[428] Jackson, in conjunction with the group Concerned Pastors for Social Action, held a major national march in Flint on February 19 to address the water issue, as well as inner city violence and urban reconstruction.[429]
On January 18, Nontombi Naomi Tutu, daughter of Desmond Tutu, said in a speech at the University of Michigan–Flint, "We actually needed the people of Flint to remind the people of this country what happens when political expediency, when financial concerns, overshadow justice and humanity."[430]
On January 24, actor and clean drinking water advocate Matt Damon called for Snyder's resignation.[431]
On March 7, actor Mark Ruffalo, head of the group Water Defense, visited Flint and called for more federal aid in the emergency and Snyder's resignation while saying, "It's an absolute outrage, it's a moral indecency."[432] Water Defense conducted studies on Flint water in the spring of 2016, claiming it is still unsafe for bathing or showering. Their findings were disputed by Virginia Tech water expert Marc Edwards on May 31, 2016.[433]
In the third episode of the Adult Swim comedy series Million Dollar Extreme Presents: World Peace, Charles Carroll (member of the group of YouTube comedians "Million Dollar Extreme") delivers a monologue where he describes how viewers can recreate the contaminated water in Flint. In his monologue, the right wing-leaning Carroll discusses the concept of tyrannicide with costars Sam Hyde and Andrew Ruse and claims that the situation in Flint is a situation where the violent murder of Republican leadership in the state of Michigan would be justified.[434]
On April 28, 2018, Michelle Wolf was the featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents' Dinner. Wolf's last line in her speech was "Flint still doesn't have clean water", referring to the by then long-running man-made water crisis in the city of Flint, Michigan.[435]
Education and research
During its winter 2016 semester, the University of Michigan–Flint offered a one-credit, eight-session series of public forums dedicated to educating Flint residents and students on the crisis.[436]
The University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) committed to spending $100,000 to research the crisis and possible ways to address it.[437]
Wayne State University in Detroit is leading a separate study with five other schools focusing on the Legionnaires' outbreak called the Flint Area Community Health and Environment Partnership.[438] On October 9, 2017 they released their preliminary analysis, which showed approximately 10 percent of all homes on the Flint municipal water system had chlorine levels less than 0.2 mg/L when measured at the kitchen faucet (bypassing filters when present) after five minutes of flushing.[439]
On August 7, 2017, West Virginia University published a study validating the correlation between the intake of lead contaminated water and the increase of fetal deaths along with miscarriages during November 2013 to March 2015.[440] The study was led jointly by Daniel Grossman of West Virginia University and David Slusky of the University of Kansas. The data was constructed over the course of two years focusing on the city of Flint and how the data differs among neighboring cites in Michigan. Data shows that after the city switched the water source to the Flint River, fetal deaths rose 58% among women aged 15–49 compared to control areas.
William Paterson University/University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Study
On November 6, 2017 a retrospective cohort study was published in the Journal of Public Health Policy regarding birth weight outcomes in Flint in the early stages of the water crisis.[441] The study was completed using birth data from 2005 to 2015 to assess the birth weights of infants born before and after the Flint, Michigan, water supply was changed. Low birth weight was defined as a birth weight less than 2,500 grams. Beginning with January 2014 conception dates, the Flint, Michigan, population saw the incidence of low birth weight infants increase from 13.3% to 15.7%.[441] Further analysis, using other counties as controls with similar demographics during the same time period, were then assessed in order to prove these lower birth weights did not happen by chance.
Overall, birth weight in Flint was found to be 48.9 grams less than the control group with a statistically significant 1.53% increase in incidences of low birth weight.[441] The study also analyzed the effects of race in regards to changes in birth weights. White mothers saw a 71-gram reduction in birth weight, resulting in a 2.73% increase in low birth weight infants. There were not any statistically meaningful differences among African American infants. There were likely not enough control counties to properly assess African American birth weights separately. The main limitation of the study was that infants of Flint were compared to infants of other counties. Also, the birth weights after the climax of the crisis were not assessed to see if they bounced back to pre-crisis weights. Increased lead consumption and stress were hypothesized to be reasons behind the increase in low birth weights, but there were likely many additional confounding factors.[441]
Wayne State University, Department of Communication Study
In a study published in the journal Communication Studies, researchers conducted a survey on the crisis communications methods used during the Flint water contamination by looking at media use between different racial groups. The results were accordant with past research, where racial minorities generally utilized more interpersonal and social connections as informational resources in comparison to their white counterparts.[442] Additionally, the study found that "In almost every category pertaining to health effects and other topics related to the Flint water crisis, African American respondents wanted additional information at higher levels than White respondents."[442] Lastly, researchers found that Instagram was widely used by African-American residents to receive crisis information.[442] The results from this study can further inform government agencies on how to effectively communicate with African-American communities, and use new social media platforms like Instagram to disperse important crisis information.
Other possible causes and responses
The crisis highlighted a lack of transparency in Michigan government; the state is one of just two states that exempts the governor's office from state freedom-of-information legislation.[443] A number of commentators framed the crisis in terms of human rights, writing that authorities' handling of the issue denied residents their right to clean water.[193][444]
Some have framed it as the end result of austerity measures and given priority over human life.[445][446][447] Jacob Lederman, for example, contends that Flint's poisoned water supply, in addition to high crime rates, devastated schools and crumbling infrastructure, can be attributed to neoliberal economic reforms.[448]
Robby Soave, writing in Reason magazine, said that administrative bloat in public-sector trade unions was to blame for the crisis: "Let's not forget the reason why local authorities felt the need to find a cheaper water source: Flint is broke and its desperately poor citizens can't afford higher taxes to pay the pensions of city government retirees. As recently as 2011, it would have cost every person in Flint $10,000 each to cover the unfunded legacy costs of the city's public employees."[449] "Flint was a government-made disaster from top to bottom. Private companies didn't run the system or profit from it," Shikha Dalmia wrote in Reason magazine.[450]
The crisis brought the National Water Infrastructure Conference to Flint in early March 2017. Michigan Governor Rick Snyder and Flint Mayor Karen Weaver spoke on the first day.[451] Marc Edwards spoke there two days later.[452]
On April 20, 2017 Stephen Estes-Smargiassi, director of planning and sustainability at the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, told a forum on lead water contamination at the Harvard School of Public Health that a chain-reaction of failures, including those by the financial managers, allowed the water crisis to develop as long as it did. He stated "What happened in Flint? Well, a firestorm of things that went wrong. (Flint) changed (its) source water, didn't do a good job on corrosion control in their treatment", and added "They had, about half of the homes had lead service lines. Money was more important to the emergency manager than people were. That's pretty clear from the evidence," and later went on to say, "State regulators could have picked up on this, but fell down on the job, maybe worse than that. We'll see what happens to those who were indicted. And the federal regulators could have picked up the problem, but didn't until quite late. All of those things, that firestorm of events, resulted in really awful water quality."[453]
Prevención
Failed infrastructure and economic decline resulted in the toxic levels of lead in the city's water supply.[454] A corrosive water source was introduced "into an aging water system without adequate corrosion control."[8]
Per Larry Clark, Sustainable Performance Solutions LLC, consulting professionals such as "professional engineers, licensed plumbers, or water-treatment specialists" could have had a positive impact on the outcome.[455] In addition to professional consultation, EPA reform would help prevent another Flint water crisis. Current water-testing techniques can underestimate water lead levels because sampling is sometimes concentrated on neighborhoods with known low lead levels or lead-free pipes.[455] EPA reform could enforce rules that "ensure that all cities get an early warning when lead levels rise to the danger point.", said Jeff Ruch, executive director of Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER).[455]
Upholding the Clean Water Act passed in 1972 would have prevented an outbreak of lead poisoning in Flint. This act "established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into the waters of the United States".[456] The EPA has also updated its standards and created six goals for improving the drinking water of the nation. This plan was created in November 2016 to decrease the amount of pollution in water.[457]
Using point-of-use (POU) devices could prevent lead exposure. A study at the University of Arizona, Tucson used the Flint, Michigan water crisis to illustrate the economic benefits of utilizing three specific POU devices, which included reverse osmosis, activated carbon, and distillation.[458] Many factors such as "POU device costs, lead absorption from water, and economic losses associated with reduced IQ" were taken into account to determine the cost-benefit of each device. The study found that the water lead level breakeven points for reverse osmosis, activated carbon, and distillation were 7.31 µg/L, 3.73 µg/L, and 12.0 µg/L, respectively.[458] The cost-benefit was analyzed as a 70-year (lifetime) duration, which is much longer than the Flint water crisis, but these POU devices could still serve to be a valuable tool in preventing the consumption of water-soluble lead in the future.
Using predictive models could be another invaluable way to help prevent another crisis like the one in Flint. Many municipalities across the country have outdated or incomplete records on their water service line materials, and governments have finite resources to identify and fix the problem of lead lines. In Flint, it is clear that a data-driven approach allowed public money to be spent more efficiently in ways that directly align with public health protection. Because the public (utility-owned) portion of service lines is buried under roads and sidewalks, it is expensive to verify pipe materials. Depending on the verification method, it can range from a few hundred dollars to a few thousand dollars per home. Flint spent more than $20 million on unnecessary excavations when it ignored model predictions in 2018, instead of targeting homes with the highest likelihood of having a lead service line.[459] This could have been largely avoided with the continued use of the machine learning model developed in 2016.
Impacto indirecto en la salud mental
As the water crisis unfolded, residents experienced considerable anxiety over the physical and mental health impacts of lead poisoning on both adults and children, stress, and anger and political leaders. Some adults felt guilty about giving children contaminated water, and in some cases family members stopped visiting. Some residents related the water crisis to depression and even thoughts of suicide; some sought treatment for mental breakdowns. The state government gave a $500,000 grant to the Genesee Health System for free counseling in addition to sending state mobile crisis teams and expanding Medicaid programs for affected residents. Volunteer social workers arrived from across the state, and the United States Public Health Service offered training.[460]
A study from the University of Michigan provided evidence that demonstrated an association between the Flint water crisis and sleep conditions.[461] Surveys were offered at every opportunity, including by mail, email, social media, and in-person events to as many Flint, Michigan residents as possible. 834 respondents from September 30, 2015 to September 28, 2016 were included in the analysis. In the survey, respondents had to rate the quality of their tap water (taste, smell, appearance), rate the quality of their sleep, list the duration of sleep in a typical night, and fill out basic demographics. The study found that a lower perceived quality of tap water was associated with lower sleep quality and a shorter duration of sleep.[461]
Donaciones de agua y dinero
People
- Celebrity donations include the singers Cher and Bruno Mars, rapper Meek Mill, comedians Dave Chappelle and Jimmy Fallon, and many others have made high-profile donations to assist Flint.[462][463][464][465][466]
- A group made up of actor Mark Wahlberg and rappers Sean Combs, Eminem, and Wiz Khalifa donated 1 million bottles of water to Flint.[467][468][469]
- Singer Aretha Franklin said she would provide hotel rooms and food for 25–50 Flint residents.[470]
- Detroit Lions defensive end Ziggy Ansah donated 94,000 bottles to Flint,[471]
- Singer Madonna (a native of nearby Bay City) donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[472]
- Singer Kem donated $10,000 to the Salvation Army of Genesee County.[473]
- Rapper The Game donated $1,000,000 in water bottles to Flint.[474]
- Craigslist founder Craig Newmark donated $50,000 and 25,000 cases of water to the United Way of Southeastern Michigan.[475]
- NFL player and Flint native Brandon Carr donated $100,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint and $10,000 to the Safe Water Safe Homes Fund.[476]
- Mari Copeny,[477] also known as Little Miss Flint,[478] launched a t-shirt fundraiser that says 'Don't Forget Flint' to raise money for events and programs that benefit kids impacted by the water crisis in Flint. To date, she has raised over $125,000.[479]
- Actor and rapper Jaden Smith introduced a portable water filtration system called the Water Box to Flint in 2019.[480]
Companies and organizations
- As of September 8, 2017, the Ruth Mott Foundation and the Community Foundation of Greater Flint had directed a combined $33,480,494 to various programs to aid both children and adults affected by Flint's water crisis.[481]
- Support has also come from companies, including Detroit-based Faygo, grocer Meijer, the Dow Chemical Company of nearby Midland, and Ball Corporation, among many others.[482][483][484][485]
- The United Auto Workers union donated drinking water to Flint via a caravan of trucks to local food banks, and an AmeriCorps team announced that it would deploy to Flint to assist in response efforts.[486]
- The Windsor Spitfires donated 40,000 bottles of water, and the Sarnia Sting donated 15,000 bottles of water.[487]
- The Little River Band of Ottawa Indians donated $10,000 to the Genesee County Sheriff's Department.[488]
- Terrance Knighton and his Washington Redskins teammates donated 3,600 bottles of water to Flint's Catholic Charities USA.[489]
- Rock band Pearl Jam and a large group of musicians donated $300,000 to the United Way of Genesee County, and started a CrowdRise fundraiser for donations from its fans.[490]
- In January 2016, fundraising website GoFundMe promised to donate an additional $10,000 to the fund of the winner of a contest between groups trying to raise money for Flint.[491]
- Anheuser-Busch donated 51,744 cans of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.[492]
- The Detroit Pistons donated $500,000 to the United Way of Genesee County from their FlintNOW fundraising campaign from the previous night's game.[493]
- Walmart, The Coca-Cola Company, Nestlé and PepsiCo announced that they would collectively donate a total of 176 truckloads of water (up to 6.5 million bottles) through the end of 2016.[494][495]
- FedEx, along with the city of Memphis, Tennessee donated 12,000 bottles of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.[496]
- A group of nine banks collectively donated $600,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[497]
- The Michigan State Medical Society donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[498]
- The LaPorte County, Indiana Sheriff's Office donated 2,300 cases of water to a church in Flint.[499]
- The Northwest Indiana Truck Club donated 3,500 cases of water to Flint.[500]
- The police fraternity Brothers Before Others donated 330 cases of water bottles, 361 one-US-gallon (3.8 l) water jugs and $1,000 to the Flint Police Department.[501]
- The charity Resources Unite of Dubuque, Iowa collected 300,000 bottles of water for Flint.[502]
- A group of students from Ohio State University donated 10,000 pounds of water to Flint's Catholic Charities USA.[503]
- Amtrak donated 30,000 bottles of water to Flint.[504]
- Consumers Energy, the area's gas and electricity provider, has donated $50,000 during the crisis ($25,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint and $25,000 to the United Way of Genesee County), and its employees are delivering water to Flint homes. It is also matching donations from employees and retirees, up to $25,000.[505]
- The Michigan Masonic Charitable Foundation donated $100,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[506]
- The Dr Pepper Snapple Group donated 41,000 bottles of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.[507]
- Platinum Equity's FlintNOW Foundation, in conjunction with Huntington Bank, started a $25 million economic development program to loan aid money to Flint businesses affected by the water crisis.[508]
- Two prisons in Northern Michigan donated 29,000 bottles of water to the Genesee Intermediate School District.[509]
- The Kresge Foundation donated $2 million to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[510]
Religious organizations
- Tabernacle Baptist Church in Knoxville, Tennessee, donated 70,000 pounds of water to Flint.[511]
- The United Church of Christ and the Disciples of Christ, two Flint-area Protestant denominations, worked together to launch a water distribution effort.[512]
- Flint Jewish Federation worked in partnership with the American Red Cross to help get clean water to homes.[512]
- In January 2016, Muslim organizations, including Who is Hussain, Life for Relief and Development, Islamic Relief USA, and the Michigan Muslim Community Council, donated and distributed thousands of bottles of water to Flint-area residents.[512] By May, Michigan's Muslim community had donated around one million bottles of water to Flint-area residents.[513][514]
Fundraising events
- Comedians George Lopez, Eddie Griffin, Cedric the Entertainer, Charlie Murphy, and D. L. Hughley performed stand-up comedy in Flint's Dort Federal Credit Union Event Center as part of The Comedy Get Down Tour, with the proceeds to go to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[515]
- $50,000 was raised at the Meridian Winter Festival in Detroit was donated to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[516]
- On February 28, 2016, coinciding with the 88th Academy Awards ceremony, Creed director Ryan Coogler and Selma director Ava DuVernay held a charity event at the Whiting Auditorium in Flint. The event, titled #JusticeForFlint, was live-streamed by Sean Combs' Revolt.tv network. Hosted by comedian Hannibal Buress, it featured singers Janelle Monáe and Ledisi, as well as actor-activists Jesse Williams and Jussie Smollett, among others.[517] The event raised $156,000.[518]
- A telethon led by Detroit TV station WDIV and simulcast on Michigan's other NBC affiliates raised $566,982 for the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.[519] Detroit Pistons owner and Flint native Tom Gores matched the amount, doubling the amount raised to $1,133,964.[520]
- A benefit concert to support children affected by the crisis presented by Flint country music station Nash FM 95.1 featuring Granger Smith and Tegan Marie was held at the Dort Federal Center in Flint on April 7, with the proceeds going to Hurley's Children Hospital.[521]
- A charity celebrity basketball game called Hoop 4 Water featuring former Michigan State Spartans players Morris Peterson (from Flint), Zach Randolph and Jason Richardson, Coach Tom Izzo, and rapper Snoop Dogg was played in Flint on May 22.[522] Izzo and Snoop Dogg agreed to return to Flint for the same event in 2017, along with other celebrities, held on May 20.[523]
- Fight for Flint was a boxing fundraiser at Flint's Dort Federal Event Center featuring Tommy "The Hitman" Hearns, along with brothers Andre Dirrell and Anthony Dirrell; Mike Hernandez, Troy Albrine Jr., Rakim Johnson; and female boxers Jackie Kallen, Fatuma Zarika and Alicia Ashley. It was sponsored by Don Elbaum Promotions and the Catholic Charities of Shiawassee and Genesee Counties.[524]
- A fundraiser called Fashion For Flint held in late January 2017 helped raise money to purchase 10,000 bottles of water.[525]
En la cultura popular
- Flint (2017) - A television film based on the crisis starring Queen Latifah, Betsy Brandt, Jill Scott, Marin Ireland and Rob Morrow.[526]
- Flint (2018) - A theatrical production[527]
Documentaries
- Lead and Copper (2017)[528]
- Here's to Flint 2016 - American Civil Liberties Union[529]
- Murky Waters of Flint. How a whole city was poisoned (2016) - RT Documentary[530]
- Failure In Flint: The Crisis Continues (2017) - WDIV-TV in Detroit[531]
- Poisoned Water (2017) - PBS show Nova[532]
- Flint Town (2018) - Netflix[533]
- Fahrenheit 11/9 (2018) - Michael Moore documentary
- Flint's Deadly Water (2019) - PBS's Frontline[534]
- Flint: The Poisoning of an American City[535]
Books
- Poison on Tap (2016)[536]
- What the Eyes Don't See: A Story of Crisis, Resistance, and Hope in an American City (2018)[537][538]
Music
- "Near DT, MI" (2019) - Black Midi
- "Fresh Water for Flint" (2016) - Jon Connor[539][540]
- "We Gotta Help Ourselves" - King 810[541][542]
- "But a Flint Holds Fire" (2016) - choral song performed by children's choirs[543]
- "Parts per Million" (2017) - Rise Against
Ver también
- Drinking water quality in the United States
- Environmental racism
- Lead poisoning
- Lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water
- Pittsburgh water crisis
- Newark water crisis in schools
- Hinkley groundwater contamination
- 1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidiosis outbreak
- Toxic hotspots
- Water treatment
- Water pollution
Referencias
- ^ a b c d Kennedy, Merrit (April 20, 2016). "Lead-Laced Water In Flint: A Step-By-Step Look At The Makings Of A Crisis". NPR.org. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
- ^ a b c Roberston, Derek (December 23, 2020). "Flint Has Clean Water Now. Why Won't People Drink It?". Politco. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
In a city synonymous for half a decade with disaster, something remarkable happened in February 2019. A team of researchers reported that Flint’s homes—even the ones at the highest risk for undrinkable, lead-poisoned tap water—finally had clean water running through their pipes.
- ^ a b Fonger, Ron (February 18, 2019). "Independent tests in Flint reveal water is well below action levels, match city results". The Flint Journal. Retrieved July 25, 2020 – via MLive.com.
- ^ a b c Keller, Andrew (January 18, 2016). "United Way estimates cost of helping children $100M". WNEM-TV. Archived from the original on February 3, 2016. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
- ^ a b "AG looks to settle Flint suits; Worthy joins criminal probe". WNEM-TV. February 21, 2019. Archived from the original on February 22, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
- ^ a b "Former state health worker sentenced to probation in Flint water crisis". WJRT-TV. March 13, 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-03-13. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
- ^ Clearfield, Chris; Tilcsik, András (2018). Meltdown: Why Our Systems Fail and What We Can Do About It. New York: Penguin Press. pp. 121–128. ISBN 978-0-7352-2263-2.
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- ^ a b "The Virginia Tech Research Team". Flintwaterstudy.org. 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
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- ^ a b Goodin-Smith, Oona (November 22, 2017). "Flint council votes yes on 30-year water contract with GLWA". The Flint Journal. Retrieved July 25, 2020 – via MLive.com.
- ^ "President Obama Signs Michigan Emergency Declaration". whitehouse.gov (Official White House press release). January 16, 2016. Retrieved January 16, 2016 – via National Archives.
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- ^ Smith, Anya F.; Huss, Anke; Dorevitch, Samuel; Heijnen, Leo; Arntzen, Vera H.; Davies, Megan; Robert-Du Ry van Beest Holle, Mirna; Fujita, Yuki; Verschoor, Antonie M.; Raterman, Bernard; Oesterholt, Frank (December 2019). "Multiple Sources of the Outbreak of Legionnaires' Disease in Genesee County, Michigan, in 2014 and 2015". Environmental Health Perspectives. 127 (12): 127001. doi:10.1289/EHP5663. ISSN 1552-9924. PMC 6957290. PMID 31799878.
- ^ a b Fonger, Ron (December 20, 2016). "Two former Flint emergency managers charged with water crisis crimes". The Flint Journal. Retrieved July 25, 2020 – via MLive.com.
- ^ a b c d e Madrigal, Alexis C. (2019-01-03). "How a Feel-Good AI Story Went Wrong in Flint". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-04-10.
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- ^ Fleming, Leonard N. (December 4, 2018). "Flint: Water line replacement won't be done till 2019". The Detroit News. Retrieved December 6, 2018.
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- ^ a b "Service Line Replacement Program". City of Flint. Retrieved 2020-10-02.
- ^ Officials: Flint makes progress toward ending water crisis The Detroit News, December 8, 2020
- ^ "Youngest Flint water crisis victims to get 80 percent of historic $600 million settlement". The Flint Journal. August 20, 2020 – via MLive.com.
- ^ Proposed Flint $641M water crisis settlement includes 30 claim process categories The Flint Journal via MLive.com, November 18, 2020
- ^ "Nine Michigan Leaders Face Charges in Water Crisis that Roiled Flint". New York Times. January 14, 2021. Retrieved January 14, 2021.
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- ^ Ridley, Gary (January 22, 2016). "Powers returned to Flint mayor, no staffing changes announced". The Flint Journal. Retrieved July 25, 2020 – via MLive.
- ^ Adams, Dominic (April 25, 2014). "Closing the valve on history: Flint cuts water flow from Detroit after nearly 50 years". The Flint Journal. Retrieved November 13, 2017 – via MLive.com.
Detroit terminated its contract with the city effective April 17 last year when Flint decided to purchase water through the KWA.
- ^ a b "Gov. Rick Snyder needs to do more than just apologize for Flint water crisis". MLive.com. December 31, 2015. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
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- ^ a b "Federal Court Orders Bottled Water Delivery for Flint Residents". Natural Resources Defense Council. November 10, 2016. Retrieved 2020-04-10.
- ^ Seipenko, Jeff (December 19, 2016). "Investigator's Report" (PDF). State of Michigan. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
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- ^ Oosting, Jonathan (February 13, 2017). "Flint urging state to reverse water bill credit cutoff". The Detroit News. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
- ^ a b Fonger, Ron (February 16, 2017). "CDC finds first genetic link between Legionnaires' outbreak, Flint water". MLive.com. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
- ^ Carmody, Steve (February 20, 2017). "It's unclear how much longer the state will distribute bottled water in Flint". Michigan Radio. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
- ^ Kennedy, Merrit (March 1, 2017). "Michigan Ends Water Subsidies To Flint Despite Mayor's Opposition". NPR. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
- ^ Royce, Jessica (March 17, 2017). "Flint Mayor to meet with President during MI trip". WNEM-TV. Archived from the original on 2017-03-16. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
- ^ a b Fonger, Ron (March 16, 2017). "Gov. Snyder creates child lead exposure commission". The Flint Journal. Retrieved July 25, 2020 – via MLive.com.
- ^ Kennedy, Merrit (March 28, 2017). "Judge Approves $97 Million Settlement To Replace Flint's Water Lines". NPR. Retrieved March 30, 2017.
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- ^ DePaolo, Joe (April 21, 2017). "Police Arrest Six at Flint Water Crisis Town Hall". Mediaite.com. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
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Otras lecturas
- Poison on Tap: How Government Failed Flint, and the Heroes Who Fought Back. Traverse City, Michigan: Mission Point Press. June 1, 2016. ISBN 978-1-9439-9508-0.
- Venkataraman, Bhawani (2018). "The Paradox of Water and the Flint Crisis". Environment. No. January/February. Archived from the original on March 8, 2018.
- Hanna-Attisha, Mona (June 19, 2018). What the Eyes Don't See: A Story of Crisis, Resistance, and Hope in an American City. New York: One World (Random House). ISBN 978-0-3995-9083-2.
- Clark, Anna (July 10, 2018). The Poisoned City: Flint's Water and the American Urban Tragedy. New York: Metropolitan Books (Henry Holt and Company). ISBN 978-1-250-12514-9.
- Cooper, Candy J.; Aronson, Marc (May 19, 2020). Poisoned Water: How the Citizens of Flint, Michigan, Fought for Their Lives and Warned the Nation. New York: Bloomsbury Children's Books. ISBN 978-1-5476-0232-2.
- Hughes, Sara (13 July 2020). "Flint, Michigan, and the Politics of Safe Drinking Water in the United States". Perspectives on Politics: 1–14. doi:10.1017/S153759272000136X.
- "Taking Action on Flint Water". Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
- "EPA documents related to Flint drinking water". United States Environmental Protection Agency.
- "Flintwaterstudy.org". The official website of Marc Edwards' Virginia Tech Research Team, which investigated the lead contamination of Flint water.
- "Articles on the Flint water crisis found using search terms flint water crisis lead ". MLive.com.
- "Articles on Flint water crisis found using search terms flint water crisis lead ". Detroit Free Press.
- "Articles on Flint water crisis found using search terms flint water crisis lead ". CNN.
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