La campaña de Gallipoli [a] fue una campaña militar en la Primera Guerra Mundial que tuvo lugar en la península de Gallipoli ( Gelibolu en la Turquía moderna), del 17 de febrero de 1915 al 9 de enero de 1916. Las potencias de la Entente , Gran Bretaña , Francia y Rusia , buscaron debilitar al Imperio Otomano , una de las potencias centrales , tomando el control del estrecho turco . Esto expondría la capital otomana en Constantinopla.al bombardeo de los acorazados aliados y aislarlo de la parte asiática del imperio. Con Turquía derrotada, el canal de Suez estaría a salvo y se podría abrir una ruta de suministro aliada durante todo el año a través del Mar Negro hacia puertos de agua caliente en Rusia.
Campaña de Gallipoli | |||||||
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Parte del teatro de Oriente Medio de la Primera Guerra Mundial | |||||||
Una colección de fotografías de la campaña. De arriba a abajo y de izquierda a derecha: comandantes otomanos, incluido Mustafa Kemal (cuarto desde la izquierda); Buques de guerra aliados; V Beach desde la cubierta del SS River Clyde ; Soldados otomanos en una trinchera; y posiciones aliadas | |||||||
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Beligerantes | |||||||
Apoyado por: Imperio Ruso | Imperio Otomano Apoyado por: Imperio Alemán [1] [2] Austria-Hungría [3] | ||||||
Comandantes y líderes | |||||||
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Unidades involucradas | |||||||
Fuerza Expedicionaria del Mediterráneo Cuerpo de Trabajo Egipcio [5] Cuerpo de Trabajo de Malta [5] Cuerpo Expedicionario Oriental | Quinta Misión Militar del Ejército [6] | ||||||
Fuerza | |||||||
5 divisiones (inicial)
Apoyado por | 6 divisiones (inicial)
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Bajas y perdidas | |||||||
Imperio Británico: Total: 300.000 (51.000 muertos) [11] | Imperio Otomano: Total: 255.268 (56.643 muertos) [7] [12] |
El intento de la flota aliada de forzar los Dardanelos en febrero de 1915 fracasó y fue seguido por un desembarco anfibio en la península de Gallipoli en abril de 1915. En enero de 1916, después de ocho meses de combates, con aproximadamente 250.000 bajas en cada bando, se abandonó la campaña terrestre. y la fuerza de invasión se retiró. Fue una derrota costosa para los poderes de la Entente y para los patrocinadores, especialmente el Primer Lord del Almirantazgo (1911-1915), Winston Churchill . La campaña se consideró una gran victoria otomana . En Turquía, se considera un momento decisivo en la historia del estado, una oleada final en la defensa de la patria cuando el Imperio Otomano se retiró. La lucha formó la base para la Guerra de Independencia de Turquía y la declaración de la República de Turquía ocho años después, con Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , quien saltó a la fama como comandante en Gallipoli, como fundador y presidente .
A menudo se considera que la campaña es el comienzo de la conciencia nacional de Australia y Nueva Zelanda ; El 25 de abril, aniversario del desembarco, se conoce como el Día de Anzac , la conmemoración más significativa de bajas militares y veteranos en los dos países, superando el Día del Recuerdo ( Día del Armisticio ). [13] [14] [15]
Fondo
El 29 de octubre de 1914, dos antiguos buques de guerra alemanes, el otomano Yavûz Sultân Selîm y Midilli , aún bajo el mando de oficiales alemanes, llevaron a cabo el Black Sea Raid , en el que bombardearon el puerto ruso de Odessa y hundieron varios barcos. [16] El 31 de octubre, los otomanos entraron en guerra y comenzaron la campaña del Cáucaso contra Rusia. Los británicos bombardearon brevemente fuertes en Gallipoli, invadieron Mesopotamia y estudiaron la posibilidad de forzar los Dardanelos. [17] [18]
Estrategia aliada y los Dardanelos
Antes de que se concibiera la operación de los Dardanelos, los británicos habían planeado llevar a cabo una invasión anfibia cerca de Alexandretta en el Mediterráneo, una idea presentada originalmente por Boghos Nubar en 1914. [19] Este plan fue desarrollado por el Secretario de Estado para la Guerra , el mariscal de campo Earl Kitchener para separar la capital de Siria, Palestina y Egipto. Alexandretta era un área con una población cristiana y era el centro estratégico de la red ferroviaria del Imperio; su captura habría partido al imperio en dos. El vicealmirante Sir Richard Peirse , comandante en jefe de las Indias Orientales , ordenó al capitán Frank Larkin del HMS Doris que fuera a Alexandretta el 13 de diciembre de 1914. El crucero ruso Askold y el crucero francés Requin también estaban allí. Kitchener estaba trabajando en el plan hasta marzo de 1915 y fue el comienzo del intento británico de incitar una revuelta árabe . El desembarco de Alexandretta fue abandonado porque militarmente habría requerido más recursos de los que Francia podía asignar y políticamente Francia no quería que los británicos operaran en su esfera de influencia, una posición a la que Gran Bretaña había aceptado en 1912. [20]
A finales de 1914, en el frente occidental , la contraofensiva franco-británica de la Primera Batalla del Marne había terminado y los belgas, británicos y franceses habían sufrido muchas bajas en la Primera Batalla de Ypres en Flandes. La guerra de maniobras había terminado y había sido reemplazada por la guerra de trincheras . [21] El Imperio Alemán y Austria-Hungría cerraron las rutas comerciales terrestres entre Gran Bretaña y Francia en el oeste y Rusia en el este. El Mar Blanco en el norte ártico y el Mar de Okhotsk en el Lejano Oriente estaban cubiertos de hielo en invierno y distantes del Frente Oriental ; el Mar Báltico fue bloqueado por la Kaiserliche Marine (Armada Imperial Alemana) y la entrada al Mar Negro a través de los Dardanelos estaba controlada por el Imperio Otomano. [22] Si bien los otomanos permanecieron neutrales, aún se podían enviar suministros a Rusia a través de los Dardanelos, pero antes de la entrada otomana en la guerra, el estrecho se había cerrado; en noviembre, los otomanos comenzaron a explotar la vía fluvial. [23] [24]
El ministro de Justicia francés, Aristide Briand , propuso en noviembre atacar el Imperio Otomano, pero esto fue rechazado y un intento de los británicos de sobornar a los otomanos para que se unieran al bando aliado también fracasó. [25] Más tarde ese mes, Winston Churchill , Primer Lord del Almirantazgo , propuso un ataque naval a los Dardanelos, basado en parte en informes erróneos de la fuerza de las tropas otomanas. Churchill quería utilizar una gran cantidad de acorazados obsoletos, que no podían operar contra la Flota de Alta Mar alemana , en una operación de Dardanelos, con una pequeña fuerza de ocupación proporcionada por el ejército. Se esperaba que un ataque a los otomanos también atrajera a Bulgaria y Grecia (anteriormente posesiones otomanas) a la guerra en el bando aliado. [26] El 2 de enero de 1915, el gran duque Nicolás de Rusia pidió ayuda a Gran Bretaña contra los otomanos, que estaban llevando a cabo la campaña del Cáucaso. [27] Se inició la planificación de una manifestación naval en los Dardanelos, para desviar a las tropas otomanas del Cáucaso. [28]
Intento de forzar el estrecho
El 17 de febrero de 1915, un hidroavión británico del HMS Ark Royal realizó una incursión de reconocimiento sobre el Estrecho. [29] Dos días más tarde, el primer ataque a los Dardanelos comenzó cuando un fuerte grupo de trabajo anglo-francés, incluido el acorazado británico HMS Queen Elizabeth , comenzó un bombardeo de largo alcance de las baterías de artillería costera otomanas . Los británicos tenían la intención de usar ocho aviones de Ark Royal para detectar el bombardeo, pero las duras condiciones hicieron que todos menos uno, un Short Type 136 , fueran inservibles. [30] Un período de mal tiempo ralentizó la fase inicial, pero para el 25 de febrero los fuertes exteriores se habían reducido y la entrada despejada de minas. [31] Después de esto, los Royal Marines fueron desembarcados para destruir armas en Kum Kale y Seddülbahir, mientras que el bombardeo naval pasó a las baterías entre Kum Kale y Kephez . [32]
Frustrado por la movilidad de las baterías otomanas, que eludieron los bombardeos aliados y amenazaron a los dragaminas enviados para limpiar el Estrecho, Churchill comenzó a presionar al comandante naval, el almirante Sackville Carden , para que aumentara los esfuerzos de la flota. [33] Carden elaboró nuevos planes y el 4 de marzo envió un cable a Churchill, indicando que la flota podía llegar a Estambul en 14 días. [34] La sensación de victoria inminente se vio reforzada por la interceptación de un mensaje inalámbrico alemán que reveló que los fuertes otomanos de los Dardanelos se estaban quedando sin municiones. [34] Cuando se transmitió el mensaje a Carden, se acordó que el ataque principal se lanzaría alrededor del 17 de marzo. Carden, que sufría de estrés, fue incluido en la lista de enfermos por el médico y el mando fue asumido por el almirante John de Robeck . [35]
18 de marzo de 1915
En la mañana del 18 de marzo de 1915, la flota aliada, compuesta por 18 acorazados con una serie de cruceros y destructores, comenzó el ataque principal contra el punto más estrecho de los Dardanelos, donde los estrechos tienen 1 milla (1,6 km) de ancho. A pesar de algunos daños a los barcos aliados que se enfrentaron a los fuertes por el fuego de respuesta otomano, se ordenó a los dragaminas a lo largo del estrecho. En el relato oficial otomano, a las 2:00 pm "se cortaron todos los cables telefónicos, se interrumpieron todas las comunicaciones con los fuertes, algunos de los cañones se habían inutilizado ... en consecuencia, el fuego de artillería de la defensa se había debilitado considerablemente". [36] El acorazado francés Bouvet chocó contra una mina, lo que hizo que volcara en dos minutos, con solo 75 supervivientes de una tripulación total de 718. [37] Los dragaminas, tripulados por civiles, se retiraron bajo el fuego de artillería otomana, dejando en gran parte los campos de minas. intacto. El HMS Irresistible y el HMS Inflexible golpearon minas y el Irresistible fue hundido, con la mayor parte de su tripulación superviviente rescatada; Inflexible fue gravemente dañado y retraído. Hubo confusión durante la batalla sobre la causa del daño; algunos participantes culparon a los torpedos. El HMS Ocean fue enviado a rescatar a Irresistible, pero quedó inutilizado por un proyectil de artillería, chocó contra una mina y fue evacuado, hundiéndose finalmente. [38]
Los acorazados franceses Suffren y Gaulois atravesaron una nueva línea de minas colocadas en secreto por el minero otomano Nusret diez días antes y también sufrieron daños. [39] Las pérdidas obligaron a De Robeck a hacer sonar el "retiro general" para proteger lo que quedaba de su fuerza. [40] Durante la planificación de la campaña, se habían anticipado pérdidas navales y se habían enviado principalmente acorazados obsoletos, no aptos para enfrentarse a la flota alemana. Algunos de los oficiales navales superiores, como el comandante de la reina Isabel , el comodoro Roger Keyes , sintieron que se habían acercado a la victoria, creyendo que los cañones otomanos casi se habían quedado sin municiones, pero las opiniones de De Robeck, el primer señor del mar Jackie Fisher. y otros prevalecieron. Los intentos de los aliados de forzar el estrecho utilizando el poder naval terminaron debido a las pérdidas y al mal tiempo. [40] [35] [41] Se inició la planificación para capturar las defensas turcas por tierra, para abrir el camino a los barcos. Dos submarinos aliados intentaron atravesar los Dardanelos, pero se perdieron debido a las minas y las fuertes corrientes. [42]
Preludio
Preparativos de desembarco aliados
Tras el fracaso de los ataques navales, se reunieron tropas para eliminar la artillería móvil otomana, que impedía que los dragaminas aliados abrieran el camino a los buques más grandes. Kitchener nombró al general Sir Ian Hamilton para comandar a los 78.000 hombres de la Fuerza Expedicionaria del Mediterráneo (MEF). [35] [43] Soldados de la Fuerza Imperial Australiana (AIF) y la Fuerza Expedicionaria de Nueva Zelanda (NZEF) estaban acampados en Egipto , recibiendo entrenamiento antes de ser enviados a Francia. [44] Las tropas de Australia y Nueva Zelanda se formaron en el Cuerpo de Ejército de Australia y Nueva Zelanda (ANZAC), comandado por el Teniente General Sir William Birdwood , que comprende la 1ª División de Australia voluntaria y la División de Nueva Zelanda y Australia . A las tropas de ANZAC se unieron la 29ª División regular y la Real División Naval . [29] El expéditionnaire d'Orient francés ( Cuerpo expedicionario de Oriente ), que inicialmente constaba de dos brigadas dentro de una división, fue posteriormente puesto bajo el mando de Hamilton. [45] [46] [47] [b]
Durante el mes siguiente, Hamilton preparó su plan y las divisiones británica y francesa se unieron a las australianas en Egipto. Hamilton decidió concentrarse en la parte sur de la península de Gallipoli en Cape Helles y Seddülbahir, donde se esperaba un aterrizaje sin oposición. [49] Los aliados inicialmente descartaron la capacidad de combate de los soldados otomanos. [50] La ingenuidad de los planificadores aliados fue ilustrada por un folleto que se envió a los británicos y australianos mientras aún estaban en Egipto.
Los soldados turcos, por regla general, manifiestan su deseo de rendirse sosteniendo la culata de su rifle hacia arriba y agitando ropa o trapos de cualquier color. Una bandera blanca real debe considerarse con la mayor sospecha, ya que es poco probable que un soldado turco posea algo de ese color. [51]
La subestimación del potencial militar otomano se debió a un "sentido de superioridad" entre los aliados, debido al declive del Imperio Otomano y su pobre desempeño en Libia durante la Guerra Italo-Turca de 1911-1912 y las Guerras Balcánicas de 1912 y 1913. La inteligencia aliada no se preparó adecuadamente para la campaña, en algunos casos basándose en la información obtenida de las guías de viaje egipcias. [52] [53] Las tropas para el asalto fueron cargadas en transportes en el orden en que debían desembarcar, lo que provocó un gran retraso que significó que muchas tropas, incluidos los franceses en Mudros , se vieron obligados a desviarse hacia Alejandría para embarcarse en los barcos. eso los llevaría a la batalla. [54] Siguió un retraso de cinco semanas hasta finales de abril, durante el cual los otomanos reforzaron sus defensas en la península; aunque el mal tiempo durante marzo y abril podría haber retrasado los desembarcos de todos modos, impidiendo el suministro y el refuerzo. [55] Tras los preparativos en Egipto, Hamilton y el personal de su cuartel general llegaron a Mudros el 10 de abril. [56] El Cuerpo ANZAC partió de Egipto a principios de abril y se reunió en la isla de Lemnos en Grecia el 12 de abril, donde se había establecido una pequeña guarnición a principios de marzo y se realizaron desembarcos de práctica. [55] La 29ª División británica partió hacia Mudros el 7 de abril y la División Naval Real ensayó en la isla de Skyros , después de llegar allí el 17 de abril. [57] Ese día, el submarino británico HMS E15 intentó atravesar el estrecho pero chocó contra una red submarina, encalló y fue bombardeado por un fuerte turco, matando a su comandante, el teniente comandante Theodore S. Brodie y seis de su tripulación; los supervivientes se vieron obligados a rendirse. [58] La flota aliada y las tropas británicas y francesas reunidas en Mudros, listas para el aterrizaje, pero el mal tiempo del 19 de marzo, dejaron en tierra los aviones aliados durante nueve días y en 24 días sólo fue posible un programa parcial de vuelos de reconocimiento. [59] [60]
Preparaciones defensivas otomanas
La fuerza otomana preparada para repeler un desembarco a ambos lados del Estrecho era el 5º Ejército . [61] Esta fuerza, que inicialmente constaba de cinco divisiones con otra en ruta, era una fuerza de reclutas, comandada por Otto Liman von Sanders . [29] [62] [63] Muchos de los oficiales superiores del 5.º Ejército también eran alemanes. [1] Los comandantes otomanos y los altos oficiales alemanes debatieron sobre los mejores medios para defender la península. Todos estuvieron de acuerdo en que la mejor defensa era mantener el terreno elevado en las crestas de la península. Hubo desacuerdo sobre dónde aterrizaría el enemigo y, por lo tanto, dónde concentrar las fuerzas. El teniente coronel Mustafa Kemal estaba familiarizado con la península de Gallipoli por sus operaciones contra Bulgaria en las guerras de los Balcanes y pronosticó que el cabo Helles (el extremo sur de la península) y Gaba Tepe eran las áreas probables de aterrizaje. [64] [65]
Mustafa Kemal creía que los británicos usarían su poder naval para dominar la tierra desde todos los lados en la punta de la península; en Gaba Tepe, la corta distancia a la costa este significaba que los aliados podían llegar fácilmente al Estrecho (la curva en ángulo recto en medio de los Dardanelos). [66] [67] Sanders consideraba que la bahía de Besika en la costa asiática era la más vulnerable a la invasión, ya que el terreno era más fácil de cruzar y conveniente para atacar las baterías otomanas más importantes que custodiaban el estrecho y un tercio del 5.º Ejército estaba reunidos allí. [68] Dos divisiones se concentraron en Bulair en el extremo norte de la península de Gallipoli, para proteger las líneas de suministro y comunicación a las defensas más abajo de la península. [69] La 19ª División (Kemal) y la 9ª División se colocaron a lo largo de la costa del Egeo y en el cabo Helles en la punta de la península. Sanders mantuvo en reserva la mayor parte de las fuerzas otomanas tierra adentro, dejando un mínimo de tropas vigilando la costa. [70] La 3ª División y una brigada de caballería llegaron de Estambul a principios de abril, llevando la fuerza de primera línea de los otomanos a 60.000-62.077 hombres, que Sanders concentró en tres grupos. Se ordenó un máximo esfuerzo para mejorar las comunicaciones terrestres y marítimas, para trasladar refuerzos rápidamente a los puntos de peligro; las tropas se movían por la noche para evitar el reconocimiento aéreo aliado. La estrategia de Sanders se opuso a los comandantes otomanos, incluido Kemal, que creía que los defensores estaban demasiado dispersos para derrotar la invasión en las playas. [71] Kemal pensó que la estrategia clásica de Sander era adecuada cuando había profundidad estratégica en el frente, pero Gallipoli no ofreció eso. Su comandante Esat Passa no fue lo suficientemente contundente al hacer la objeción. [72] [73] Sanders estaba seguro de que un sistema rígido de defensa fallaría y que la única esperanza de éxito residía en la movilidad de los tres grupos, particularmente la 19ª División cerca de Boghali, en reserva general, lista para trasladarse a Bulair. Gaba Tepe o la costa asiática. [74]
El tiempo que necesitaron los británicos para organizar los desembarcos significó que Sanders, el coronel Hans Kannengiesser y otros oficiales alemanes, apoyados por Esat Pasha ( III Cuerpo ) tuvieron más tiempo para preparar sus defensas. [29] Sanders señaló más tarde, "los británicos nos permitieron cuatro buenas semanas de respiro por todo este trabajo antes de su gran desembarco ... Este respiro fue suficiente para tomar las medidas más indispensables". [75] Se construyeron carreteras, se construyeron pequeñas embarcaciones para transportar tropas y equipo a través del Estrecho, se instalaron cables en las playas y se construyeron minas improvisadas a partir de ojivas de torpedos . Se cavaron trincheras y emplazamientos de armas a lo largo de las playas y las tropas emprendieron marchas de ruta para evitar el letargo. [75] Kemal, cuya 19ª División era vital para el plan defensivo, observó las playas y esperó señales de una invasión desde su puesto en Boghali, cerca de Maidos . [76] Los otomanos crearon escuadrones de aviación otomanos con ayuda alemana y tenían cuatro aviones operando alrededor de Çanakkale en febrero, realizando incursiones de reconocimiento y cooperación del ejército. Desde el 11 de abril, un avión otomano realizó vuelos frecuentes sobre Mudros, vigilando el montaje de la fuerza naval británica y se estableció un aeródromo cerca de Gallipoli. [59] [77] [29]
Aterrizajes
Los aliados planearon aterrizar y asegurar la costa norte, capturar los fuertes otomanos y las baterías de artillería para que una fuerza naval avanzara a través del Estrecho y el Mar de Mármara hacia Estambul. [78] Programado para el 23 de abril, pero pospuesto hasta el 25 de abril debido al mal tiempo, los desembarcos debían realizarse en cinco playas de la península. [79] La 29ª División aterrizaría en Helles en la punta de la península y luego avanzaría sobre los fuertes de Kilitbahir . Los ANZAC, con la 3.a Brigada de Infantería de Australia encabezando el asalto, iban a aterrizar al norte de Gaba Tepe en la costa del Egeo , desde donde podrían avanzar a través de la península, aislar a las tropas otomanas en Kilitbahir y evitar que los refuerzos llegaran al cabo Helles. [80] [81] Este sector de la península de Gallipoli se conoció como ANZAC; el área ocupada por los británicos y franceses se conoció como el sector Helles o Helles. Los franceses hicieron un aterrizaje de distracción en Kum Kale en la costa asiática antes de volver a embarcarse para mantener la zona este del sector de Helles. La División Naval Real simuló los preparativos de aterrizaje en Bulair y un oficial de Nueva Zelanda, Bernard Freyberg , nadó a tierra bajo fuego para encender bengalas para distraer a los defensores de los aterrizajes reales; Posteriormente, Freyberg recibió la Orden de Servicio Distinguido . [82] [83] [84]
Los arreglos para el apoyo de los disparos navales a los desembarcos habían incluido originalmente el bombardeo de las playas y los accesos, pero se cambiaron a la participación de las crestas durante los desembarcos, y las playas solo se bombardearon antes de los desembarcos. En última instancia, no se tomó ninguna decisión sobre el tema del apoyo cercano y se dejó a la iniciativa de los capitanes de los barcos. La reticencia a acercarse a la costa afectó más tarde los desembarcos en las playas 'V' y 'W', donde ocurrieron algunas de las peores pérdidas entre la infantería, mientras que los disparos navales fueron de alguna ayuda en 'S', 'X' y ANZAC. [85] Incluso entonces su eficacia se vio limitada por la confusión inicial en tierra, el terreno accidentado, la espesa vegetación y la falta de observación. [86] Kitchener había dictaminado que los requisitos aéreos deben ser cumplidos por el Servicio Aéreo Naval Real (RNAS) y los Aliados emplearon una pequeña fuerza de hidroaviones y otros aviones del 3 Escuadrón , RNAS (Comandante Charles Samson ) que llegó a Tenedos al final. de marzo. [59] El avión no tuvo oposición de la pequeña fuerza aérea otomana al principio y durante la planificación, la fuerza se había utilizado para proporcionar reconocimiento aéreo, aunque esto finalmente resultó inadecuado para satisfacer las necesidades de inteligencia de los Aliados y compensar la falta de mapas. [87] [53] Después de los aterrizajes, los aviones aliados realizaron reconocimientos fotográficos, observaron disparos navales, informaron sobre los movimientos de tropas otomanas y realizaron un pequeño número de bombardeos. [87]
Ensenada ANZAC
Asignado el desembarco norte, la fuerza de Birdwood incluyó a la 1.a División Australiana (el General de División William Bridges ) y la División de Nueva Zelanda y Australia (el General de División Sir Alexander Godley ), unos 25.000 hombres. La fuerza debía aterrizar y avanzar tierra adentro para cortar las líneas de comunicación con las fuerzas otomanas en el sur. [88] [55] La 1ª División Australiana aterrizaría primero, con la 3ª Brigada de Infantería liderando como una fuerza de cobertura moviéndose tierra adentro para establecer posiciones en Gun Ridge. La 2.ª Brigada de Infantería debía seguir y capturar el terreno más alto en Sari Bair. La 1.ª Brigada de Infantería aterrizaría en último lugar como reserva divisional. La División de Nueva Zelanda y Australia debía desembarcar y formar para avanzar a través de la península. La fuerza debía reunirse por la noche y aterrizar al amanecer para sorprender a los defensores y en la noche del 24 de abril, la fuerza de cobertura se embarcó en acorazados y destructores, con las fuerzas de seguimiento en los transportes. Las tropas desembarcarían de los transportes en botes de barcos y serían remolcadas cerca de la costa por barcos de vapor y luego remarían a tierra. [55]
Alrededor de las 2:00 am, un observador otomano en una colina en Ariburnu vio una multitud de barcos en el horizonte. El capitán Faik, a cargo de una compañía del 27º Regimiento de Infantería, lo verificó con sus prismáticos e informó de inmediato a su comandante en jefe, Ismet Bey, en Kabatepe. A las 3:00 am, la luna estaba cubierta y los barcos ya no eran visibles para los otomanos. [89] Los otomanos no estaban seguros de si se trataba de un aterrizaje real o una distracción. Una vez que se escuchó la intensa artillería, alrededor de las 6:00 am se ordenó a los dos batallones restantes del 27º Regimiento de Infantería que se dirigieran urgentemente a Ariburnu. [90] Sanders había dejado su cuartel general y estaba en Bulair, distraído por los pocos barcos aliados que habían aparecido; había estado seguro de que aquí sería donde se llevarían a cabo los desembarcos. Durante dos días permaneció en Bulair con la 5ª División esperando el aterrizaje real. Su ausencia creó problemas en la cadena de mando y retrasos en la toma de decisiones que negaron su esquema de defensa que dependía del rápido movimiento de tropas. [91]
A las 4:00 am de la mañana del 25 de abril, la primera oleada de tropas de la 3ª Brigada comenzó a moverse hacia la costa en mecheros y barcos. La fuerza de cobertura aterrizó aproximadamente 2 km demasiado al norte, en una bahía al sur de Ari Burnu, debido a corrientes no detectadas o un error de navegación. [88] [55] El aterrizaje fue más difícil, sobre un terreno que se elevaba abruptamente desde las playas, a diferencia del objetivo del sur, que era más abierto. El lugar de aterrizaje fue guarnecido por solo dos compañías otomanas, pero desde posiciones en terreno de mando, los otomanos infligieron numerosas bajas a los australianos antes de ser vencidos. [92] El terreno accidentado impidió un viaje coordinado hacia el interior, con los australianos en un terreno desconocido y con mapas inexactos. En el laberinto de barrancos escarpados, espolones y matorrales densos, los grupos australianos que avanzaban perdieron contacto rápidamente y se dividieron en pequeños grupos. Algunas tropas australianas alcanzaron la segunda cresta, pero aún menos alcanzaron sus objetivos y, al dispersarse, la fuerza de cobertura podría proporcionar poco apoyo a la fuerza de seguimiento. [93]
La 1ª y la 2ª Brigadas, luego la División de Nueva Zelanda y Australia, aterrizaron en las playas alrededor de Ari Burnu pero se enredaron, lo que llevó tiempo resolverlo. [94] Aproximadamente cuatro horas después de que comenzaran los desembarcos, la mayor parte de la 1.ª División Australiana estaba en tierra a salvo y sus elementos principales avanzaban tierra adentro. A media mañana, Kemal había reorganizado a los defensores para un contraataque en las imponentes alturas de Chunuk Bair y Sari Bair. [88] El flanco derecho del pequeño alojamiento tomado por los australianos fue introducido a las 10:30 am, perdiéndose la mayor parte de 400 Plateau . Durante la tarde y la noche, el flanco izquierdo fue rechazado por Baby 700 y Nek. Por la noche, Bridges y Godley recomendaron volver a embarcar; Birdwood estuvo de acuerdo, pero tras el consejo de la marina de que era imposible volver a embarcar, Hamilton ordenó a las tropas que se atrincheraran. El contraataque otomano fue finalmente rechazado y los australianos establecieron un perímetro aproximadamente desde Walker's Ridge en el norte hasta Shell Green en el sur. [94] [88] Las bajas de ANZAC en el primer día ascendieron a alrededor de 2.000 hombres muertos o heridos. [94] El hecho de no asegurar el terreno elevado llevó a un punto muerto táctico, con los aterrizajes contenidos por los defensores en un perímetro de menos de 2 km de largo. [88]
El submarino australiano HMAS AE2 (Teniente Comandante Henry Stoker ) penetró en el Estrecho la noche del 24 al 25 de abril. Cuando los aterrizajes comenzaron en Cape Helles y ANZAC Cove al amanecer del 25 de abril, AE2 llegó a Chanak a las 6:00 am y torpedeó una cañonera turca que se cree que era un crucero de la clase Peyk-i Şevket y luego evadió a un destructor. [95] [96] El submarino encalló debajo de un fuerte turco, pero los artilleros otomanos no pudieron llevar sus armas y AE2 fue maniobrado libre. [95] Poco después de reflotar, el periscopio fue avistado por un acorazado turco disparando sobre la península en los lugares de aterrizaje aliados y el barco cesó el fuego y se retiró. [95] AE2 avanzó hacia el Mar de Mármara ya las 08:30 Stoker decidió dejar el barco en el lecho marino hasta el anochecer. [95] Alrededor de las 9:00 pm , AE2 salió a la superficie para recargar las baterías y envió un informe inalámbrico a la flota. [95] [97] El desembarco en Cape Helles iba bien, pero el desembarco en Anzac Cove no fue tan exitoso y el comandante de Anzac, el teniente general Sir William Birdwood, contempló el re-embarque de sus tropas. [95] El éxito de AE2 fue una consideración en Birdwood que decidió persistir y los informes sobre AE2 se transmitieron a los soldados en tierra para mejorar la moral. [95] Stoker recibió la orden de "enloquecer en general" y sin enemigos a la vista, navegó hacia el Mar de Mármara, donde AE2 navegó durante cinco días para dar la impresión de un mayor número y realizó varios ataques contra barcos otomanos, que fracasaron. debido a problemas mecánicos con los torpedos. [98]
Cabo Helles
El desembarco de Helles fue realizado por la 29ª División ( Mayor General Aylmer Hunter-Weston ). La división aterrizó en cinco playas en un arco sobre la punta de la península, llamadas Playas 'S', 'V', 'W', 'X' e 'Y' de este a oeste. [99] El 1 de mayo, la 29ª Brigada India (incluyendo 1/6 de rifles Gurkha ) aterrizó, tomó y aseguró Sari Bair sobre las playas del desembarco y se le unieron 1/5 de rifles Gurkha y 2/10 de rifles Gurkha ; el Zion Mule Corps desembarcó en Helles el 27 de abril. [100] En la playa 'Y', durante el primer enfrentamiento, la Primera Batalla de Krithia , los Aliados desembarcaron sin oposición y avanzaron tierra adentro. [101] Había solo un pequeño número de defensores en la aldea, pero sin órdenes para explotar la posición, el comandante de la playa 'Y' retiró su fuerza a la playa. Fue lo más cerca que estuvieron los Aliados de capturar la aldea cuando los otomanos trajeron un batallón del 25º Regimiento, controlando cualquier movimiento adicional. [102]
Los desembarcos principales se realizaron en la playa 'V' , debajo de la antigua fortaleza de Seddülbahir y en la playa 'W' , a poca distancia al oeste al otro lado del cabo de Helles. La fuerza de cobertura de Royal Munster Fusiliers y Hampshires aterrizó de un minero convertido, SS River Clyde , que fue encallado debajo de la fortaleza para que las tropas pudieran desembarcar por rampas. Los Royal Dublin Fusiliers aterrizaron en la playa 'V' y los Lancashire Fusiliers en la playa 'W' en botes abiertos, en una orilla dominada por dunas y obstruida con alambre de púas. En ambas playas, los defensores otomanos ocuparon buenas posiciones defensivas e infligieron muchas bajas a la infantería británica cuando desembarcaron. Las tropas que emergían una a una de los puertos de salida en el río Clyde fueron disparadas por ametralladoras en el fuerte Seddülbahir y de los primeros 200 soldados en desembarcar, 21 hombres llegaron a la playa. [103]
Los defensores otomanos fueron demasiado pocos para derrotar el desembarco, pero causaron muchas bajas y contuvieron el ataque cerca de la costa. En la mañana del 25 de abril, sin municiones y sin nada más que bayonetas para enfrentar a los atacantes en las laderas que conducen desde la playa a las alturas de Chunuk Bair, el 57. ° Regimiento de Infantería recibió órdenes de Kemal "No te ordeno que luches , Te ordeno morir. En el tiempo que pasa hasta que muramos, otras tropas y comandantes pueden pasar al frente y ocupar nuestros lugares ”. Todos los hombres del regimiento murieron o resultaron heridos. [104] [c]
En la playa 'W', a partir de entonces conocida como Lancashire Landing, los Lancashire pudieron abrumar a los defensores a pesar de la pérdida de 600 bajas de 1,000 hombres . Se entregaron seis premios de la Cruz Victoria entre los Lancashires en 'W' Beach. Se otorgaron seis cruces Victoria más entre la infantería y los marineros en el desembarco de la playa 'V' y se otorgaron tres más al día siguiente mientras luchaban por su camino hacia el interior. Cinco escuadrones de infantería otomana liderados por el sargento Yahya se distinguieron por rechazar varios ataques en su posición en la cima de la colina, los defensores finalmente se retiraron al amparo de la oscuridad. [105] Después del desembarco, quedaron tan pocos hombres de los fusileros de Dublín y Munster que se fusionaron en los Dubsters. [106] Sólo un oficial dublinés sobrevivió al desembarco, mientras que de los 1.012 dublineses que aterrizaron, sólo 11 sobrevivieron ilesos a la campaña de Gallipoli. [107] [108] Después de los desembarcos, los aliados hicieron poco para explotar la situación, aparte de algunos avances limitados tierra adentro por pequeños grupos de hombres. El ataque aliado perdió impulso y los otomanos tuvieron tiempo de traer refuerzos y reunir al pequeño número de tropas defensoras. [109]
Campaña de tierras
Batallas tempranas
En la tarde del 27 de abril, la 19ª División, reforzada por seis batallones de la 5ª División, contraatacó a las seis brigadas aliadas en Anzac. [110] Con el apoyo de los disparos navales, los aliados detuvieron a los otomanos durante toda la noche. Al día siguiente, los británicos se unieron a las tropas francesas transferidas desde Kum Kale en la costa asiática a la derecha de la línea cerca de la playa 'S' en Morto Bay . El 28 de abril, los aliados lucharon en la Primera Batalla de Krithia para capturar la aldea. [111] Hunter-Weston hizo un plan que resultó demasiado complejo y fue mal comunicado a los comandantes en el campo. Las tropas de la 29.a División todavía estaban exhaustas y nerviosas por las batallas por las playas y por la aldea de Seddülbahir, que fue capturada después de muchos combates el 26 de abril. Los defensores otomanos detuvieron el avance aliado a medio camino entre el promontorio de Helles y Krithia alrededor de las 6:00 pm, habiendo infligido 3.000 bajas. [112]
Cuando llegaron los refuerzos otomanos, la posibilidad de una rápida victoria aliada en la península desapareció y la lucha en Helles y Anzac se convirtió en una batalla de desgaste. El 30 de abril desembarcó la Real División Naval (Mayor General Archibald Paris ). El mismo día, Kemal, creyendo que los aliados estaban al borde de la derrota, comenzó a mover tropas a través de Wire Gulley, cerca de 400 Plateau y Lone Pine. Ocho batallones de refuerzos fueron enviados desde Estambul un día después y esa tarde, las tropas otomanas contraatacaron en Helles y Anzac. Los otomanos se abrieron paso brevemente en el sector francés, pero los ataques fueron rechazados por el fuego masivo de ametralladoras aliadas, que causaron muchas bajas a los atacantes. [113] La noche siguiente, Birdwood ordenó a la División de Nueva Zelanda y Australia atacar desde Russell's Top y Quinn's Post hacia Baby 700. La 4ta Brigada de Infantería de Australia (Coronel John Monash ), la Brigada de Infantería de Nueva Zelanda y los Royal Marines del Batallón Chatham participó en el ataque. Cubierto por un bombardeo naval y de artillería, las tropas avanzaron una corta distancia durante la noche pero se separaron en la oscuridad. Los atacantes fueron objeto de fuego masivo de armas pequeñas desde su flanco izquierdo expuesto y fueron rechazados, habiendo sufrido unas 1.000 bajas. [114]
On 30 April, the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar, then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth, then broke the surface again at the stern.[98] Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine, puncturing the pressure hull. Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship, scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner. AE2's achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations.[98] On 27 April, HMS E14 (Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle), entered the Sea of Marmara on a three-week patrol, which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign, in which four ships were sunk, including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying 6,000 troops and a field battery to Gallipoli. While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor, the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant; Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross.[115][116] Following the success of AE2 and E14, the French submarine Joule attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands.[117] (Several weeks earlier another French boat, Saphir, had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point.)[118]
Operations: May 1915
On 5 May, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division was dispatched from Egypt.[119] Believing Anzac to be secure, Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, along with 20 Australian field guns, to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia.[120] Involving a force of 20,000 men, it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight. French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British, Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba. After 30 minutes of artillery preparation, the assault began at mid-morning on 6 May.[121] The British and French advanced along the Gully, Fir Tree, Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies, fortified by the Ottomans. As the attackers advanced, they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strong points and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain. Under artillery and then machine-gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance, the attack was stopped; next day, reinforcements resumed the advance.[122]
The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May; with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village. Late in the afternoon, the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line. Amidst small arms and artillery-fire, the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained 600 metres (660 yd), about 400 metres (440 yd) short of the objective, with 1,000 casualties. Near Fir Tree Spur, the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians, although the British were held up and the French were exhausted, despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective. The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in, having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba.[122]
A brief period of consolidation followed; the Allies had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences.[123] The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry.[124] Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres.[125][124] The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near "Steele's Post" and died of his injuries on the hospital ship HMHS Gascon on 18 May.[126]
At the end of April Birdwood told GHQ MEF (General Headquarters Mediterranean Expeditionary Force) that he could not land 6,000 horses at Anzac Cove as there was no water for them. GHQ MEF was unhappy that the ANZAC force would be immobilised on the beachhead, but they would have been no use. Some of the thousands of men and horses remained on board ship for up to a month. Birdwood signalled on 17 May that 17 transports would be returning to Alexandria to offload 5,251 horses accompanied by 3,217 men. GHQ MEF insisted that some of the men remain in Alexandria to look after the horses and guard ANZACs "many vehicles and mountains of baggage".[127]
Ottoman counter-offensive: 19 May
On 19 May, 42,000 Ottoman troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the 17,000 Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea.[87][128] Short of artillery and ammunition, the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May, the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations.[87][128] The Ottomans suffered c. 13,000 casualties in the attack, of which 3,000 men were killed; Australian and New Zealand casualties were 160 killed and 468 wounded.[128][129][130] The dead included a stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac; afterwards, his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign.[131] Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May, to bury the dead lying in no man's land, which led to a camaraderie between the armies, much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front.[132]
An eyewitness account from Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance described the day:
The armistice was declared from 8:30 a.m. this morning till 4:30 p.m. it is wonderful, things are unnaturally quiet and I felt like getting up and making a row myself, the rifle fire is quiet, no shell fire. The stench round the trenches where the dead had been lying for weeks was awful, some of the bodies were mere skeletons, it seems so very different to see each side near each other's trenches burying their dead, each man taking part in this ceremony is called a pioneer and wears 2 white bands on his arms, everybody is taking advantage of the armistice to do anything they want to do out of cover and a large number are down bathing and you would think today was Cup Day down at one of our seaside beaches.[133]
The truce was not repeated formally.[132]
The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship HMS Goliath was torpedoed on 13 May by the Ottoman destroyer Muâvenet-i Millîye.[134] A German submarine, U-21, sank HMS Triumph on 25 May and HMS Majestic on 27 May.[135] More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U-21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered" between sorties, which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector.[136] The submarine HMS E11 (Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople Harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf.[137][138][139]
The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire c. 18,000 shells between early May and the first week of June.[140] After the defeat of the counter-attack at Anzac in mid-May, the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults. Late in the month, the Ottomans began tunneling around Quinn's Post in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May, despite Australian counter-mining, detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment. The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter-attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day, before being relieved by New Zealand troops. Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation, minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper-fire.[141]
Operations: June–July 1915
In the Helles sector, which had been extensively entrenched by both sides, the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again, in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June, with the 29th Division, Royal Naval Division, 42nd Division and two French divisions.[142] The attack was repulsed and with it, the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended; trench warfare resumed, with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards. Casualties were approximately 25 percent on both sides; the British lost 4,500 from 20,000 men and the French 2,000 casualties from 10,000 troops. Ottoman losses were 9,000 casualties according to the Turkish Official History and 10,000 according to another account.[143]
In June, the seaplane carrier HMS Ben-my-Chree arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No. 3 Wing RNAS.[144] The 52nd (Lowland) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine, which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet.[140] On 30 June, the French commander, Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d'Amade, was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud.[145] Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at 14,000 men.[146] On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost 2,500 casualties out of 7,500 men; the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men. Ottoman losses were about 9,000 casualties and 600 prisoners.[147]
At sea, the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara.[137] The third tour began on 21 July, when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti-submarine net placed near the Narrows.[148] The next attempt was made by Mariotte on 27 July, which was caught in the net, forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries; Mariotte was scuttled.[149] On 8 August, E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of 253 men and sank a gunboat, seven transports and 23 sailing vessels.[150][151][152]
August offensive
The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on Hill 971 in the Battle of Chunuk Bair.[153] Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen.[154][155] The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla, 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west.[156][157] At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on Baby 700 from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. Hill 971 would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade.[157] The Allies had 40 aircraft, mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros, which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs; Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos.[158] The Ottomans had 20 aircraft, of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low-level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield.[144] Allied aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air-launched torpedo.[159]
The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition; the British commander, Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford, had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized. The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills, preventing the British from penetrating inland, which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare.[160] The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions, at Helles, where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate. At Anzac, the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine, led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade, captured the main Ottoman trench line and diverted Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 failed.[80][161][162]
The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within 500 metres (550 yd) of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning.[163] On the morning of 7 August, the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek, to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences. The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon, which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure.[164] An attack on Hill 971 never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night. Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders, at great cost to the Allies.[165] The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August, led by Mustafa Kemal, swept them from the heights.[163] Of 760 men in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit, 711 became casualties.[166] With the Ottoman recapture of the ground, the Allies' best chance of victory was lost.[165]
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th (Irish) Division on 7 August, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which began landing on 8 August, the 54th (East Anglian) Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August.[167] On 12 August, the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe, crossing the Anafarta Plain. The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac.[168][d]
Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from 19–20 August and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September.[169][170] The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another 95,000 troops but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about 25,000 reinforcements for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division.[171] On 25 September, Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli. Instead, a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to; only the 10th (Irish) Division and the 156th Infantry Division (France) were withdrawn from the peninsula. By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front.[172]
Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate, an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon's washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a "constant traffic" of gifts being thrown across no-man's land, dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side.[173] Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population. Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid. The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated, which caused supply and shelter problems. A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles, while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths.[174]
Evacuation
After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton's performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch, Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and other reporters.[175] Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro.[176] Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered frostbite.[177] The Serbian defeat in the Serbian campaign in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to Greek Macedonia; the Macedonian front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia.[178]
On 4 September, the submarine HMS E7 was caught in the Ottoman anti-submarine net as it began another tour.[179] Despite such reverses, by mid-September, Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U-boats and U-21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Istanbul on 13 September.[180] The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was Turquoise but it was forced to turn back; on 30 October, when returning through the straits, it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact. The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered, including a scheduled rendezvous with HMS E20 on 6 November. The rendezvous was kept by the German U-boat U-14 instead, which torpedoed and sank E20, killing all but nine of the crew.[181]
The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. In early October 1915, the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika, by moving two divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements.[182] A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches, especially on the confined front at Anzac, modern aircraft and experienced crews.[183][184] In late November, an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro-Hungarian 36. Haubitzbatterie and 9. Motormörserbatterie artillery units arrived, providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery.[184][3][185] Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener, who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean.[175] After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles, IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac, Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet, who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December.[186]
Due to the narrowness of no man's land and the winter weather, many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation. The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a rainstorm on 26 November 1915. The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December. Rain flooded trenches, drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines; the following snow killed still more men from exposure.[187] Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December, the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December. Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses, such as William Scurry's self-firing rifle, which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger, were used to disguise the Allied departure.[188] At Anzac Cove, troops maintained silence for an hour or more, until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs opened fire. This incident successfully discouraged the Ottomans from inspecting when the actual evacuation occurred. A mine was detonated at the Nek, which killed 70 Ottoman soldiers.[189] The Allied force was embarked, with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands.[190][191][192]
Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December.[193] Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove, Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal.[191] Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies, Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure.[194] Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7/8 January, under the cover of a naval bombardment, the British troops began to fall back 5 miles (8.0 km) from their lines to the beaches, where makeshift piers were used to board boats.[191][195] The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04:00 on 8 January 1916.[194] The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916.[196] Among the first to land, remnants of The Plymouth Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula.[197]
Despite predictions of up to 30,000 casualties, 35,268 troops, 3,689 horses and mules, 127 guns, 328 vehicles and 1,600 long tons (1,600 t) of equipment were removed;[195] 508 mules that could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and 1,590 vehicles were left behind with smashed wheels.[198] As at Anzac, large amounts of supplies (including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed), gun carriages and ammunition were left behind; hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans. A sailor was killed by debris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost.[199] Shortly after dawn, the Ottomans retook Helles.[194] In the final days of the campaign, Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German–Ottoman fighter squadron, which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles, when three Fokker Eindeckers shot down two RNAS aircraft.[184]
Secuelas
Military repercussions
Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign's result. Broadbent describes the campaign as "a close-fought affair" that was a defeat for the Allies,[200] while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate.[201] Peter Hart disagrees, arguing that the Ottoman forces "held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease",[191] while Haythornthwaite calls it a "disaster for the Allies".[202] The campaign did cause "enormous damage to ... [Ottoman] national resources",[202] and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans,[190] but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful. While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East, the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front,[203] and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side.[202]
The Allied campaign was plagued by ill-defined goals, poor planning, insufficient artillery, inexperienced troops, inaccurate maps, poor intelligence, overconfidence, inadequate equipment, and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels.[204][205] Geography also proved a significant factor. While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage, the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well-sited defences that limited the ability of Allied forces to penetrate inland, confining them to narrow beaches.[53] The campaign's necessity remains the subject of debate,[80] and the recriminations that followed were significant, highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those who favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany's "soft underbelly", its allies in the east.[206]
British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli campaign, forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route. Between April and December 1915, nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols, sinking one battleship, one destroyer, five gunboats, 11 troop transports, 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara.[207] During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara, sometimes two; in October 1915, there were four Allied submarines in the region.[118] E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916, the last British submarine in the region. Four E-class and five B-class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles.[208] By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area, while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed. The official German naval historian, Admiral Eberhard von Mantey, later concluded that had the sea-lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe. As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety, posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses, effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways.[209]
Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford, but Hunter-Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme.[210][211] The competence of Australian brigade commanders, John Monash (4th Infantry Brigade) and Harry Chauvel (1st Light Horse Brigade, New Zealand and Australian Division), was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command.[212][213] The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915, partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over-ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915, when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest.[214] The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies.[205] In Mesopotamia, the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara, forcing their surrender in April 1916.[215] Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt.[216] Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of the materials to complete the military railway necessary for such an operation, marked the end of that ambition.[217] The optimism gained from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war.[218][219]
The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982.[220][48] The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine.[220][221] In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars, the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in Britain and United States.[221] In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal".[220]
Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to "a belief among most of the armed forces of the world" that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy, Tarawa and the Gilberts, arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944.[222] Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918, the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile was overcome.[223] The memory of Gallipoli weighed upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943. In September, the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea.[224] The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland.[225]
Political effects
Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle, Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill. The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying, forced the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party.[226] The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes, which had done much to "destroy its faltering reputation for competence".[227] The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition, the first report being issued in 1917, with the final report published in 1919.[1] Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition, Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the MEF, was recalled to London in October 1915, ending his military career.[228] Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.[229] Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front, where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916.[229][230]
Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916, when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister.[231] Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet-level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet.[229] The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment.[232][e]
Casualties
Countries | Dead | Wounded | Missing or POW | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ottoman Empire | 56,643 | 97,007 | 11,178 | 164,828 |
United Kingdom | 34,072 | 78,520 | 7,654 | 120,246 |
France | 9,798 | 17,371 | — | 27,169 |
Australia | 8,709 | 19,441 | — | 28,150 |
New Zealand | 2,721 | 4,752 | — | 7,473 |
British India | 1,358 | 3,421 | — | 4,779 |
Newfoundland | 49 | 93 | — | 142 |
Total (Allies) | 56,707 | 123,598 | 7,654 | 187,959 |
Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001, Edward J. Erickson wrote that in the Gallipoli Campaign over 100,000 men were killed, including 56,000–68,000 Ottoman and around 53,000 British and French soldiers.[7] Using the Ottoman Archives, Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were 56,643 men died from all causes, 97,007 troops were wounded or injured and 11,178 men went missing or were captured.[12] In 2001, Carlyon gave figures of 43,000 British killed or missing, including 8,709 Australians.[238]
In September 1915 Godley complained that too few of the recovered sick or wounded casualties from Gallipoli were being returned from Egypt, and General Maxwell replied that "the appetite of the Dardanelles for men has been phenomenal and wicked".[239]
There were nearly 500,000 casualties during the campaign, with the British Official History listing losses including sick as 205,000 British, 47,000 French and 251,000 Ottoman troops (with some Turkish (sic) sources referring to 350,000 casualties.)[235] Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001, Travers gave casualty figures of 2,160 officers and 287,000 other ranks (battle and non-battle); included among this may be 87,000 killed.[240][15] Sanders estimated that the Ottomans had 218,000 casualties, including 66,000 dead and that 42,000 wounded returned to duty.[7]
The New Zealand semi-official history (1919, by Fred Waite) estimated that 8556 New Zealanders served at Gallipoli, and contained an estimate of 251,000 Ottoman battle casualties including 86,692 dead.[234] In 2000, McGibbon wrote that 2,721 New Zealanders had been killed, about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula.;[15] other estimates were 2701 (Pugsley) or 2779 (Stowers).[241] A 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck arrived at a higher estimate for the numbers of New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli: over 16,000, perhaps 17,000 (rather than earlier revised figures of 13,000 to 14,000 and the 1919 figure of 8,556).[242]
Sickness
Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions, especially from typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea. The British official historian reported that 90,000 British Empire soldiers[235] were evacuated for illness during the campaign.[7] A total of 145,154 British troops fell sick during the campaign, not counting troops from the Dominions or India; of these, 3,778 died, exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately 2.84 percent of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against 0.91 percent in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front.[243] Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, the British official historian, gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick as 64,440.[7] The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with 29,728 men infected and another 10,383 men having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with 6,602 hospitalisations, gonorrhea 1,774 cases, and rheumatic fever 6,556 cases.[244] French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000 killed, wounded or sick.[245][246][235] Of these, 27,169 were specifically killed, wounded or missing[237] with an implied 20,000 who fell sick.[f]
Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, 25 Ottoman hospitals had been built with 10,700 beds, and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia, in turn, claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, Portugal and Vperiod but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines.[247] No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas, which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later, during the Second and Third battles of Gaza in 1917.[248][249][g]
Graves and memorials
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty-Wylie VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and 21 at Anzac.[253] For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing". The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom.[254][255]
There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers).[256] Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds.[257][258]
Makeshift graves were created during the campaign, often with simple wooden crosses or markers. However, some graves were decorated more extensively, such as that of John Hancox (pictured).[259][260][261]
There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula, located at Seddülbahir.[262]
There are no large Ottoman/Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials, the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial at Morto Bay, Cape Helles (near 'S' Beach), the Turkish Soldier's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open-air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn's Post (Bomba Sirt). There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles, demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula.[263]
Subsequent operations
Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt.[264] French forces (renamed the Corps Expeditionnaire des Dardanelles in late October) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika.[265][266] In Egypt, the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika, became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray. They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire, consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with 400,000 men. In March 1916, Murray took command of both these forces, forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and reorganising the units for service in Europe, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East.[267][268][269] While the ANZAC was disbanded, the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed. These units moved to the Western Front in mid-1916.[190]
The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised,[270][271] forming the 74th (Yeomanry) Division and a portion of the 75th Division.[272][273] Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division,[274] 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division,[275][276] later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division,[277] participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916, while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul and partitioned the Ottoman Empire.[278] The occupation ended in 1923.[279]
Legado
The significance of the Gallipoli campaign is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand, despite their being only a portion of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a "baptism of fire" and had been linked to their emergence as independent states.[280] Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16,000 to 17,000 New Zealanders.[281][282][283][284] It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac spirit".[285]
The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as "Anzac Day". The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916, at churches in Melbourne, Brisbane and London, before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923.[253] The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s.[286] Organised marches by veterans began in 1925, in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph. During the 1980s, it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended.[253] Over 10,000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey, New Zealand, Britain and Australia.[287] Dawn services are also held in Australia; in New Zealand, dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day.[288] Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).[289]
The Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial at Anzac Cove, commemorating the loss of Ottoman and Anzac soldiers on the Gallipoli Peninsula
Anzac Day march in Wagga Wagga, Australia, in 2015
The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, will become the longest suspension bridge in the world upon completion.[290]
The Australian Turkish Friendship Memorial in Kings Domain, Melbourne honours WWI fallen soldiers and is a tribute to Australian-Turkish relations
Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand.[291] Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland,[292] and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook, Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries.[293] Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including in film, television and song.[294] In 1971, Scottish-born Australian folk singer-songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda" which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti-war song.[295][296]
In Turkey, the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state's emergence, although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale, where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915.[297] For the Turks, 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders, it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies.[298] The campaign's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal, who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war.[299] "Çanakkale geçilmez" (Çanakkale is impassable) became a common phrase to express the state's pride at repulsing the attack and the song "Çanakkale içinde" (A Ballad for Chanakkale) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle.[300] Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin created a movie called Children of Canakkale.[301]
Ver también
- Timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign
- Gallipoli, a 1981 Australian film directed by Peter Weir
- Çanakkale 1915, a 2012 Turkish film based on some of the major political events of the Gallipoli campaign
- The Water Diviner, a 2014 Australian film directed by Russell Crowe
- Topical song Suvla Bay collected 1949 by British publishers[302]
- Blamey's Boys by Pte Thomas Norman, 2nd Battalion, AIF[303]
- Heroes of the Dardanelles 1915 by bugler Pte Reginald Stoneham service number 82, South Australia Contingent (Boer War)[304]
- Gallipoli Star, a Turkish military award
- "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda", a 1971 song by Eric Bogle
Notas
- ^ Also known as the Dardanelles campaign, the Defense of Gallipoli or the Battle of Gallipoli (Turkish: Gelibolu Muharebesi, Çanakkale Muharebeleri or Çanakkale Savaşı).
- ^ The operation would be complicated by having only five divisions, the rugged terrain of the peninsula, the small number of landing beaches and great difficulty in providing supplies.[48] Later on, the MEF was supported by about 2,000 civilian labourers from the Egyptian and Maltese Labour Corps.[5]
- ^ The 57th Regiment was not rebuilt and was not recreated in the Turkish Army.[104]
- ^ The events of the day later gained significance, due to the loss of a company of the Norfolk Regiment. Having been recruited from men who worked on King George V's Sandringham estate they were dubbed the Sandringham Company. After being isolated and destroyed during 12 August attack it was rumoured that they had advanced into a mist and "simply disappeared". This gave rise to legends that they had been executed or that they had been taken by some supernatural force but some members were later found to have been taken prisoner.[168]
- ^ The enormous casualties at Gallipoli among Irish soldiers who had volunteered to fight in the British Army was a causal factor in the Irish War of Independence; as balladeers sang, "Twas better to die 'neath an Irish sky than in Suvla or Sedd el Bahr".[233]
- ^ Appendix 5 of the French official history (AFGG 8,1) has a one page table that not only splits these into subcategory columns but also breaks out the casualties into nine time period rows.[237] For comparative purposes, out of 205,000 British casualties, 115,000 were killed, missing and wounded, 90,000 were evacuated sick.[235]
- ^ In November 1918, the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 7th Light Horse from the Anzac Mounted Division, were sent to Gallipoli to "monitor Turkish compliance with the terms of the Armistice".[250] The 900 troopers camped at Camburnu near Kilid Bahr for three winter months and reconnoitred the Peninsula, identifying graves and inspecting Ottoman positions.[251] The troopers returned to Egypt on 19 January 1919, less 11 who had died and 110 who were sick in hospital.[252]
Notas al pie
- ^ a b c Travers 2001, p. 13.
- ^ Rance 2017, pp. 16–17, 54–56.
- ^ a b Jung 2003, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Kurtuluş Savaşı Komutanları.
- ^ a b c d Aspinall-Oglander 1929, p. 395.
- ^ Rance 2017, pp. 16–17, 44–47, 55–56.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Erickson 2001a, p. 94.
- ^ a b Erickson 2001a, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Erickson 2015, p. 178.
- ^ Rance 2017, pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b c d Clodfelter 2017, p. 417.
- ^ a b c Erickson 2001a, p. 327.
- ^ Dennis 2008, pp. 32, 38.
- ^ Lewis, Balderstone & Bowan 2006, p. 110.
- ^ a b c McGibbon 2000, p. 198.
- ^ Fewster, Basarin & Basarin 2003, p. 44.
- ^ Broadbent 2005, pp. 19–23.
- ^ Baldwin 1962, p. 40.
- ^ Erickson 2013, p. 159.
- ^ Tauber 1993, pp. 22–25.
- ^ Dennis 2008, p. 224.
- ^ Corbett 2009a, pp. 158, 166.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Carlyon 2001, p. 34.
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 115.
- ^ Broadbent 2005, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Tamworth Daily Observer 1915, p. 2.
- ^ Travers 2001, p. 20.
- ^ a b c d e Broadbent 2005, p. 40.
- ^ Gilbert 2013, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Hart 2013a, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Hart 2013a, p. 10.
- ^ Hart 2013a, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Fromkin 1989, p. 135.
- ^ a b c Baldwin 1962, p. 60.
- ^ James 1995, p. 61.
- ^ Hart 2013a, p. 12.
- ^ Fromkin 1989, p. 151.
- ^ Broadbent 2005, pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b Broadbent 2005, p. 35.
- ^ Wahlert 2008, p. 15.
- ^ Stevens 2001, pp. 44–45.
- ^ History.com 2017.
- ^ Grey 2008, p. 92.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 2004, p. 25.
- ^ Wahlert 2008, p. 16.
- ^ Doyle & Bennett 1999, p. 14.
- ^ a b Holmes 2001, p. 343.
- ^ McGibbon 2000, p. 191.
- ^ Haythornthwaite 2004, p. 21.
- ^ Reagan 1992, p. 166.
- ^ Erickson 2001b, p. 983.
- ^ a b c Doyle & Bennett 1999, p. 12.
- ^ Hart 2013b, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d e Dennis 2008, p. 226.
- ^ Travers 2001, p. 48.
- ^ Hart 2013b, p. 54.
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As indicated by the initials of the squadron (MF), they were equipped with eight MF.9 aircraft.
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- Weigley, Russell F. (2005). "Normandy to Falaise: A Critique of Allied Operational Planning in 1944". In Krause, Michael D.; Phillips, R. Cody (eds.). Historical Perspectives of the Operational Art. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. pp. 393–414. OCLC 71603395. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- West, Brad (2016). War Memory and Commemoration. Memory Studies: Global Constellations. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-47245-511-6.
- Williams, John (1999). The ANZACS, the Media and the Great War. Sydney: UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-569-8.
- Willmott, Hedley Paul (2009). The Last Century of Sea Power: From Port Arthur to Chanak, 1894–1922. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00356-0.
Diaries
- Laidlaw, Private Victor. "Diaries of Private Victor Rupert Laidlaw, 1914-1984". State Library of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. [manuscript]. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
Newspapers
- "Blamey Boys". Daily Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 9 November 1939. p. 3. Retrieved 28 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
- "Death of Composer". The News. 38 (5, 811). Adelaide. 12 March 1942. p. 3. Retrieved 29 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
- ""Jack Spade" Wrote Hit And Vanished". The Sunday Herald (Sydney) (1). New South Wales, Australia. 23 January 1949. p. 3. Retrieved 28 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
- "Reason for Gallipoli". The Tamworth Daily Observer. V (253). New South Wales, Australia. 21 October 1915. p. 2. Retrieved 25 April 2018 – via National Library of Australia.
Journals
- Doyle, Peter; Bennett, Matthew (1999). "Military Geography: The Influence of Terrain in the Outcome of the Gallipoli Campaign, 1915". The Geographical Journal. London: Royal Geographical Society. 165 (1 (March)): 12–36. doi:10.2307/3060508. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 3060508.
- Ekins, Ashley (2009). "Bloody Ridge: The Assault of Lone Pine". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (47): 12–14, 16–18. ISSN 1328-2727.
- Erickson, Edward (2001b). "Strength Against Weakness: Ottoman Military Effectiveness at Gallipoli, 1915". The Journal of Military History. 65 (4): 981–1012. doi:10.2307/2677626. ISSN 1543-7795. JSTOR 2677626.
- Gilbert, Greg (2013). "Air War Over the Dardanelles". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (61): 42–47. ISSN 1328-2727.
- Hart, Peter (2007). "War is Helles: The Real Fight for Gallipoli". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (38): 10–12. ISSN 1328-2727.
- Hart, Peter (2013a). "The Day It All Went Wrong: The Naval Assault Before the Gallipoli Landings". Wartime. Canberra: Australian War Memorial (62): 8–13. ISSN 1328-2727.
- Hughes, Matthew (2005). "The French Army at Gallipoli". The RUSI Journal. 153 (3): 64–67. doi:10.1080/03071840508522907. ISSN 0307-1847. S2CID 154727404.
- Sheffy, Yigal (2005). "The Chemical Dimension of the Gallipoli Campaign: Introducing Chemical Warfare to the Middle East". War in History. Sage Publications. 12 (3): 278–317. doi:10.1191/0968344505wh317oa. ISSN 1477-0385. S2CID 154534581.
- Stevenson, Robert (2007). "The Forgotten First: The 1st Australian Division in the Great War and its Legacy" (PDF). Australian Army Journal. IV (1): 185–99. OCLC 30798241.
Websites
- "ANZAC Day 2010 – The Gallipoli Campaign" (PDF). Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
- "Anzac Day Today". rsa.org.nz. 4 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012.
- "AWM 4-10-2-47 2nd Light Horse Brigade War Diary November 1918 Appendix 3" (pdf). Headquarters 2nd Light Horse Brigade. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
- "Battle of Gallipoli – World War I". History.com. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
- "Cape Helles Memorial to the Missing". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
- "Enumerating New Zealand Expeditionary Force Service on Gallipoli" (PDF). Manatū Taonga, the Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Ministry for Culture and Heritage (MCH) and the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF). 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
- "Gallipoli Casualties by Country". NZ History. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 1 March 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
- "ebook Phenomenal and Wicked: Attrition and Reinforcements in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force at Gallipoli". New Zealand Defence Force. 2020.
- Green, David (28 August 2013). "How Many New Zealanders Served on Gallipoli?". Retrieved 26 November 2015.
- Hammer, Joshua. "A New View of the Battle of Gallipoli, One of the Bloodiest Conflicts of World War I". Smithsonian. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
- Keane, Daniel (22 April 2015). "Eric Bogle: Australia's anti-war balladeer reflects on his Anzac anthem and his upcoming trip to Gallipoli". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
- Kirbaki, Yorgo (24 April 2015). "Ottoman military graveyard found on Greek island off Gallipoli". Hurriyet Daily News. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- "Kurtuluş Savaşı Komutanları". canakkalesehitlik.net. 5 May 2015.
- "Lead Contamination Closes Corner Brook Armoury". CBC News. 12 January 2012.
- "Nazi Shell in Egypt Wounds One of British Empire's Most Fabulous Soldiers". Life. 17 August 1942. p. 28. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
- "Portianos Military Cemetery". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- Taskiran, Cemalettin (18 March 2005). "Allied Attacks on Turkish Patients & Wounded". The Journal of the Turkish Weekly. Archived from the original on 15 May 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2006.
- "West Mudros Moslem Cemetery". Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- Wilson, Ross. "Street Names: The Local, National and International Memory of the First World War". World War I Centenary: Continuations and Beginnings. University of Oxford. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
Otras lecturas
- Basarin, Vecihi; Basarin, Hatice Hurmuz (2008). Beneath the Dardanelles: The Australian Submarine at Gallipoli. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74175-595-4.
- Baly, Lindsay (2003). Horseman, Pass By: The Australian Light Horse in World War I. East Roseville, NSW: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 223425266.
- Carlyon, Les (11 November 2004). "Australian War Memorial Anniversary Oration: Gallipoli in a Nation's Remembrance". soundtrack and text. Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 8 December 2004. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
- Erickson, Edward J. (2007). Gooch, John; Reid, Brian Holden (eds.). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. Military History and Policy. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
- Gilbert, Martin (2004). The First World War: A Complete History. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-7617-2.
- Hart, Peter (2011). Gallipoli. London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84668-159-2.
- Kraaijestein, Martin; Schulten, Paul (2009). Het Epos van Gallipoli. Feiten, verhalen en mythen over de geallieerde aanval op Turkije tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog [The Epic of Gallipoli. Facts, Stories and Myths about the Allied Attack on Turkey during World War I] (in Dutch). Soesterberg: Uitgeverij Aspekt. ISBN 978-90-5911-758-7.
- Kyle, Roy (2003). An Anzac's Story. Camberwell: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-300187-4.
- Laffin, John (1980). Damn the Dardanelles!: The Story of Gallipoli. London: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-350-X. OCLC 7770209.
- Özdemir, H. (2008) [2005]. The Ottoman Army: Disease and Death on the Battlefield 1914–1918. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-1-60781-964-6.
- Patton, George S. (1936). The Defense of Gallipoli: A General Staff Study. Hawaii: Hawaiian Department.
- Plowman, Peter (2013). Voyage to Gallipoli. Kenthurst, NSW: Rosenberg. ISBN 978-1-922013-53-8.
- Orr, Philip (2006). Field of Bones: An Irish Division at Gallipoli. Dublin, Ireland: Lilliput Press. ISBN 978-1-84351-065-9.
- Tyquin, Michael (1993). Gallipoli: The Medical War. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-189-8.
- Uyar, Mesut (2015). The Ottoman Defence Against The Anzac Landing. Australian Army Campaigns. 16. Newport, NSW: Big Sky. ISBN 978-1-925275-01-8.
- Waite, Fred (1919). The New Zealanders at Gallipoli. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. I. Auckland, NZ: Whitcombe and Tombs. OCLC 8003944.
enlaces externos
- Winston Churchill & Gallipoli – UK Parliament Living Heritage
- Media related to Battle of Gallipoli at Wikimedia Commons
- "Learning resources from the Imperial War Museum".
- "Original reports from The Times".
- "Map of Europe during the Gallipoli Campaign". Omniatlas.com.
- "Despatches". The campaign at the Dardanelles (Gallipoli). The Long Long Trail.
- "Gallipoli Centenary Research Project". Macquarie University. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013.
- "Winston Churchill's World War Disaster".
- "Gallipoli casualties by country". NZ History.
- Gallipoli Diary public domain audiobook at LibriVox
- "Australia's role in the Gallipoli Campaign". ABC and Department of Veteran's Affairs.