Profesional de la salud

Un profesional de la salud (o un profesional de la salud ) puede brindar tratamiento y asesoramiento de atención médica basados ​​en capacitación y experiencia formales. El campo incluye los que trabajo como un doctor en medicina (como el médico de familia , internista , obstetra , psiquiatra , radiólogo , cirujano , etc.), asistente médico , veterinario , técnico veterinario , auxiliar de veterinaria , farmacéutico , técnico de farmacia , auxiliar médico, enfermera , fisioterapeuta , terapeuta ocupacional , dentista , partera , psicólogo o que presten servicios en profesiones de la salud afines . Un profesional de la salud también puede ser un experto en salud pública o salud comunitaria .

Clase de terapia de masajes del NY College of Health Professions
Los médicos de la Marina de EE. UU. Dan a luz a un bebé sano
El 70% de los trabajadores de la salud y la asistencia social a nivel mundial son mujeres, el 30% de los líderes en el sector de la salud mundial son mujeres

La fuerza laboral de atención médica comprende una amplia variedad de profesiones y ocupaciones que brindan algún tipo de servicio de atención médica, incluidos profesionales de atención directa como médicos , enfermeras practicantes , asistentes médicos , enfermeras , terapeutas respiratorios , dentistas , farmacéuticos , patólogos del habla y el lenguaje , fisioterapeutas , terapeutas ocupacionales , fisioterapeutas y terapeutas del comportamiento , así como profesionales de la salud afines como flebotomistas , científicos de laboratorio médico , dietistas y trabajadores sociales . A menudo trabajan en hospitales , centros de salud y otros puntos de prestación de servicios, pero también en formación académica, investigación y administración. Algunos brindan servicios de atención y tratamiento para pacientes en hogares privados. Muchos países tienen un gran número de trabajadores de salud comunitarios que trabajan fuera de las instituciones de salud formales. Los gerentes de servicios de atención médica , los técnicos de información médica y otro personal de asistencia y trabajadores de apoyo también se consideran una parte vital de los equipos de atención médica. [1]

Los profesionales sanitarios suelen agruparse en profesiones sanitarias . Dentro de cada campo de especialización, los profesionales a menudo se clasifican según el nivel de habilidad y la especialización de habilidad. Los “profesionales de la salud” son trabajadores altamente calificados, en profesiones que generalmente requieren un amplio conocimiento, incluido un estudio de nivel universitario que conduce a la obtención de un primer título o una calificación superior. [2] Esta categoría incluye médicos, asistentes médicos, enfermeras registradas, veterinarios, técnicos veterinarios, asistentes veterinarios, dentistas, parteras, radiógrafos, farmacéuticos, fisioterapeutas, optometristas, médicos del departamento de operaciones y otros. Los profesionales de la salud aliados, también denominados "profesionales asociados de la salud" en la Clasificación Internacional Uniforme de Ocupaciones , apoyan la implementación de planes de atención médica, tratamiento y derivación generalmente establecidos por profesionales médicos, de enfermería, de atención respiratoria y otros profesionales de la salud, y generalmente requieren calificaciones para el ejercicio de su profesión. Además, el personal de asistencia sin licencia ayuda a brindar servicios de atención médica según lo permitido.

Otra forma de categorizar a los profesionales de la salud es según el subcampo en el que ejercen, como la atención de la salud mental, la atención durante el embarazo y el parto, la atención quirúrgica, la atención de rehabilitación o la salud pública.

Salud mental

Un profesional de la salud mental es un trabajador de la salud que ofrece servicios para mejorar la salud mental de las personas o tratar enfermedades mentales . Estos incluyen psiquiatras , psiquiatras asistentes médicos , clínicas, asesoramiento y psicólogos escolares , terapeutas ocupacionales , trabajadores sociales clínicos , los profesionales de enfermería de salud psiquiátrica-mentales , el matrimonio y los terapeutas familiares , consejeros de salud mental , así como otros profesionales de la salud y otros profesionales asociados. Estos proveedores de atención médica a menudo se enfrentan a las mismas enfermedades, trastornos, afecciones y problemas; sin embargo, su alcance de práctica a menudo difiere. La diferencia más significativa entre las categorías de profesionales de la salud mental es la educación y la formación. [3]

Obstetricia

Un profesional de la salud materna y neonatal es un experto en atención de la salud que se ocupa del cuidado de las mujeres y sus hijos antes, durante y después del embarazo y el parto. Estos profesionales de la salud incluyen obstetras , asistentes médicos , parteras , enfermeras obstétricas y muchos otros. Una de las principales diferencias entre estas profesiones está en la capacitación y la autoridad para brindar servicios quirúrgicos y otras intervenciones que salvan vidas. [4] En algunos países en desarrollo, las parteras tradicionales o parteras tradicionales son la fuente principal de atención durante el embarazo y el parto para muchas mujeres y familias, aunque no están certificadas ni autorizadas.

Geriatría

Un médico de atención geriátrica planifica y coordina el cuidado de los ancianos y / o discapacitados para promover su salud, mejorar su calidad de vida y mantener su independencia durante el mayor tiempo posible. Incluyen geriatras , terapeutas ocupacionales , asistentes médicos , enfermeras practicantes adultos-gerontología , especialistas en enfermería clínica , farmacéuticos clínicos geriátricos, enfermeras geriátricas , administradores de atención geriátrica , auxiliares de geriatría , auxiliares de enfermería, cuidadores y otros que se centran en las necesidades de salud y de atención psicológica de adultos mayores.

Cirugía

Un médico quirúrgico es un profesional de la salud y un experto que se especializa en la planificación y prestación de la atención perioperatoria de un paciente, incluso durante las etapas de anestesia, cirugía y recuperación. Pueden incluir cirujanos generales y especialistas , asistentes médicos , cirujanos asistentes , asistentes quirúrgicos, cirujanos veterinarios , técnicos veterinarios . anestesiólogos , asistentes de anestesiólogos , enfermeras anestesistas , enfermeras quirúrgicas , oficiales clínicos , médicos del departamento de operaciones , técnicos en anestesia , enfermeras perioperatorias , tecnólogos quirúrgicos y otros.

Rehabilitación

Un profesional de la atención de rehabilitación es un trabajador de la salud que brinda atención y tratamiento cuyo objetivo es mejorar y restaurar la capacidad funcional y la calidad de vida de las personas con impedimentos físicos o discapacidades . Estos incluyen psiquiatras , asistentes médicos , enfermeras de rehabilitación , especialistas en enfermería clínica , profesionales de enfermería , fisioterapeutas , quiroprácticos , ortopedistas , protésicos , terapeutas ocupacionales , terapeutas recreativos , audiólogos , logopedas , terapeutas respiratorios , consejeros de rehabilitación , terapeutas de rehabilitación física , entrenadores de atletismo , técnicos de fisioterapia, técnicos de ortopedia, técnicos de prótesis, asistentes de cuidado personal , entre otros. [5]

Optometría

La atención y el tratamiento del ojo y los anexos pueden ser brindados por oftalmólogos especializados en atención médica / quirúrgica u optometristas especializados en manejo refractivo y atención médica / terapéutica. Los asistentes médicos también ejercen en colaboración con oftalmólogos en esta área de la medicina.

Diagnósticos

Los proveedores de diagnóstico médico son trabajadores de la salud responsables del proceso de determinar qué enfermedad o afección explica los síntomas y signos de una persona. A menudo se lo denomina diagnóstico con el contexto médico implícito. Esto generalmente involucra a un equipo de proveedores de atención médica en varias unidades de diagnóstico. Estos incluyen radiólogos , radiólogos , ecografistas , científicos de laboratorio médico , patólogos y profesionales relacionados.

Odontología

Asistente dental a la derecha apoyando a un operador dental a la izquierda, durante un procedimiento.

Un odontólogo es un trabajador de la salud y un experto que brinda atención y tratamiento para promover y restaurar la salud bucal. Estos incluyen los dentistas y cirujanos dentales , asistentes dentales , auxiliares dentales , higienistas dentales , enfermeras dentales , técnicos dentales , terapeutas dentales o terapeutas de salud oral , y profesionales relacionados.

Podología

El cuidado y el tratamiento del pie, el tobillo y la parte inferior de la pierna pueden estar a cargo de podólogos , podólogos , pedotistas , profesionales de la salud de los pies , asistentes médicos podiátricos, enfermeras podiátricas y otros.

Salud pública

Un profesional de la salud pública se centra en mejorar la salud de las personas, las familias y las comunidades mediante la prevención y el tratamiento de enfermedades y lesiones, la vigilancia de casos y la promoción de conductas saludables. Esta categoría incluye especialistas en medicina comunitaria y preventiva, asistentes médicos , enfermeras de salud pública , farmacéuticos , especialistas en enfermería clínica , dietistas , oficiales de salud ambiental ( inspectores de salud pública ), paramédicos , epidemiólogos , dentistas de salud pública y otros.

Medicina alternativa

En muchas sociedades, los profesionales de la medicina alternativa tienen contacto con un número significativo de personas, ya sea integradas dentro o fuera del sistema de atención de salud formal. Estos incluyen practicantes de acupuntura , Ayurveda , herboristería , homeopatía , naturopatía , Reiki , curación energética Shamballa Reiki , medicina Siddha , medicina tradicional china , medicina tradicional coreana , Unani y Yoga . En algunos países como Canadá, los quiroprácticos y osteópatas (que no deben confundirse con los médicos de medicina osteopática en los Estados Unidos ) se consideran profesionales de la medicina alternativa.

Muchas jurisdicciones informan sobre deficiencias en la cantidad de recursos humanos de salud capacitados para satisfacer las necesidades de salud de la población y / o los objetivos de prestación de servicios, especialmente en áreas médicamente desatendidas. Por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos, el presupuesto federal de 2010 invirtió $ 330 millones para aumentar el número de médicos, asistentes médicos, enfermeras practicantes, enfermeras y dentistas que ejercen en áreas del país que experimentan escasez de profesionales de la salud capacitados. El Presupuesto amplía los programas de pago de préstamos para médicos, enfermeras y dentistas que aceptan ejercer en áreas médicamente desatendidas. Esta financiación mejorará la capacidad de las escuelas de enfermería para aumentar el número de enfermeras. También permitirá a los estados aumentar el acceso a la atención de la salud bucal a través de subvenciones para el desarrollo de la fuerza laboral dental . Los nuevos recursos del Presupuesto sostendrán la expansión de la fuerza laboral del cuidado de la salud financiada en la Ley de Recuperación . [6] En 2011 había 15,7 millones de profesionales de la salud en EE. UU. [7]

In Canada, the 2011 federal budget announced a Canada Student Loan forgiveness program to encourage and support new family physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners and nurses to practice in underserved rural or remote communities of the country, including communities that provide health services to First Nations and Inuit populations.[8]

In Uganda, the Ministry of Health reports that as many as 50% of staffing positions for health workers in rural and underserved areas remain vacant. As of early 2011, the Ministry was conducting research and costing analyses to determine the most appropriate attraction and retention packages for medical officers, nursing officers, pharmacists, and laboratory technicians in the country's rural areas.[9]

At the international level, the World Health Organization estimates a shortage of almost 4.3 million doctors, midwives, nurses, and support workers worldwide to meet target coverage levels of essential primary health care interventions.[10] The shortage is reported most severe in 57 of the poorest countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.

A healthcare professional wears an air sampling device to investigate exposure to airborne influenza

The healthcare workforce faces unique health and safety challenges and is recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[11]

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A video describing the Occupational Health and Safety Network, a tool for monitoring occupational hazards to health care workers

Occupational stress and occupational burnout are highly prevalent among health professionals.[12] Some studies suggest that workplace stress is pervasive in the health care industry because of inadequate staffing levels, long work hours, exposure to infectious diseases and hazardous substances leading to illness or death, and in some countries threat of malpractice litigation. Other stressors include the emotional labor of caring for ill people and high patient loads. The consequences of this stress can include substance abuse, suicide, major depressive disorder, and anxiety, all of which occur at higher rates in health professionals than the general working population. Elevated levels of stress are also linked to high rates of burnout, absenteeism and diagnostic errors, and reduced rates of patient satisfaction.[13] In Canada, a national report (Canada's Health Care Providers) also indicated higher rates of absenteeism due to illness or disability among health care workers compared to the rest of the working population, although those working in health care reported similar levels of good health and fewer reports of being injured at work.[14] There is some evidence that cognitive-behavioral therapy, relaxation training and therapy (including meditation and massage), and modifying schedules can reduce stress and burnout among multiple sectors of health care providers. Research is ongoing in this area, especially with regards to physicians, whose occupational stress and burnout is less researched compared to other health professions.[15]

Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and influenza can be reduced with the use of respirators; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals.[16] Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including chemotherapy drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions.[17] Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including scabies.[18] Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood-borne diseases like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV/AIDS through needlestick injuries or contact with bodily fluids.[19][20] This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B.[20] In epidemic situations, such as the 2014-2016 West African Ebola virus epidemic or the 2003 SARS outbreak, healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is the first-line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environments or low-resource settings. A 2020 Cochrane systematic review found low-quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination but that more randomized controlled trials are needed for how best to train healthcare workers in proper PPE use.[21]

Female health care workers may face specific types of workplace-related health conditions and stress. According to the World Health Organization, women predominate in the formal health workforce in many countries and are prone to musculoskeletal injury (caused by physically demanding job tasks such as lifting and moving patients) and burnout. Female health workers are exposed to hazardous drugs and chemicals in the workplace which may cause adverse reproductive outcomes such as spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations. In some contexts, female health workers are also subject to gender-based violence from coworkers and patients.[22][23]

Healthcare workers are at higher risk of on-the-job injury due to violence. Drunk, confused, and hostile patients and visitors are a continual threat to providers attempting to treat patients. Frequently, assault and violence in a healthcare setting goes unreported and is wrongly assumed to be part of the job.[24] Violent incidents typically occur during one-on-one care; being alone with patients increases healthcare workers' risk of assault.[25] In the United States, healthcare workers suffer ⅔ of nonfatal workplace violence incidents.[24] Psychiatric units represent the highest proportion of violent incidents, at 40%; they are followed by geriatric units (20%) and the emergency department (10%). Workplace violence can also cause psychological trauma.[25]

Slips, trips, and falls are the second-most common cause of worker's compensation claims in the US and cause 21% of work absences due to injury. These injuries most commonly result in strains and sprains; women, those older than 45, and those who have been working less than a year in a healthcare setting are at the highest risk.[7]

Health care professionals are also likely to experience sleep deprivation due to their jobs. Many health care professionals are on a shift work schedule, and therefore experience misalignment of their work schedule and their circadian rhythm. In 2007, 32% of healthcare workers were found to get fewer than 6 hours of sleep a night. Sleep deprivation also predisposes healthcare professionals to make mistakes that may potentially endanger a patient.[26]

An epidemiological study published in 2018 examined the hearing status of noise-exposed health care and social assistance (HSA) workers sector to estimate and compare the prevalence of hearing loss by subsector within the sector. Most of the HSA subsector prevalence estimates ranged from 14% to 18%, but the Medical and Diagnostic Laboratories subsector had 31% prevalence and the Offices of All Other Miscellaneous Health Practitioners had a 24% prevalence. The Child Day Care Services subsector also had a 52% higher risk than the reference industry.[27]

Practicing without a license that is valid and current is typically illegal. In most jurisdictions, the provision of health care services is regulated by the government. Individuals found to be providing medical, nursing or other professional services without the appropriate certification or license may face sanctions and criminal charges leading to a prison term. The number of professions subject to regulation, requisites for individuals to receive professional licensure, and nature of sanctions that can be imposed for failure to comply vary across jurisdictions.

In the United States, under Michigan state laws, an individual is guilty of a felony if identified as practicing in the health profession without a valid personal license or registration. Health professionals can also be imprisoned if found guilty of practicing beyond the limits allowed by their licences and registration. The state laws define the scope of practice for medicine, nursing, and a number of allied health professions.[28][unreliable source?] In Florida, practicing medicine without the appropriate license is a crime classified as a third degree felony,[29] which may give imprisonment up to five years. Practicing a health care profession without a license which results in serious bodily injury classifies as a second degree felony,[29] providing up to 15 years' imprisonment.

In the United Kingdom, healthcare professionals are regulated by the state; the UK Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) protects the 'title' of each profession it regulates. For example, it is illegal for someone to call himself an Occupational Therapist or Radiographer if they are not on the register held by the HCPC.

Based on recommendations from The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for TB screening and testing the following best practices should be followed when hiring and employing Health Care Personnel.[30]

Initial hiring process

When hiring Health Care Personnel, the applicant should complete the following:[31]

  1. a TB risk assessment[32]
  2. a TB symptom evaluation for at least those listed on the Signs & Symptoms page[33]
  3. a TB test in accordance with the guidelines for Testing for TB Infection[34]
  4. Additional evaluation for TB disease as needed (e.g. chest x-ray for HCP with a positive TB test)[31]

Recommended testing procedures

The CDC recommends either a blood test, also known as an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA), or a skin test, also known as a Mantoux tuberculin skin test (TST).[34] It is not the intention of this article to explore the protocol of carrying out a proper TB test. A TB blood test for baseline testing does not require two-step testing. If the skin test method is used to test HCP upon hire, then two-step testing should be used. A one-step test is not recommended.[31]

Two-step testing

The CDC has outlined further specifics on recommended testing for several scenarios.[35] In summary:

  1. Previous documented positive skin test (TST) then a further TST is not recommended
  2. Previous documented negative TST within 12 months before employment OR at least two documented negative TSTs ever then a single TST is recommended
  3. All other scenarios, with the exception of programs using blood tests, the recommended testing is a two-step TST

According to these recommended testing guidelines any two negative TST results within 12 months of each other constitute a two-step TST.

Annual screening, testing, and education

  1. The only recurring requirement for all HCP is to receive TB education annually.[31] While the CDC offers education materials there is not a well defined requirement as to what constitutes a satisfactory annual education.
  2. Annual TB testing is no longer recommended unless there is a known exposure or ongoing transmission at a healthcare facility.
  3. Should an HCP be considered at increased occupational risk for TB annual screening may be considered.
  4. For HCP with a documented history of a positive TB test result do not need to be re-tested but should instead complete a TB symptom evaluation. It is assumed that any HCP who has undergone a chest x-ray test has had a previous positive test result.

  • List of healthcare occupations
  • Community health center
  • Chronic care management
  • Electronic superbill
  • Geriatric care management
  • Health human resources

  1. ^ World Health Organization, 2006. World Health Report 2006: working together for health. Geneva: WHO.
  2. ^ World Health Organization, 2010. Classifying health workers. Geneva "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-08-16. Retrieved 2016-02-13.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  3. ^ "Difference Between Psychologists and Psychiatrists". Psychology.about.com. 2007. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved March 4, 2007.
  4. ^ Gupta N et al. "Human resources for maternal, newborn and child health: from measurement and planning to performance for improved health outcomes. Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine Human Resources for Health, 2011, 9(16). Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  5. ^ Gupta N et al. "Health-related rehabilitation services: assessing the global supply of and need for human resources." Archived 2012-07-20 at the Wayback Machine BMC Health Services Research, 2011, 11:276. Published 17 October 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  6. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Office of Management and Budget. Retrieved 2009-03-06 – via National Archives.
  7. ^ a b Collins, James W.; Bell, Jennifer L. (June 11, 2012). "Slipping, Tripping, and Falling at Work". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH. Archived from the original on December 3, 2012.
  8. ^ Government of Canada. 2011. Canada's Economic Action Plan: Forgiving Loans for New Doctors and Nurses in Under-Served Rural and Remote Areas. Ottawa, 22 March 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
  9. ^ Rockers P et al. Determining Priority Retention Packages to Attract and Retain Health Workers in Rural and Remote Areas in Uganda. Archived 2011-05-23 at the Wayback Machine CapacityPlus Project. February 2011.
  10. ^ "The World Health Report 2006 - Working together for health". Geneva: WHO: World Health Organization. 2006. Archived from the original on 2011-02-28.
  11. ^ "National Occupational Research Agenda for Healthcare and Social Assistance | NIOSH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-02-15. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  12. ^ Ruotsalainen, Jani H.; Verbeek, Jos H.; Mariné, Albert; Serra, Consol (2015-04-07). "Preventing occupational stress in healthcare workers". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD002892. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002892.pub5. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 6718215. PMID 25847433.
  13. ^ "Exposure to Stress: Occupational Hazards in Hospitals". NIOSH Publication No. 2008–136 (July 2008). 2 December 2008. doi:10.26616/NIOSHPUB2008136. Archived from the original on 12 December 2008.
  14. ^ Canadian Institute for Health Information. Canada's Health Care Providers, 2007 Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Ottawa, 2007.
  15. ^ Ruotsalainen, JH; Verbeek, JH; Mariné, A; Serra, C (7 April 2015). "Preventing occupational stress in healthcare workers". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD002892. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002892.pub5. PMC 6718215. PMID 25847433.
  16. ^ Bergman, Michael; Zhuang, Ziqing; Shaffer, Ronald E. (25 July 2013). "Advanced Headforms for Evaluating Respirator Fit". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
  17. ^ Connor, Thomas H. (March 7, 2011). "Hazardous Drugs in Healthcare". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH. Archived from the original on March 7, 2012.
  18. ^ FitzGerald, Deirdre; Grainger, Rachel J.; Reid, Alex (2014). "Interventions for preventing the spread of infestation in close contacts of people with scabies". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2 (2): CD009943. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009943.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 24566946.
  19. ^ Cunningham, Thomas; Burnett, Garrett (17 May 2013). "Does your workplace culture help protect you from hepatitis?". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
  20. ^ a b Lavoie, Marie-Claude; Verbeek, Jos H.; Pahwa, Manisha (2014). "Devices for preventing percutaneous exposure injuries caused by needles in healthcare personnel". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (3): CD009740. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009740.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 24610008.
  21. ^ Verbeek, Jos H.; Rajamaki, Blair; Ijaz, Sharea; Sauni, Riitta; Toomey, Elaine; Blackwood, Bronagh; Tikka, Christina; Ruotsalainen, Jani H.; Kilinc Balci, F. Selcen (May 15, 2020). "Personal protective equipment for preventing highly infectious diseases due to exposure to contaminated body fluids in healthcare staff". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5: CD011621. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011621.pub5. hdl:1983/b7069408-3bf6-457a-9c6f-ecc38c00ee48. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 32412096.
  22. ^ World Health Organization. Women and health: today's evidence, tomorrow's agenda. Archived 2012-12-25 at the Wayback Machine Geneva, 2009. Retrieved on March 9, 2011.
  23. ^ Swanson, Naomi; Tisdale-Pardi, Julie; MacDonald, Leslie; Tiesman, Hope M. (13 May 2013). "Women's Health at Work". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
  24. ^ a b Hartley, Dan; Ridenour, Marilyn (12 August 2013). "Free On-line Violence Prevention Training for Nurses". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Archived from the original on 16 January 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
  25. ^ a b Hartley, Dan; Ridenour, Marilyn (September 13, 2011). "Workplace Violence in the Healthcare Setting". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH. Archived from the original on February 8, 2014.
  26. ^ Caruso, Claire C. (August 2, 2012). "Running on Empty: Fatigue and Healthcare Professionals". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH. Archived from the original on May 11, 2013.
  27. ^ Masterson, Elizabeth A.; Themann, Christa L.; Calvert, Geoffrey M. (2018-04-15). "Prevalence of Hearing Loss Among Noise-Exposed Workers Within the Health Care and Social Assistance Sector, 2003 to 2012". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 60 (4): 350–356. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000001214. ISSN 1076-2752. PMID 29111986. S2CID 4637417.
  28. ^ wiki.bmezine.com --> Practicing Medicine. In turn citing Michigan laws
  29. ^ a b CHAPTER 2004-256 Committee Substitute for Senate Bill No. 1118 Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine State of Florida, Department of State.
  30. ^ Sosa, Lynn E. (April 2, 2019). "Tuberculosis Screening, Testing, and Treatment of U.S. Health Care Personnel: Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2019". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6819a3 – via www.cdc.gov.
  31. ^ a b c d "Testing Health Care Workers | Testing & Diagnosis | TB | CDC". www.cdc.gov. March 8, 2021.
  32. ^ https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/infectioncontrol/pdf/healthCareSettings-assessment.pdf
  33. ^ "Signs & Symptoms | Basic TB Facts | TB | CDC". www.cdc.gov. February 4, 2021.
  34. ^ a b "Testing for TB Infection | Testing & Diagnosis | TB | CDC". www.cdc.gov. March 8, 2021.
  35. ^ "Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Health-Care Settings, 2005". www.cdc.gov.

  • World Health Organization: Health workers