Se conjetura que la historia de los judíos en Colonia se remonta posiblemente a finales del Imperio Romano, y está documentada oficialmente desde el período de la Alta Edad Media. A lo largo de su historia, la comunidad judía de Colonia ha sufrido persecuciones, muchas expulsiones, masacres y destrucción. La comunidad contaba con unas 19.500 personas antes de su dispersión, asesinatos y destrucción en la década de 1930 por los nazis antes y durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. La comunidad se ha restablecido y ahora cuenta con unos 4.500 miembros. Debido a su continuidad histórica, la sinagoga judía de hoy se llama a sí misma la "congregación judía más antigua al norte de los Alpes". [1]
La época romana
Colonia fue fundada y establecida en el siglo I d.C., como la Colonia Romana Claudia Ara Agrippinensium en el territorio de Ubii . [2] Fue la capital de la provincia romana de Germania Inferior y el cuartel general del ejército en la región. Colonia fue una ciudad importante en la época romana. H. Nissen supone una población mucho mayor para la Colonia romana que en la Edad Media, cuando estima que estaba entre 30.000 y 40.000. [ cita requerida ] Es razonable suponer que la expansión del cristianismo en cualquier provincia romana fue precedida y acompañada por la existencia de judíos allí. Por lo tanto, la presencia de cristianos en Colonia en el siglo II abogaría por el asentamiento de judíos en la ciudad en esa fecha temprana.
El judaísmo fue reconocido como una religio licita (religión permitida), y los judíos estaban exentos de la ofrenda al Emperador y de las ofrendas a los dioses del estado romano . Sin embargo, a los judíos se les negó el acceso a los cargos públicos porque estos eran los requisitos básicos para acceder a un cargo público. [3] Para el nombramiento a una oficina municipal, se requería que una persona fuera propietaria de un terreno y tuviera cierta reputación. En la Antigüedad tardía , la clase alta romana se negó cada vez más a participar en estos costosos cargos, y la administración romana entró en crisis y el emperador tuvo que buscar alternativas. Se hizo necesario que el Concilio de Colonia usara un decreto del emperador Constantino el Grande de 321, que permitía que los judíos fueran designados para la curia . Esta es la primera evidencia de la existencia de una comunidad judía en la ciudad de Colonia. El decreto del emperador fue transmitido en el Codex Theodosianus (439), que indica la existencia de una comunidad judía firmemente establecida en Colonia en 321 y 331. [4] Una traducción parcial del Codex dice:
"Permitimos que todos los ayuntamientos designen por ley general a los judíos en la Curia. Para darles una cierta compensación por las reglas anteriores, dejamos que siempre dos o tres de ellos disfruten del privilegio de no ser llevados a ningún cargo".
Los hallazgos arqueológicos indican la presencia de orientales alrededor de ese período, y entre ellos había sirios, como lo demuestra una inscripción aramea desenterrada en 1930. En otro documento, de 341, se registra que la sinagoga recibió el privilegio del emperador. . Estos decretos de Constantino siguieron siendo durante algunos siglos los únicos relatos de la existencia de una comunidad judía en Colonia. [5]
Edad media
Bajo los reyes francos, sajones y salianos
La región fue ocupada por los francos en 462, que se convirtió al cristianismo a finales de siglo. Durante la Edad Media, Colonia floreció como una de las rutas comerciales más importantes entre el este y el oeste de Europa. Colonia fue uno de los miembros principales de la Liga Hanseática y una de las ciudades más grandes al norte de los Alpes en la época medieval y renacentista. La primera referencia documental a los judíos en Colonia en la Edad Media fue a la época del arzobispo Heribert de Colonia (999-1021), el sabio amigo del emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico Otto III . Winheim y Gelenius, basándose en las Crónicas anuales de Colonia durante los siglos XIV y XV, informan que en 1426 la sinagoga se convirtió en una iglesia. Luego comentan que esta sinagoga había existido 414 años. Eso situaría su origen en la época de Heribert. [6] El barrio judío cerca de Hohe Straße se menciona por primera vez durante el episcopado de Anno II, arzobispo de Colonia (1056-1075) y ha llegado un informe sobre los judíos que se unieron para lamentarse por la muerte del arzobispo.
El número de judíos en la comunidad durante el último cuarto del siglo XI no era menos de 600. Los mercados de Colonia habían atraído a muchos visitantes judíos que se habían quedado en parte. Los judíos italianos se mencionan en las historias sobre los cruzados en Colonia. El hecho de que la comunidad judía era importante se prueba aún más por la declaración en estos informes hebreos de que de Colonia salieron "nuestros hermanos esparcidos por la tierra, apoyo para su vida y correctas palabras de juicio". Significa que la comunidad era el centro de la vida judía de todas las comunidades de la zona. [7]
Cruzadas
Durante la Edad Media , la comunidad judía se instaló en un barrio cercano al Rathaus . Todavía ahora el nombre "Judengasse" da testimonio de su existencia. Durante la Primera Cruzada en 1096 hubo varios pogromos. Aunque la Cruzada comenzó en Francia, los asaltos ocurrieron a través del Sacro Imperio Romano. El 27 de mayo de 1096, cientos de judíos fueron asesinados en Mainz durante las masacres de Renania . El palacio del arzobispo de Mainz, Ruthard , donde los judíos se habían refugiado, fue asaltado por los cruzados después de poca resistencia. Ruthard fue acusado de apropiarse de la propiedad de judíos asesinados. Algo similar sucedió en julio del mismo año en Colonia. [8] Los judíos fueron bautizados a la fuerza. El permiso del emperador Enrique IV de permitir que los judíos que habían sido bautizados por la fuerza volvieran a su fe no fue ratificado por el antipapa Clemente III . [9] A partir de esa época, los asaltos pequeños y grandes se repitieron no solo en Renania .
En los siglos XII y XIII la actitud antisemita de los habitantes de la ciudad se hizo más fuerte. En 1146, otros judíos fueron asesinados cerca de Königswinter por una turba de cristianos furiosos, justo después del comienzo de la Segunda Cruzada . [10] También en Andernach , [11] Altenahr , [12] Bonn [13] y Lechenich [14] judíos fueron asesinados y sus casas saqueadas. Es de suponer que estos acontecimientos se asociarán con una ola de persecuciones en 1287/88. [15] No se informa de agresiones violentas contra judíos de Colonia en este período. Después del IV Concilio de Letrán en 1215, todos los judíos se vieron obligados a mostrar en sus ropas una clara señal de que no eran cristianos. [dieciséis]
Pogroms medievales en Colonia
Después de la batalla de Worringen el 8 de junio de 1288, tuvo lugar un pogromo temprano en contra , cuando el arzobispo derrotado de Colonia fue encarcelado. Durante los días siguientes, una persecución de judíos se extendió por los alrededores de Colonia. [17] En 1300, se construyó un muro alrededor del Barrio Judío, presuntamente pagado por la propia Comunidad Judía, aunque naturalmente se habría requerido el permiso del Arzobispo. [18]
En 1317, el Papa Juan XXII inició una campaña rigurosa contra los judíos y declaró públicamente que los intereses usureros (lo que significaba cualquier interés) no deberían pagarse a los judíos. En 1320, algunos habitantes de Colonia intentaron eludir la obligación de pagar sus deudas con los judíos apelando a la legislación de la iglesia. El Concilio de Colonia consideró necesario actuar de manera preventiva con respecto a esta negativa aparentemente sancionada por la Iglesia de pagar las deudas y tomó medidas en 1321 para limitar los intereses adeudados bajo pena. En 1327, el concilio reiteró esta ordenanza y apeló directamente contra un decreto papal dirigido específicamente contra Salomón de Basilea . [19] El mismo concilio se refirió en 1334 a la misma carta del Papa y apeló al arzobispo Walram von Jülich para que lo protegiera de un banquero judío llamado Meyer de Siegburg, quien exigió el pago de su dinero. La acción terminó con el retiro de todas las deudas de la ciudad y la condena a muerte de Meyer. [20] Los concejales estaban en deuda con Meyer, y el arzobispo se quedó con la propiedad confiscada de los condenados. Además, el arzobispo también tenía deudas con Meyer y pudo cancelarlas de la misma manera. [21]
En total, los judíos de Colonia entre 1096 y 1349 parecen haber estado relativamente seguros con respecto a la vida y la condición física [22] como "conciudadanos (Mitbürger)". [23] Sin embargo, existe evidencia sustancial de un sentimiento de antagonismo generalmente difuso contra ellos. [24] Por ejemplo, la infame llamada " cerda judía " , hecha presumiblemente alrededor de 1320, aparece en un coro de madera de la catedral de Colonia [25]
Desde 1266 los judíos de Colonia tenían el privilegio exclusivo de prestar dinero, lo que estaba prohibido a los cristianos por la ley de la Iglesia. Las decisiones entre 1252 y 1320 abordan el estatus legal, la protección y los impuestos de los judíos de Colonia. [26]
El arzobispo Engelbert II von Falkenburg hizo tallar en piedra el "Judenprivileg" en el exterior de la sala del tesoro de la catedral. [27] En los años hacia 1320 hay claros indicios de hostilidad religiosa dirigida por el clero de Colonia contra los judíos por razones religiosas, particularmente provocadas por los privilegios de los judíos de Colonia. La razón de esto puede verse en un cambio de estatus de Schutzjude . El clero de Colonia no obtuvo más beneficios de las transacciones de préstamos de los judíos. Cada vez más, el ayuntamiento participaba en el negocio, lo que provocó fricciones adicionales entre el arzobispo y el consejo. En la lucha por el poder, los judíos de Colonia también podrían utilizarse hasta cierto punto como un medio para presionar a sus clientes. Los protectores de los judíos de Colonia, el arzobispo y el rey, podrían vender el Schutzjude . Hubo una pelea legal entre el clero, el rey y el Consejo de Colonia, por lo que el consejo podría privar a estos rivales de una fuente rentable de ingresos si se deshacían de los judíos. Además, se podrían cancelar algunas deudas. Las decisiones del Concilio documentan el empeoramiento del clima entre cristianos y judíos.
Preparación del pogrom
La persecución de la comunidad judía en el momento de la Peste Negra se convirtió en la más feroz de toda la Edad Media. [28] En / 1340, una terrible pestilencia llegó a Europa. La Peste Negra no había llegado a Colonia hasta diciembre de 1349 [29] Sin embargo, los informes de su devastador impacto llegaron al Rin desde el sur considerablemente antes. En última instancia, entre el 30 y el 60% de la población europea murió a causa de la epidemia, lo que provocó temores de naturaleza apocalíptica. Las acusaciones de que la plaga fue causada por una conspiración de los judíos para envenenar los pozos (acusaciones que no se probaron ni en un solo caso) aparentemente tenían origen en el sur de Francia, pero rápidamente se expandieron por todo el continente. Formaron el telón de fondo de un pogromo asesino el 23 y 24 de agosto de 1349 en Colonia.
Hay una carta del Consejo de Colonia al consejo de Estrasburgo , en la que el Consejo de Colonia expresa preocupación por un incidente antijudío en Estrasburgo y advierte insistentemente contra una escalada. Los judíos y sus posesiones estaban protegidos por cartas de protección o consuelo, que había que tener en cuenta. [30] En la misma carta, el Concilio de Colonia deja claro que ellos protegerían decididamente a sus propios judíos. [31] Sin embargo, el consejo de Estrasburgo, habiendo tomado inicialmente una posición contra las persecuciones, fue atacado y reemplazado por la población; el nuevo consejo de Estrasburgo invocó la paz pública y pidió a todos los ciudadanos que mataran a los judíos en todo su territorio. [32] Este desarrollo no pasó desapercibido para el ayuntamiento de Colonia.
A diferencia de la mayoría de las otras persecuciones antijudías de la época, el pogromo en Colonia no fue espontáneo y no se originó entre los rangos más bajos de la población de Colonia. Más bien, parece haber sido premeditado, ya que existe una clara evidencia de la participación de las principales figuras sociales, o al menos de algunas de ellas. [33] Inspirado por los eventos antes mencionados en Estrasburgo , que el Consejo de Colonia observó de cerca, el pogromo parece haber sido planeado metódicamente. Los miembros del consejo habían formado previamente una alianza con todos los que podrían tener una ventaja del asesinato o la expulsión de los judíos para protegerse contra los protectores oficiales de los judíos, en particular Carlos IV (entonces rey de los romanos ) y Habsburg Vögte . Esto indica que el pogromo estaba dirigido en última instancia contra los Habsburgo y explotó el pánico entre la población simplemente para alcanzar sus objetivos de poder político.
El arzobispo de Colonia , Walram von Jülich , que había abandonado la ciudad a finales de junio de 1349 para ir a Francia, murió en París poco tiempo después. Carlos IV se había quedado en Colonia hasta el 19 de junio y se había marchado con su séquito. Había logrado asegurar sus intereses en Colonia mostrando favoritismo en las disputas de la corona, sin duda no en beneficio de todos los intereses del arzobispado. El exterminio de la comunidad judía serviría así para debilitar las posiciones tanto de Carlos IV como del clero al asociarlos con un grupo ya despreciado por la población. En agosto de 1349 no solo estaba vacante la sede del arzobispo, sino que Carlos IV no estaba lo suficientemente cerca para actuar. Del 23 al 24 de agosto, la relativa seguridad de los judíos en Colonia llegó a su fin. Los judíos, que ya se habían enfrentado a la masacre en los territorios circundantes, ahora también fueron asesinados en la propia Colonia. [34]
Noche de Bartolomé y sus consecuencias
El resultado real del pogromo no se conoce bien. En el transcurso de la Noche de San Bartolomé en 1349, el barrio judío cerca del ayuntamiento ( Rathaus ) fue atacado, después de lo cual siguió el asesinato, el saqueo de las propiedades judías y el incendio provocado. Los fugitivos fueron perseguidos y abatidos. Aunque en parte se contradicen entre sí, muchas fuentes dan testimonio de la calamidad. Algunos relatan que los propios judíos prendieron fuego a sus casas para no caer en manos de los saqueadores. [35] Otra versión dice que los judíos se quemaron en su sinagoga, lo cual es bastante improbable. Las excavaciones arqueológicas en el área de la judería medieval han sugerido que la sinagoga en sí estaba en pie sin daños después de la noche, pero que fue saqueada más tarde. [36] En su huida de los disturbios, una familia enterró sus pertenencias y mercancías. El tesoro de monedas fue descubierto durante las excavaciones en 1954 y ahora se exhibe en el Kölnisches Stadtmuseum . [37]
El relato del cronista Gilles Li Muisis , que relata una batalla regular de la ciudadanía contra más de 25.000 judíos y atribuye la victoria a la estratagema de un carnicero, no se considera fiable. [38] Sin embargo, el relato de Li Muisis acuñó el término "Judenschlacht" (la batalla de los judíos) para los eventos de esa noche. Igualmente improbable es la participación de los Flagelantes que, según algunas fuentes, estaban supuestamente presentes en Colonia en 1349. [39] Durante todo el proceso, el consejo se negó a actuar. Sin embargo, una vez que la violencia se calmó, el consejo y el nuevo arzobispo Willem van Gennep condenaron el pogromo con la mayor severidad. Se desconocen los nombres de los verdaderos tiradores de cables y de los violentos invasores de la judería. Sólo se puede afirmar definitivamente que el consejo se eximió de cualquier responsabilidad por los disturbios: una declaración del consejo culpó a una turba de fuera de la ciudad seguida de sólo unos pocos sin cuentas de Colonia. [40] Algunos de los supervivientes judíos expulsados de la ciudad buscaron refugio al otro lado del Rin. Aproximadamente diez años después del pogromo de 1349, los asentamientos judíos están documentados en Andernach y Siegburg.
Se puede documentar que los judíos regresaron solo en 1369, aunque el arzobispo Boemund II de Saarbrücken ya había intentado imponer el regreso de los judíos a la ciudad durante su reinado (1354 a 1361). [41] Sin embargo, fue sólo bajo Engelbert III von der Mark y particularmente bajo su coadjutor Cuno de Falkenstein que la tensa relación entre el arzobispo y el municipio había mejorado lo suficiente como para que la protección de los judíos pareciera razonablemente asegurada. Hay pruebas de que en 1372 había vuelto a surgir una pequeña comunidad judía en Colonia. [42] [43]
A petición del arzobispo Federico, los judíos fueron admitidos en la ciudad y obtuvieron un privilegio de protección temporal durante diez años. A esto, sin embargo, el Consejo impuso algunas condiciones. Por el privilegio de admisión había un impuesto entre 50 y 500 Gulden , con una nueva suma especificable cada año a pagar como contribución general. Después de nuevas ampliaciones del derecho de residencia, el Consejo proclamó en 1404 una Judenordnung más restrictiva . Ordenó que los judíos debían ser reconocibles por llevar un sombrero judío puntiagudo y prohibió cualquier exhibición de lujo de su parte. En 1423, el Concilio de Colonia decidió no extender el derecho de residencia temporal, que expiró en octubre de 1424. [44] Sin embargo, es notable que se hizo un intento de inmediato para restablecer una comunidad completa, en lugar de permitir solo a unos pocos judíos. establecerse a la vez, como era el procedimiento de la mayoría de las otras grandes ciudades. [45]
Emigración
En 1424, los judíos fueron expulsados de la ciudad "por la eternidad". Tras los pogromos medievales y la expulsión de 1424, muchos judíos de Colonia emigraron a países del centro o norte de Europa como Polonia y Lituania , que entonces formaban parte del Ordensstaat de la Orden Teutónica . La descendencia de estos emigrantes regresó a Colonia a principios del siglo XIX y vivió principalmente en el área de Thieboldsgasse en el lado sureste de Neumarkt. Solo unos pocos judíos permanecieron cerca de Colonia y se asentaron predominantemente en la orilla oriental del Rin (Deutz, Mülheim, Zündorf). Más tarde se desarrollaron nuevas comunidades, que crecieron con los años. La primera comunidad en Deutz vivió en el área de la actual calle Minden ("Mindener Straße"). Allí, los judíos se sintieron seguros bajo la protección del arzobispo Dietrich von Moers (1414-1463).
La prohibición del asentamiento judío en Colonia fue retirada a finales del siglo XVIII. Una nueva comunidad judía nació bajo la administración francesa. A principios de la Edad Moderna se reconstruyó la zona de la judería y se olvidó a los habitantes anteriores.
Tras la destrucción de la comunidad durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , se descubrieron los cimientos medievales, entre ellos una sinagoga y el monumental mikve de Colonia (baño ritual). El estudio arqueológico fue realizado después de la guerra por Otto Doppelfeld de 1953 a 1956. Sobre la base de la conciencia de la historia, el área no se ha reconstruido después de la guerra y se ha mantenido como una plaza frente al histórico Rathaus . Hoy, el barrio judío es parte de la "zona arqueológica de Colonia". [46]
La vida cultural en la Edad Media
En Colonia había una de las bibliotecas judías más grandes de la Edad Media. Después de la masacre de los judíos en York, Inglaterra, en 1190, se llevaron y se vendieron en Colonia varios libros hebreos de allí. Hay una serie de notables manuscritos e iluminaciones preparados por y para los judíos de Colonia durante los siglos XII al XV y que ahora se conservan en varias bibliotecas y museos de todo el mundo. [47]
Distinguidos judíos de Colonia
Según la Enciclopedia judía, Colonia era un centro de aprendizaje judío, y los "sabios de Colonia" se mencionan con frecuencia en la literatura rabínica. [48] Una característica de las autoridades talmúdicas de esa ciudad era su liberalidad. Muchos poemas litúrgicos que aún se encuentran en el ritual Ashkenazic fueron compuestos por poetas de Colonia.
Aquí están los nombres de muchos rabinos y eruditos de los siglos XI y XII: el legendario Amram, fundador tradicional de la escuela talmúdica en el siglo X; R. Jacob ben Yaḳḳar, discípulo de Gerson Meor ha-Golah (1050); el liturgista Eliakim ben Joseph; Eliezer ben Nathan (1070-1152), cronista de la Primera Cruzada; el poeta Eliezer ben Simson, quien, junto con el último nombrado, participó en la famosa asamblea de rabinos franceses y alemanes a mediados del siglo XII; el tosafista Samuel ben Natronai y su hijo Mardoqueo; el liturgista Joel ben Isaac ha-Levi (m. 1200); Uri ben Eliakim (mediados del siglo XII); R. Eliakim ben Judah; Ephraim ben Jacob de Bonn (n. 1132), cronista de la Segunda Cruzada. El último perdió en Colonia, en 1171, a su hijo Eliakim, un joven prometedor, que fue asesinado en la calle. Su lápida todavía se puede ver en el cementerio de Colonia.
Entre los rabinos y eruditos del siglo XIII estaban: Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi; Uri ben Joel ha-Levi; Jehiel ben Uri, padre de R. Asher; Isaac ben Simson (martirizado en 1266); Isaac ben Abraham, hermano del tosafista Simson ben Abraham de Sens (martirizado en 1266 en Sinzig); R. Isaiah ben Nehemiah (también martirizado en 1266 en Sinzig); el liturgista Eliezer ben Ḥayyim; Ḥayyim ben Jehiel (m. 1314) y Asher ben Jehiel (bc 1250; d. 1327); Yaḳḳar ben Samuel ha-Levi; Reuben ben Ezekiah de Boppard; Abraham ben Samuel; Judah ben Meïr; Samuel ben Joseph; Ḥayyim ben Shaltiel; Nathan ben Joel ha-Levi; Jacob Azriel ben Asher ha-Levi; Meïr ben Moses; Eliezer ben Judah ha-Kohen, la mayoría de los cuales son conocidos como comentaristas de la Biblia.
The rabbis and scholars of the 14th century include: Samuel ben Menahem, Talmudist and liturgist; Jedidiah ben Israel, disciple of Meïr of Rothenburg; and Mordecai ben Samuel. These three are called in the municipal sources "Gottschalk," "Moyter," and "Süsskind." The rabbi who officiated at the time of the banishment was Jekuthiel ben Moses Möln ha-Levi.
In Middle Ages there were in Cologne the following buildings, synagogues, mikvehs, schools, hospices and cemeteries:
Judenbüchel
In 1174 a document of Saint Engelbert, at the time provost of the monastery of Saint Severin in Cologne, mentions that thirty-eight years previously Knight Ortliv had given back five jugerum of land that he had received from the monastery as a fief near the Jews cemetery, and the land had been let to the Jews against a yearly payment of four denarii and Ortliv couldn't have any claim on it.[49] In 1266 Archbishop Engelbert II von Falkenburg ensured the lawful management and undisturbed usage of their cemetery on Bonner Strasse. It was located outside the walls of Cologne towards the south near Severinstores, called Judenbüchel or Toten Juden. This name remained to the area also after the removal of the cemetery until the construction of the supermarket in this place.
The cemetery measured 29,000 square meters. In 1096 Salomon ben Simeon mentions the tombstones of the Jews buried there. In 1146 Rabbi Simeon of Trier was buried in the cemetery by the leaders of the Cologne Jewish community. The earliest tombstone still in existence dates from the year 1152. After 1349 the tombstones were considered owner-less; some of them were torn out of their places and used by Archbishop William de Gunnep for the construction of the fortress of Lechenig or in Huelchrath. After 1372 the Jews of Cologne again were granted the use of the cemetery and it was used until 1693 mainly by the Jews of Deutz.[50]
Tombstones of 1323
By excavations of the area of the Cologne Rathaus in 1953 two fully conserved tombstones were found on the northwest corner of the building in a large bomb crater. They probably came from the Jewish cemetery of Judenbüchel and were used as building material. The inscription of the tombstone of Rachel said:
- " Rachel, daughter of R. Schneior, died on Tuesday, the 16 Elul of the year 83 of the sixth millennium. Her soul be tied in the union of eternal life. Amen. Sela"
Tiempos modernos
After the expulsion
The few Jews who remained in the city, began to re-establish a community in right-Rhenish Deutz, whose rabbi called himself later "Country Rabbi of Cologne" (Landesrabbiner). Rabbi Vives was known by this title during the mid-15th century.
In 1634, there were 17 Jews in Deutz, in 1659 there were 24 houses inhabited by Jews and in 1764 the community consisted of 19 people. Towards the end of the 18th century the community still consisted of 19 people.[51]
The community was located in a small Jewish "quarter" in the area of Mindener and Hallenstraße. A synagogue, first mentioned in 1426, was damaged by the immense ice drift of the Rhine in 1784. The mikveh associated with the synagogue probably still exists under the embankment of the Brückenrampe (Deutzer Bridge).[52] This first synagogue was then replaced by a new small building on the west end of "Freiheit", the today's street "Deutzer Freiheit" (1786–1914).
In those times, the Jews of the Deutz community lived like all the others of the Electorate of Cologne under the legal and society conditions, that were provided by the state from the end of the 16th century through a so-called "Judenordnung". The last issue of this laws for the Jews was the Order of 1700 by Kurfürst (elector of the Holy Roman Empire) Joseph Clemens. They were kept until new legislation came also in Deutz, with the adoption of the Napoleonic code.[53]
During the construction of the Deutzer Hängebrücke in 1913/14, the synagogue was abandoned and demolished.[54] In December 1913, during works to remove the "Schiffsbrückenstraßenbahnlinie" in Deutz on the "Freiheitsstraße", a mikveh was found under the old synagogue. The bath had a link to the water of the Rhine.[55]
Deutz Cemetery
In contrast to the building evidence in Innenstadt, the history of the Jewish communities outside the city center is revealed above all through the remains of the Jewish cemeteries. There are right-Rhenish Jewish cemetery in Mülheim, "Am Springborn", in Zündorf between "Hasenkaul" and the "Gartenweg", and one in Deutz im "Judenkirchhofsweg".[56] The latter was given to the Jews of Deutz by Archbishop Joseph Clemens of Bavaria in 1695 as a rented land. The first burials took place in 1699.[57] When in 1798 the Jews were again permitted to settle within the old city walls of Cologne, the cemetery was also used by this community until 1918.
Comeback
Until the French annexion of Cologne in 1794, following the French Revolution, no Jew was permitted to settle in Cologne. The Napoleonic Code included equality before the law, rights of individual freedom and the separation of church and state. The Government Commissioner Rudler, in his proclamation of June 21, 1798 to the inhabitants of the conquered territory announced:
- "Whatever smacks of slavery is abolished. Only before God will you have to give an accounting of your religious beliefs. Your civic rights will no longer depend upon your creeds. Whatever these are, they will be tolerated without distinctions and enjoy equal protection."[58]
A few months earlier, Joseph Isaac of Mühlheim on the Rhine had sought civic rights from the Magistracy of Cologne. Since he presented favorable evidence of his previous conduct and also proved that he would not become a burden to the city because of poverty, permission was granted to him on March 16, 1798 to settle in Cologne. The rest of his requests for civic rights were refused because French regulations had not yet come into force.[58] He was followed by Samuel Benjamin Cohen of Bonn, son of the Chief Rabbi Simha Brunem. At the same time, the 17-year-old Salomon Oppenheim, Jr. moved his businesses from Bonn to Cologne. He belonged to the families who built the first Cologne community of Modern Times. Oppenheim, Jr. traded with cotton, linen, oil, wine and tobacco but his main activity was banking. Already in 1810 his bank was the second largest in Cologne after "Abraham Schaffhausen". Within the new Cologne Jewish community, Oppenheim, Jr. took an outstanding position in the social and political life. He was in charge of the community school but he was also the deputy of the Cologne community, who sent him to the congress of Jewish Notables in Paris in 1806–1807.[59]
A modest hall of prayer was built inside the court of the former Monastery of St. Clarissa in Glockengasse. The land was bought by Benjamin Samuel Cohen, one of the Jewish communal leaders in the early 1800s, taking advantage of a property sale by the French tax-office.[60] Even if in those times a row of Jewish business people experienced an economic and social rise—Oppenheim Jr. was elected unanimously to be a member of the Chamber of Commerce and had for the first time as a Jew a public office—their legal status was unsecure.
The Prussian Jews Edict of March 11, 1812 didn't apply everywhere. It lasted until the Prussian Jewish Law of 1847 and finally until 1848, with the adoption of the constitutional charter for the Prussian State, the special status of the Jews was definitely abolished and a complete equality of rights with all other citizens was attained.[61] During the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states in 1848/49 there were strong anti-Jewish excesses in Eastern and South-eastern German regions and towns like Berlin, Prag and Vienna—but also Cologne.[citation needed]
Due to the growth of the community and the disrepair of the prayer hall in the former Monastery of St. Clarissa, the Oppenheim family donated a new synagogue building at Glockengasse 7. The number of the members of the community was now about of 1,000 adults. While in Medieval times the "quarter" had been built close to the synagogue in Cologne "Judengasse", by now the Jews lived in a decentralized area among the rest of the population. Many lived in the new periphery quarters near the city walls.[62]
Due to further growth of the Jewish population, more new constructions followed the one in Glockengasse. The orthodox synagogue in St. Apern Straße was dedicated on January 16, 1884; the liberal synagogue in Roonstraße was dedicated on March 22, 1899.
In the face of historical experiences in Europe, the Jews started initiatives to create their own state. The head office of the Zionist Organization for Germany was based in Richmodstraße near Neumarkt square, Cologne, and was founded by lawyer Max Bodenheimer together with merchant David Wolffsohn. Bodeheimer was president until 1910 and worked for Zionism with Theodor Herzl. The "Kölner Thesen" developed under Bodenheimer for Zionism were — with few adjustments — adopted as the "Basel Program" by the first Zionist Congress.[63] The goal of the organization was to obtain the foundation of a distinct state of Israel in Palestine for all the Jews of the world.
The synagogue in Glockengasse
After the constant growth of the community the hall of prayer at Glockengasse was overloaded. A donation of the Cologne banker Abraham Oppenheim of around 600,000 thalers allowed the construction of a new synagogue. The project was won by Ernst Friedrich Zwirner, leading architect of the Cathedral of Cologne, who designed a building in Moorish style. The new synagoge was inaugurated after four years of construction in August 1861. The inner and outside design was to remind the bloom of Jewish culture during 11th-century Moorish Spain. The new synagogue had a façade of light sandstone with red horizontal stripes as well as oriental minaret and a cupola covered with copper plates. The ornaments in the inside were inspired by the Alhambra of Granada. The new synagogue, which was valued positively by Cologne people, had seats for 226 men and 140 women.
While set on fire in November 1938,[64] the rolls of the Torah of 1902 could be saved, thanks to the Cologne priest Gustav Meinertz. After the war they were placed in a glass cabinet in Roonstrasse Synagogue. After a restoration, carried out in Jerusalem in 2007, they are now used again in the liturgies in Roonstrasse Synagogue, rebuilt after the war.
The orthodox synagogue in St. Apern-Straße
The St. Aper Straße Synagogue already existed during the middle of the 18th century. It was located in a mixed-use area, appreciated by affluent citizens. There were many exquisite antique shops, in which mostly Jewish owners sold expensive furniture and jewels. In 1884, these inhabitants built a synagogue of the orthodox community "Adass Jeschurun". The last rabbi was Isidor Caro who died in Theresienstadt concentration camp.
In the associated Jawne School, a Jewish school, there were courses from 1919 to 1941. It was the first and only Jewish gymnasium in the Rhineland.
The liberal synagogue in Roonstraße
By the end of 1899, the Jewish community in Cologne had grown to 9,745 members. Already in 1893, the community had bought a piece of land on Roonstraße — opposite the Königsplatz. In 1894, the Representative Assembly of the city voted for a grant of 40,000 marks from the city treasury. It was estimated that the cost of the new building would be about 550,000 marks. To cover this sum a substantial loan was made with the "Prussian Zentralbodenkredit Aktiengesellshaft".[65] The synagogue was finished in 1899 and had places for 763 men and 587 women in the gallery. A historical photo was considered worth to be put in the photo archive of the Israeli Holocaust Memorial Yad Vashem.[66] The structure has been seriously damaged during the war but it was decided to rebuild it. The reopened synagogue was dedicated on September 20, 1959.[67]
The synagogue in Reischplatz in Deutz
The last synagogue was built in Reischplatz in Deutz. The building was dedicated in 1915 and, after the damages of the last war, was rebuilt in another form and with a new usage, as there was no more Jewish community in Deutz. A commemorative plaque remembers the Deutz community and its last synagogue.[68]
The synagogue in Mülheim
The first synagogue of the community of Köln-Mülheim was damaged by a Rhine flood in 1784 — as was the one in Deutz. A new synagogue was dedicated in the same place a few years later, designed by the master-builder Wilhelm Hellwig in 1788/1789. The disposition of the construction began on the street with a school, on which a synagogue was attached with a hip roof on four sides. The building survived the 1938 pogrom but was damaged during the war and demolished in 1956.
Jewish community in Zündorf
The synagogue in Niederzündorf was at the beginning a prayer room, that had not enough space after the strong growth of the community in the 19th century. In 1882 a new building was completed, and the "Zündorfer Pfarrchronik" wrote:
- "The Jewish synagogue has been finished after much effort, the ceremony took place with the participation of many foreign Jews."
The land (today Hauptstr. 159) was sold and partly donated to the community by two Jewish business people from there, "Lazarus Meyer" und "Simon Salomon". The Pfarrchronik also wrote:
- "The Jews built a synagogue, that is a room, a chamber that served as a synagogue. The offering from the Jews of the Rhine province has supposedly reached a meager result."[69]
Other buildings and meeting houses
- Jewish asylum for ill and old people in Silvanstraße (Severinsviertel), later Ottostraße, Ehrenfeld.
- Community and meeting houses located in Innenstadt, south of the Neumarkt, in Bayardgasse, in Thieboldsgasse, Agrippastraße and Quirinstraße behind the Church of St. Pantaleon. These houses were also meeting points for Jews who came to Cologne from East European countries.[which?]
Jewish cemetery at Melaten
It is not clear in which year a Jewish cemetery was created as part of the large cemetery of Melaten. Until 1829, only Catholics could be buried there, while Protestants were buried in the old Geusen cemetery in Weyertal. The Jewish community buried its dead people until 1918 in Deutz and then in Bocklemünd. However, in 1899 also a section of Melaten cemetery was reserved to the Jews.[70] In 1899 there was the first burial. A part of the piece of land bordering a high wall can still be seen from the Melatengürtel street. In 1928, the cemetery was violated for the first time, in 1938 the mortuary chapel was destroyed.[71]
Deckstein cemetery
Located in Köln-Lindenthal, behind the area of the old Deckstein cemetery, this cemetery was created in 1910 from the community "Adass Jeschurun". Because the Adass Jeschurun oppose any concessions to Christian rituals, there is no burial in a coffin or urn. Also, flower decorations or wreaths are uncommon there. The tombstones of the cemetery are very sober and predominantly engraved with Hebrew letters. Entry is not open to the public (a permit needs to be obtained from the Synagogengemeinde Köln).[72]
Integration and business community
The Jewish business community was optimistic for the future. In 1891, the merchant Leonhard Tietz opened a department store on Hohe Straße. The banks of Seligmann and the Oppenheim family flourished. The store of textile wholesale company "Gebrüder Bing und Söhne" opened on the Neumarkt. Exquisite shops of Jewish merchants were situated around the cathedral on Hohe Straße and Schildergasse.
By the middle of the 19th century, Cologne developed into a scientific, economic and cultural centre, and the Jewish community had a strong part in this development. After Jewish citizens had taken their place in the financial and commercial world, and while being respected and recognized most places, they also tried to contribute in the forming of the political opinion. For example, Moses Hess and Karl Marx in 1842 wrote in the newly established "Rheinische Zeitung". They were among the leading contributors to this newspaper, dedicated to "politics, business and trade". In 1863, Hess, in his article "Rome and Jerusalem", tried to present a possibility of a resettlement of Jews in Palestine. His work, however, found little approval, with Jews in Germany, especially in large cities like Cologne, considering Germany as their country of origin and home.[73]
First World War and Weimar Republic
Just at the beginning of the First World War, the Jewish associations called their members to stand up for Germany. However the existing ressentiment against Jews participating to the war was so strong, especially among officers, that the Ministry of War was compelled as a mediation to arrange a so-called Jewish census.[74] At the end of the war in 1918, Adolf Kober took the place of rabbi of the Cologne community, which was one of the largest in Germany. Kober was one of the co-sponsors of the exhibition of the Jewish history in the "Millennium-Exhibition of the Rhineland", that took place at the Cologne trade fairgrounds in 1925. By 1918 the Jewish cemetery of Bocklemünd was opened, which is still in use today.
Nazismo y Segunda Guerra Mundial
With the takeover of the political power by the Nazis repression against the Jewish citizens of Cologne started again. In spring 1933, 15,000 inhabitants declared on the population census that they were Jewish. There were 6 synagogues and other community and meeting places in Cologne, which were all violated in the Kristallnacht on 9 November 1938 and were completely destroyed after the war, until the reconstruction of the synagogue in Roonstraße.
Antisemitism in Cologne
Also in Cologne there were Nazi and antisemitic attitudes in the population and society. In fact Cologne politicians like Konrad Adenauer or writers like Heinrich Böll demonstrated a spirit of defiance[75] and sovereignty that "no tyrant, no dictator can feel well in Cologne".[76]
A few Cologne people made an open opposition to Nazism or hid Jews (a known example of this is the Ehrenfeld Group). The agitation against Judaism and Cologne Jews found no contrast, so in the antisemitic pieces of the Hänneschen-Theater[77] or in Cologne Carnival, in which no clear criticism against National Socialism was exhibited.[78] Carnival carriages in the Rosenmontag parade showed antisemitic themes and a carnival song mocked the Jews: "Metz dä Jüdde es jetz Schluß, Se wandere langsam uss. (...) Mir laachen uns für Freud noch halv kapott. Der Itzig und die Sahra trecke fott" (translation: "With the Jews it is finished, they emigrate slowly… We laugh with joy. The Itzig and the Sarah move away",[79]
Aryanization
Aryanization, which was the expulsion of Jews from life in Germany and the transfer of Jewish property to non-Jews, proceeded in two phases: 1933-1938 and 1938-1945.[80]
Aryanization 1933-1938
The first between January 1933 and November 1938 was what was misleadingly called the "voluntary" Aryanization. Nazi officials, eager to maintain a legal veneer to the seizure of Jewish property, pretended that transfer of property from a Jewish to a non-Jewish owner was "voluntary". However it was not.[81]
Business advertized "German shop", "German goods" or also "Christian shop". Painted stars of David or defamation slogans on the walls or windows of the Jews followed. Local Nazi groups published lists of companies with Jewish owners to incite persecution and boycotts to drive them out of business.
On April 1, 1933, the Nazis organized a boycott of Jewish businesses, blocking entrance to Jewish shops in Cologne. The Jewish merchant Richard Stern, who had fought in the first world war, distributed a leaflet against the boycott and placed himself with ostentation with his Iron Cross near the SA-poster in front of his shop. Customers stopped shopping in Jewish-owned businesses and owners lost their means of existence. Newspapers filled announcements about bankruptcies and acquisitions of Jewish companies.[82]
Jewish lawyers and doctors were also targetted by the anti-Jewish boycott. On 31 March the SA and SS assaulted Jewish lawyers in the Justice building on Reichensperger Platz in Cologne. Judges and lawyers were arrested, mistreated, then loaded on garbage trucks and taken around the city.[83]
In October 1935 Jews were excluded from the benefits of the "Winterhelp of the German People", and a "Jewish Winterhelp" was organized as an autonomous organization. It collected money,food, clothing, furniture and fuel and in winter 1937/38 the organisation supported 2,300 indigent people, a fifth of Jewish community.[84]
According to the U.S. Holocaust Museum Encyclopedia, "By 1938, the combination of Nazi terror, propaganda, boycott, and legislation was so effective that some two thirds of these Jewish-owned enterprises were out of business or sold to non-Jews. Jewish owners, often desperate to emigrate or to sell a failing business, accepted a selling price that was only 20 or 30 percent of the actual value of each business.[85] Cologne followed this trend.[86]
Aryanization 1938-1945
The second phase of Aryanization started after November 1938, with the Nazis openly seizing Jewish homes, businesses, and properties throughout Germany by force.[87] In Cologne, over 735 houses and properties belonging to Jewish owners were confiscated by Nazis and transferred to non-Jews, between 1938 and 1944.[88]
Examples of Aryanization in Cologne
Jewish-owned shops along with their owners were destroyed[89] in preparation for the deportation and mass murder of Cologne's Jews in the Holocaust. Businesses both large and small were transferred from Jewish owners to non-Jewish owners in both phases of Aryanizations. A few example include:
- Brenner, the second largest photo accessories company in Germany, located in the Hohe Straße in Cologne, was forced to sell to a non-Jewish owner after the arrest of his owner, forced to sign a prepared purchase agreement while in prison in the presence of Gestapo and NSBO representatives on June 26, 1933.[90]
- Bankhaus Sal. Oppenheim jr. & Cie[91]
- Leonhard Tietz AG, Hohe Strasse
- Kaufhaus Julius Bluhm, Venloer Strasse[92]
- numerous Jewish shops on the Hohe Straße and Schildergasse, where one in three shops were aryanized.
- "Deka-Schuh, Leopold Dreyfuß" in Ehrenfeld,
- Neckties wholesaler "Herbert Fröhlich" in the Streitzeuggasse
- ,Butcher and snack bar "Katz-Rosenthal",
- Fashion boutique "Michel" (later Jacobi)
- "Bamberger" (later Hansen). [93]
After World War II, many Cologne businesses ended up owning property that had been Aryanized from pre-war Jewish owners. In 2009, the publisher M. DuMont Schauberg took the German weekly Der Spiegel to court for suggesting that the publisher and family knew that it was acquiring three properties Aryanized from Cologne Jews, and Der Spiegel retracted the article.[94] [95]
Ehrenfeld
Although already in 1925 Cologne was the capital of the NSDAP-Gau of Cologne-Aachen, many didn't realize the growing radicalness of this party. Still in 1927 the synagogue in Körnerstraße was built as the last construction of the Jewish community of Cologne by the architect Robert Stern. It was dedicated to "the glory of God, the truth of faith and the peace of mankind".[96] The synagogue had a small vestibule surrounded with arches. The prayer room had 200 seats for men and 100 for women. The latter were located in a women's gallery, as in many other places. The Jewish population in Ehrenfeld reached 2000 people. The synagogue had also a ritual bath, that was discovered through excavations in Körnerstraße.[97]
A plaque in Körnerstraße remembers the destroyed synagogue and its attached religion school: "In this place there was the Synagogue of Ehrenfelder, connected to a Religion school for girls and boys, built in 1927 according to the plan of Architect Robert Stern, destroyed in the day after the pogrom of Kristallnacht on November 9, 1938"
At the place of the synagogue there is now an air-raid shelter, built in 1942–43, which has been protected as a historical monument since 1995.
Müngersdorf concentration camp
After the organized and controlled destruction of lives, properties and establishments in the whole country, the antisemitic policies intensified also in Cologne. Jewish children could not attend any German school. By 1 January 1939 all the Jews were excluded from the economic life and constrained to forced labor. They were expropriated, renters were deprived of rent control.
In total, more than 40% of the Jewish population emigrated before September 1939. In May 1939 the Jewish population was 8,406 with another 2,360 Mischlinge, persons of mixed Jewish-non-Jewish ancestry. When war came in September 1939, the remainder of Cologne Jewry became subject to an all-night curfew, their special food rations were far below that of the general population, they were officially forbidden to use public transport and, when allied bombing began, to use public air raid shelters.[98]
In May 1941 the Cologne Gestapo started to concentrate all Jewish from Cologne in so-called Jewish houses. From there they were transferred to the barracks in Fort V in Müngersdorf. The ghettoisation was the preparation for the deportation to exterminations camps. In September 1941 the "Police order about the identification of Jews" obliged all Jewish people in the German Reich more than six years old to wear a yellow badge sewed to the left side of the garment.
Deportation from Deutz
On 21 October 1941 the first transport left Cologne for Łódź, the last one was sent to Theresienstadt on 1 October 1944. Immediately before the transport the fair hall in Cologne-Deutz was used as a detention camp. The transports left from the underground part of the Köln Messe/Deutz Station. The deported people went to Łódź, Theresienstadt, Riga, Lublin and other ghettos and camps in the east,[where?] which were only transit points: from here they went to extermination camps.
Of special note was the deportation to Minsk on July 20, 1942, of Jewish children and some of their teachers, among them Erich Klibansky. The last to be deported in 1943 were Jewish communal workers. After that deportation the only Jews remaining were those in mixed marriages and their children, many of whom were deported in the fall of 1944.[98]
Out of Müngersdorf and Deutz were situated also prisoners and concentration camps on a factory site in Porz Hochkreuz and also in the nearby place of Brauweiler.
When the U.S. troops occupied Cologne on 6 March 1945, between 30 and 40 Jewish men who had survived in hiding were found.[citation needed]
Posguerra y presente
Of the 19,500 Jewish citizens of Cologne in 1930, about 11,000 were killed during by Nazi regime.[99] Some of them were killed after they left Germany to avoid Nazi persecution. Among others, the Cologne lawyer Siegmund Klein and his son Walter Klein were killed in Auschwitz concentration camp, after being deported respectively from the Netherlands and France in 1943 and 1942.[100]
The survivors of the Cologne community regathered in the ruins of the Ehrenfeld asylum, whose main building had been preserved to a large extent, for a new beginning. In Ottostraße a synagogue was also temporarily arranged, until the community could rebuild the Neo-Romanesque Lord's house at Roonstraße in 1959.
At the first post-war Christmas Eve celebrations in 1959, the synagogue and the Cologne memorial for the Victims of the Nazi regime were damaged by two members of the extreme rightist Deutsche Reichspartei, who were later arrested. The synagogue was daubed with black, white and red color paint, and a swastika and the slogan "Juden raus" were added.[101]
Rabbis active in Cologne in the postwar period were Zvi Asaria and E. Schereschewski. The Monumenta Judaica exhibition, reflecting 2,000 years of Jewish history and culture in the Rhineland, was shown in 1963–64.
Besides a youth centre, the community maintained a Jewish home for the aged. The Jewish community numbered 1,358 in 1989 and 4,650 in 2003.[98]
Jewish cemetery in Bocklemünd
The Jewish cemetery of Bocklemünd has been used as a burial place since 1918 and is still used today. The Lapidarium of the cemetery hosts 58 fragments of stones between the 12th and the 15th century, that came from the Jewish cemetery of Judenbüchel in Köln-Raderberg, which was closed in 1695 with the opening of a new cemetery in Deutz and excavated in 1936. People who were buried there were moved to another grave in Bocklemünd.
Jewish centre in Nußbaumerstraße
The Ehrenfeld Centre on the Nußbaumerstraße / Ottostraße is the successor of the "Jewish Hospital of Ehrenfeld". The hospital survived Nazism but was damaged by bomb attacks. In the building gathered the Jewish survivors of the Cologne community who then moved to the rebuild Synagogue at Roonstraße in the 1950s thereafter the hospital served as a Belgium military hospital until the 1990s. The facilities that exist in the same place, today called "Jüdisches Wohlfahrtszentrum", have their origin, as the partly conserved building of the old hospital of 1908, in one of the 18th century charitable constructions in "Silvanstraße", the Israelitische Asyl für Kranke und Altersschwache.[102]
Jewish community in Köln-Riehl
The Union of Progressive Jews in Germany (UPJ), founded in Munich in June 1997, is a religious association with a small Jewish liberal community in Köln-Riehl, with about 50 members and calls itself Jüdische Liberale Gemeinde Köln Gescher LaMassoret e.V.. The community offers regular religious instruction for small children, young and adults.
Notable Cologne Jews in modern times
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
321 | — | |
801 | — | |
1089 | 600 | — |
1349 | — | |
1372 | 50 | — |
1424 | — | |
1634 | 17 | — |
1789 | 19 | +11.8% |
1801 | 50 | +163.2% |
1824 | 500 | +900.0% |
1849 | 1,300 | +160.0% |
1899 | 9,750 | +650.0% |
1938 | 19,500 | +100.0% |
1949 | 100 | −99.5% |
1989 | 1,350 | +1250.0% |
2009 | 4,450 | +229.6% |
2009 figures by the Central Council of Jews in Germany \ |
Since 1861, the following persons have headed the executive board of the Jewish community of Cologne: the physician Doctor Bendix, S.M. Frank (until 1879), Jacob de Longe, Louis Elliel (until 1919), Emil Blumenau (until 1931), the lawyer Doctor H. Frank (until 1933) and consul Albert Bendix until 1939.
Until 1857, the community was managed by the Bonn Consistory and its rabbi. The first Cologne rabbi was
- Israel Schwarz (1828–1875), followed by
- Abraham Frank (1839–1917) from 1875,
- Ludwig Rosenthal (1870–1938) from 1897 and from 1906 in charge only of Glockengasse Synagogue,
- Adolf Kober (1879–1958) from 1918 to 1939,
- Isidor Caro (1877–1943) from 1939 to 1942[103]
The synagogues of the community had the following cantors:
- Isaac Offenbach till 1850,
- Rosenberg since 1851,
- F. Blumenthal from 1876 to 1924,
- E. Kohn till 1936,
- F. Fleishmann, Max Baum and Schallamach after 1930.
All of them contributed to the enrichment of synagogue music.[104]
The rectors of the community school were
- Bernhard Coblenz from 1901 to 1926, and
- Emil Kahn from 1926 to 1938.
Cologne Jews, involved in the larger Jewish community were
- Salomon Oppenheim, Jr.'s sons Abraham and Simon , and
- the founders of Zionism:
- Max Bodenheimer,
- David Wolffsohn and
- Nahum Sokolow.
The most important Jewish names in the economic life of the city during the nineteenth century were
- the brothers Abraham Oppenheim (1804–1878) and
- Simon Oppenheim (1803–1880), active in banking and railroads;
- the brothers Jacob, Loeb and Louis Eltzbacher active in banking; and
- Adolf Silverberg and his son involved in peat-coal.
Jews involved in politics were
- Moses Hess (as mentioned above);
- the physician Andreas Gottschalk, founder of the Workers’ Club in Cologne; and
- Bernhard Falck, member of the National Assembly from 1919.
Jews involved in the arts were
- the lithographer and painter David Levi Elkan (1808–1865),
- the cantor Isaac Judah Offenbach and his son, the composer Jacques Offenbach, born in Cologne in 1819,
- the conductor Ferdinand Hiller (1811–1885), kapellmeister in Cologne from 1849 to 1884,
- the composer Friedrich Gersheim who taught at the Cologne Conservatory from 1865 to 1874.[103]
During the 1930s Cologne had many Jewish lawyers (125 at number) and doctors.
Sitios conmemorativos
- In the church of St. Maria vom Frieden of the Cologne Carmeliten a small archive in the monastery attached to the church keeps the memory of the fellow nun who was killed the 9 August 1942 in Auschwitz concentration camp, the Jewish Edith Stein who converted to the catholic religion.
Löwenbrunnen in Klibanskiplatz
Memorial plaque for the synagogue in Glockengasse
Police building in Schildergasse, seat of Gestapo 1933/35
Memorial plaque in Reischplatz 6
Stolpersteine in front of Blumenthalstrasse 23 in remembrance of Siegmund, Helene und Walter Klein[105]
- In the Jewish cemetery in Köln-Bocklemünd two memorials remember the Jewish victims. One memorial keeps the memory of the members of the Cologne synagogue community who died in Theresienstadt with the acting rabbi until 1942 Isidor Caro (born in Znin-Poland 16.10.1877-deported to Theresienstadt 16.6.1942-deported to Auschwitz 28.8.1943[106]). A street has been named after rabbi Caro in Köln-Stammheim. A second memorial plaque keeps the memory of all the victims of the Synagogue community of Cologne.
- The memorial "Die Gefangenen", 1943, created by Ossip Zadkine, stays on the honor monument of the Westfriedhof, Köln-Bocklemünd
- Memorial plaque in Ehrenfeld, Körnerstraße
- A bronze plaque remembers the Synagogue in Glockengasse near today's Opera House
- A memorial plaque in St. Apern-Straße/ corner with Helenenstraße (on the side of the hotel) is dedicated to the Synagogue of St. Apern-Straße. In front of the hotel building on the small Erich Klibansky Platz you can see the Löwenbrunnen (1997)
- Memorial plaque for the victims of Gestapo in Krebsgasse
- Memorial plaque in Reischplatz 6 in Deutz for the last of the three Deutz synagogues (Haus der Polizeistation)
- Memorial plaque on Messeturm Köln, Kennedy-Ufer
- Memorial plaque at Stadtpark, Walter-Binder-Weg
- Stolpersteine of the artist Gunter Demnig in front of the houses where victims of the nazis lived assures the remembrance of these Jews.
The Judengasse, near the Rathaus, reminds of the former Jewish quarter. During French annexion of Cologne, the Judengasse was given the name "Rue des Juifs",[107] but renamed to its old name shortly after. Today, this area has no residential buildings.
Museo Judío de Colonia
The municipality of Cologne, in the frame of the Regionale 2010, plans to build an "archeological area" as an archaeological-historical museum. In this context a Jewish museum should arise between the historical Rathaus and the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum over the basement of the first Cologne synagogues and ritual bath.[108] The construction has been decided in the Council but is opposed by politics and the people, because the town loses a free square in front of the historical Rathaus.[109] At present there are excavations on the designated site for the first time since 1950, in which part of the synagogue of the Jewish quarter should be uncovered.[110]
Ver también
- History of the Jews in Germany
- History of the Jews in Hamburg
- History of the Jews in Munich
- History of Cologne
- Yiddish language
Fuentes
- Britta Bopf, (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln : die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Emons. OCLC 607260058.
- Zvi Asaria: Die Juden in Köln, von den ältesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart, J. P. Bachem, 1959.
- Zvi Avneri: Germania Judaica. Bd. 2: Von 1238 bis zur Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts, Tübingen 1968.
- Barbara Becker-Jákli: Das Jüdische Köln. Geschichte und Gegenwart. Ein Stadtführer, Emons Verlag Köln, Köln 2012, ISBN 978-3-89705-873-6.
- Barbara Becker-Jákli: Das jüdische Krankenhaus in Köln; die Geschichte des Israelitischen Asyls für Kranke und Altersschwache 1869–1945, 2004. ISBN 3-89705-350-0 (mit Ergänzungen zum Nachbau)
- Johannes Ralf Beines: "Die alte Synagoge in Deutz", in Rechtsrheinisches Köln, Jahrbuch für Geschichte und Landeskunde. Geschichts- und Heimatverein Rechtsrheinisches Köln e. V. Band 14. ISSN 0179-2938
- Michael Berger: Eisernes Kreuz und Davidstern. Die Geschichte Jüdischer Soldaten in Deutschen Armeen, trafo Verlag, 2006. ISBN 3-89626-476-1
- Anna-Dorothee von den Brincken: "Privilegien Karls IV. für die Stadt Köln", in: Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte 114. 1978, p. 243–264.
- Michael Brocke/Christiane Müller: Haus des Lebens. Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland. Verlag Reclam, Leipzig 2001. ISBN 978-3-379-00777-1
- Isaac Broydé: "Cologne" in Jewish Encyclopedia, 1902
- Alexander Carlebach, "Cologne" in Jewish Encyclopedia, The Gale Group, 2008
- Carl Dietmar: Die Chronik Kölns, Chronik Verlag, Dortmund 1991. ISBN 3-611-00193-7
- Werner Eck: Köln in römischer Zeit. Geschichte einer Stadt im Rahmen des Imperium Romanum. H. Stehkämper (Hrsg.), Geschichte der Stadt Köln in 13 Bänden, Bd. 1. Köln 2004,S. 325ff. ISBN 3-7743-0357-6.
- Liesel Franzheim: Juden in Köln von der Römerzeit bis ins 20. Jahrhundert. Köln 1984.
- Marianne Gechter, Sven Schütte: "Ursprung und Voraussetzungen des mittelalterlichen Rathauses und seiner Umgebung", in: Walter Geis und Ulrich Krings (Hrsg.): Köln: Das gotische Rathaus und seine historische Umgebung. Köln 2000 (Stadtspuren - Denkmäler in Köln; 26), p. 69–196.
- Frantisek Graus: Pest-Geißler-Judenmorde. Das 14. Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit. Göttingen 1988.
- Monika Grübel: Seit 321 Juden in Köln, Kurzführer, Köln 2005. extract
- Monika Grübel und Georg Mölich: Jüdisches Leben im Rheinland. Vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. ISBN 3-412-11205-4.
- Alfred Haverkamp: Zur Geschichte der Juden im Deutschland des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit. Stuttgart 1981.
- Alfred Haverkamp: Die Judenverfolgungen zur Zeit des Schwarzen Todes im Gesellschaftsgefüge deutscher Städte. in: Monographien zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 24. 1981, p. 27–93.
- Wilhelm Janssen: Die Regesten der Erzbischöfe von Köln im Mittelalter, Bonn/Köln 1973.
- Adolf Kober: Cologne, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia 1940 (available online).
- Shulamit S. Magnus: Jewish Emancipation in a German City: Cologne, 1798–1871 ,Stanford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8047-2644-2
- Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt: Zwischen Dom und Davidstern. Jüdisches Leben in Köln. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln. ISBN 3-462-03508-8
- Gerd Mentgen: "Die Ritualmordaffäre um den 'Guten Werner' von Oberwesel und ihre Folgen", in: Jahrbuch für westdeutsche Landesgeschichte 21. 1995, p. 159–198.
- Klaus Militzer: Ursachen und Folgen der innerstädtischen Auseinandersetzungen in Köln in der zweiten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts. Köln 1980 (Veröffentlichungen des Kölner Geschichtsvereins, 36).
- Alexander Patschovsky: "Feindbilder der Kirche: Juden und Ketzer im Vergleich (11. - 13. Jahrhundert)", in: Alfred Haverkamp (Hrsg.): Juden und Christen zur Zeit der Kreuzzüge. Sigmaringen 1999, p. 327–357.
- Elfi Pracht-Jörns: Jüdisches Kulturerbe in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Teil 1: Regierungsbezirk Köln, Köln 1997
- Robert Wilhelm Rosellen: Geschichte der Pfarreien des Dekanates Brühl. J. P. Bachem, Köln 1887
- Matthias Schmandt: Judei, cives et incole: Studien zur jüdischen Geschichte Kölns im Mittelalter. Forschungen zur Geschichte der Juden Bd. 11. Hanover 2002. ISBN 3-7752-5620-2
- Kurt Schubert: Jüdische Geschichte. München 2007.
- Sven Schütte: Der Almemor der Kölner Synagoge um 1270/80 - Gotische Kleinarchitektur aus der Kölner Dombauhütte. Befunde Rekonstruktion und Umfeld. in: Colonia Romanica. Jahrbuch des Fördervereins Romanische Kirchen in Köln XIII. 1998, p. 188-215.
- Arnold Stelzmann: Illustrierte Geschichte der Stadt Köln. Verlag Bachem, Köln 1958. Verlagsnummer 234758
- M. Toch: Siedlungsstruktur der Juden Mitteleuropas im Wandel vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit. in: Alfred Haverkamp u. Ziwes, (Hrsg.): Juden in der christlichen Umwelt während des späten Mittelalters. Berlin 1992, p. 29–39.
- Markus J. Wenniger: Zum Verhältnis der Kölner Juden zu ihrer Umwelt im Mittelalter. In: Jutta Bohnke-Kollwitz, Paul Eckert Willehad, u.a. (Hrsg.): Köln und das rheinische Judentum. Festschrift Germania Judaica 1959–1984, Köln 1984 p. 17–34.
- Adam Wrede: Neuer Kölnischer Sprachschatz. 3 Bände A – Z, Greven Verlag, Köln, 9. Auflage 1984. ISBN 3-7743-0155-7
- Franz-Josef Ziwes: Studien zur Geschichte der Juden im mittleren Rheingebiet während des hohen und späten Mittelalters. Hannover 1995. ISBN 3-7752-5610-5
Referencias
- ^ From the Website of the Synagogen-Gemeinde Köln, http://www.sgk.de/ Archived 2008-10-15 at the Wayback Machine; accessed the 16 of December 2007
- ^ "From Ubii village to metropolis". City of Cologne. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ Tacitus, Historiae V,5,4.
- ^ Adolf Kober, Cologne, p. 5.
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 34
- ^ Adolf Kober, Cologne, p. 12
- ^ Adolf Kober, Cologne, p. 12–14
- ^ Schubert 2007, p. 45; Wenniger 1984, p. 17.
- ^ Patschovsky1999, p. 330.
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 85.
- ^ Germania Judaica II,1 p. 15
- ^ Germania Judaica II,1 p. 10.
- ^ Germania Judaica II,1 p. 94.
- ^ Germania Judaica II,1 p. 475.
- ^ Only a few years later, in 1298, a new wave of persecution took place in France, which can be connected to the so called "König Rintfleisch". See Lotter, F.: Die Judenverfolgung des "König Rintfleisch" in Franken um 1298. Die endgültige Wende in den christlich - jüdischen Beziehungen im deutschen Reich des Mittelalters, in: Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 4 (1988) p. 385–422.
- ^ Schubert 2007, p. 48.
- ^ Mentgen 1995, p. 178.
- ^ Schmandt 2002. S. 26f.
- ^ Schmandt 2002. p. 78f.
- ^ Ennen, L. u. Eckertz, G.: Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Köln, Bd. IV, Köln 1872 Nr. 201, p. 220.
- ^ Janssen, W.: Die Regesten der Erzbischöfe von Köln im Mittelalter, Bonn/Köln 1973 V, Nr. 226, p. 61: "…item hoc anno Judaeus quidam dictus Meyer, id est villicus, in Bunna pecuniis maximis Walrami per officiatos archiepiscopi Coloniensis nequiter comburitur et occiditur. Cum enim in archiepiscopus sibi obligaretur, fingunt eum falsarium et comburunt…"(translation: "besides, in that year a certain Jew called 'Meyer' (the name means 'manager') was wickedly burnt and killed in Bonn for the sake of huge sums of money by the officers of Walram, Archbishop of Cologne. In fact because the archbishop was indebted to him they pretended he was a forger and burnt him.)
- ^ Schmandt 2002. S. 85.
- ^ The term here applies not to the legal status, but merely to "general inhabitants."
- ^ Schmandt 2002. p. 86.
- ^ Franzheim 1984. S. 82.
- ^ Schmandt 2002. S. 36.
- ^ Richard Kipping: Die Regesten der Erzbischöfe von Köln im Mittelalter Bd. 3, Nr. 1233, S. 280.
- ^ Graus 1987. S. 156; Before the time of these pogroms, there were 1010 Jewish communities in the Empire. Many ceased to exist entirely after 1349. Toch 1992, p. 30ff.
- ^ Schmandt 2002. S. 89.
- ^ Graus 1988. S. 179.
- ^ Schmandt 2002. S. 93.
- ^ Graus 1988. S. 185.
- ^ Graus 1988, p. 167.
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 86.
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 90.
- ^ Schütte 1998, p. 206.
- ^ Published by Hendrik Mäkeler: Der Schatz des Joel ben Uri Halewi. Der Kölner "Rathausfund" von 1953 als Zeugnis der Judenpogrome im Jahr 1349, in: Werner Schäfke and Marcus Trier in collaboration with Bettina Mosler (eds.): Mittelalter in Köln. Eine Auswahl aus den Beständen des Kölnischen Stadtmuseums, Cologne 2010, pp. 111-117 and 356-407.
- ^ Graus 1988, p. 206.
- ^ MGH SS XVI, S. 738 … anno 1349 fuerunt frates cum flagellis mirabili modo. Et eodem anno obiit domnus Walramus episcopus Coloniensis in vigilia assumpcionis beate Marie, et statim post hoc in nocte Bartholomei Judei combusti per ignem in Colonia… ("…in the year 1349 there were friars with whips in an amazing manner. And in the same year there died milord Walram, bishop of Cologne, on the Eve of the Assumption of Blessed Mary [August 14], and immediately thereafter on Bartholomew's Eve the Jews were burnt with fire in Cologne)
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 92.
- ^ Heinig, P.-J.: Regesta Imperii VIII, Köln-Wien 1991 Nr. 2541 – Boemund's efforts were in accordance with the explicit authorization of Charles IV, by then crowned Emperor, for a new settlement of Jews in Cologne.
- ^ This year also produced a municipal letter of protection guaranteeing the Jews freedom from all claims related to the Jews killed in the pogrom. Schmandt 2002, p. 169.
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 96.
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 114, 121, 128
- ^ Schmandt 2002, p. 99.
- ^ Archäologische Zone, Jüdisches Museum Köln
- ^ Adof Kober, Cologne, p. 357
- ^ Isaac Broydé: Cologne in Jewish Encyclopedia, 1902
- ^ Wilhelm Rosellen, p. 518 (Der Judenbüchel), Verweis auf Ficken: Engelbert der Heilige p. 281
- ^ Adof Kober, Cologne, p. 100–102
- ^ Johannes Ralf Beines, p. 53
- ^ Paul Clemen, 1934, p. 245
- ^ Barbara Becker-Jäkli, p. 35
- ^ Arnold Stelzmann, Illustrierte Geschichte der Stadt Köln, p. 135 f
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 321
- ^ Johannes Ralf Beins, p. 55
- ^ Adolf Kobler, Cologne, p. 217
- ^ a b Adolf Kobler, Cologne, p. 182
- ^ Assemblée des Notables (1806-1807) List of Members
- ^ Adolf Kobler, Cologne, p. 239
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 255
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 217, 222
- ^ Werner Jung: Das neuzeitliche Köln: 1794–1914; von der Franzosenzeit bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg. Bachem, Köln 2004, ISBN 3-7616-1590-6, p. 245–246
- ^ see photo on http://www.msacerdoti.it/coloniasinagoga.jpg
- ^ Adolf Kobler, Cologne, p. 244
- ^ "Yad Vashem Documents Archive".
- ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, p. 292
- ^ Johannes Ralf Beins, p. 62
- ^ http://www.zuendorfer-wehrturm.de/wehrturm/Seiten/wehr_zj.html accessed on the December 2007
- ^ http://www.koelnguide.net/03_tourismus-01_sehenswuerdigkeiten-10_melatenfriedhof.htm Archived 2009-08-29 at the Wayback Machine last edition 19. December 2007
- ^ Ulrike Mast-Kirschning, p. 106
- ^ Added from: Ulrike Mast-Kirschning, p. 105
- ^ taken from: Ulrike Mast-Kirschning, p. 92 ff
- ^ Michael Berger, Eisernes Kreuz und Davidstern
- ^ "no large city was hit so hard by the war as Cologne. And it has deserved it less than other German cities because nowhere was Nazism until 1933 so open and after 1933 met with so much intellectual opposition"; Konrad Adenauer, March 1946, quoted from Werner Jung: Das moderne Köln. Bachem, Köln; sixth edition 2005, ISBN 3-7616-1861-1, p. 180
- ^ "(...) and it is certainly not a coincidence that Hitler didn't feel so well in Cologne; the sovereignty of the people was so much in the air that no tyrant, no dictator could feel well in Cologne "; Heinrich Böll, Werke; Hrsg. von Bernd Balzer; Kiepenheuer u. Witsch, Köln; 2. Essayistische Schriften und Reden 1: 1952–1963, ISBN 3-462-01259-2; p. 105–106
- ^ Herbert Hoven: "Auch Tünnes war Nazi" in: DIE ZEIT, 09/1995;
- ^ Jürgen Meyer: De Nazis nit op d'r Schlips getrodde; in: TAZ vom 7. Februar 2005, [1]
- ^ Carnival song "Hurra, die Jüdde trecke fott" of Jean Müller, quoted in Werner Jung: Das moderne Köln, p. 133
- ^ ""Aryanization"". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Archived from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
“Aryanization” (in German, Arisierung) refers to the transfer of Jewish-owned property to non-Jews in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. It aimed to transfer Jewish-owned economic enterprises to “Aryan,” that is, non-Jewish ownership. There were two distinct phases of “Aryanization”: From 1933 until summer 1938: “voluntary Aryanization”. From fall 1938 until the collapse of the Nazi regime in 1945: “forced Aryanization”
- ^ ""Arisierung" in Köln". www.rheinische-geschichte.lvr.de (in German). "arisierung-in-koeln/DE-2086/lido/57d129227d9f66.00219403 Archived from the original on 2019-12-03. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
Bereits in der zweiten Märzwoche 1933 kam es in Köln zu umfangreichen Aktionen gegen jüdische Selbstständige. SA- und SS-Mitglieder behinderten gewaltsam den Geschäftsbetrieb von jüdischen Unternehmern, schikanierten jüdische Metzger am Schlachthof und misshandelten jüdische Kleingewerbetreibende.
- ^ Britta., Bopf (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln : die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Emons. OCLC 607260058.
- ^ Giorgio Sacerdoti, Falls wir uns nicht wiedesehen..., Prospero Verlag, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-941688-00-1, p. 56
- ^ Seit 321 Juden in Köln, Kurzfuehrer von Monika Grübel, Köln 2005
- ^ ""Aryanization"". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
- ^ Britta., Bopf (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln : die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Emons. OCLC 607260058.
- ^ ""Aryanization"". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
- ^ "Jüdisches Leben vor 1945". Köln im Film (in German). Archived from the original on 2020-11-30. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
Zwischen 1938 und 1944 wurden in Köln über 735 Häuser und Grundstücke jüdischer Besitzer beschlagnahmt und verkauft. Bereits 1934 war das Kaufhaus Leonhard Tietz A.G. auf der Schildergasse „arisiert“ und in „Westdeutsche Kaufhof AG“ umbenannt worden. Im Mai 1941 mussten alle jüdischen Bewohner des Rechtsrheinischen ihre Häuser räumen. Sie durften nur noch in sogenannten „Judenhäusern“ in Ehrenfeld, Nippes und der Alt- und Nordstadt wohnen.
- ^ Ulrike Mast-Kirschning, p. 138 ff
- ^ "Beispiel einer "Arisierung": Firma Brenner". Köln im Film (in German). Archived from the original on 2020-11-04. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
Nachdem Raphael Brenner dem Druck des NSBO zur Widereinstellung nicht nachgegeben hatte, wurde er deshalb am 11.Juni 1933 wegen angeblicher Wirtschaftssabotage verhaftet und für einen Tag inhaftiert. Am 13.Juni folgte eine erneute „Schutzhaft“, nun wegen angeblicher Hehlerei mit Heeresgut nach England. Wähend seiner 18 Tage dauernden Einzelhaft im Klingelpütz wurde Raphael Brenner unter größtem seelischen Druck erpresst, sein persönliches und geschäftliches Vermögen zu verkaufen. Angesichts der drohenden Überstellung in das KZ Dachau unterschrieb er schließlich im Gefängnis im Beisein von Gestapo- und NSBO-Vertretern am 26.Juni 1933 den vorbereiteten Kaufvertrag. Statt dem geschätzten WQert von 200 00 RM war der Kaufpreis auf 60 000 RM festgesetzt worden. Später zeigte sich, dass die Familie Brenner rechtliche Schritte einleiten musste, um selbst diesen geringen Betrag zu erhalten. Bevor Raphale Brenner aufgrund der fortgesetzten Intervention einiger Geschäftsfreunde aus der fotografischen Industrie das Gefängnis verlassen konnte, wurde er gezwungen, schriftlich zu bestätigen, dass er „keine schwere Zeit mitgemacht“ habe.
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at position 486 (help) - ^ Britta., Bopf (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln : die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Emons. pp. 241–243. OCLC 607260058.
- ^ Bopf, Britta (2004). "Arisierung" in Köln : die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933-1945. Köln: Emons. pp. 83–95. ISBN 3-89705-311-X. OCLC 55062391.
- ^ Vieten, Michael (2017). "Ich halte Euch fest und Ihr lasst mich nicht los!" : Katz-Rosenthal, Ehrenstrasse 86, Köln. Jos Porath (1. Auflage ed.). Berlin. ISBN 978-3-95565-146-6. OCLC 987208997.
- ^ "M. DuMont Schauberg lässt Verlagsgeschichte aufarbeiten". www.tagesspiegel.de (in German). Archived from the original on 2021-01-25. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
MDS wies den «Spiegel»-Artikel am Dienstag in einer halbseitigen Stellungnahme im «Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger» als «journalistisch unverantwortlich» zurück. Kein Mitglied der Verlegerfamilie habe zu irgendeinem Zeitpunkt behauptet, dass von der Familie oder vom Verlag Widerstand ausgegangen sei. «In eigenen Veröffentlichungen sowie durch Öffnung unserer Archive sind wir immer und vorbehaltlos offen auch mit dieser Zeit umgegangen», heißt es in der Stellungnahme. Die Unterstellung, Verlag und Familie hätten beim Kauf von drei Grundstücken gewusst, dass sie aus jüdischem Besitz stammten, sei leichtfertig. Das Verlegerehepaar Kurt und Gabriele Neven DuMont habe während der Nazizeit enge Beziehungen zum jüdischen Schriftsteller Wilhelm Unger unterhalten, eine jüdische Sekretärin beschäftigt und deren Schwester bis Kriegsende verborgen. Der heutige Seniorchef von MDS, Alfred Neven DuMont (78), habe sich früh für die Aussöhnung mit Israel eingesetzt. Er gründete ein Hilfswerk für Israelis und Palästinenser.
- ^ Staff, Guardian (2006-10-30). "Dispatches: A deal that confronts a painful history | Greater openness will lead to trust". the Guardian. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
Alfred Neven DuMont's father had been a member of the Nazi party. At the time the acquisition was announced in August, his company DuMont Schauberg was in a legal battle with German news magazine Der Spiegel over allegations, first made in February, that it had also profited from the appropriation of Jewish property in Cologne during the second world war. Two weeks ago, Der Spiegel was forced to print a retraction.
- ^ Quoted from Johannes Maubach: Quer durch Ehrenfeld; Ehrenfelder Geschichtspfad, Teil 1. Flock-Druck, Köln 2001, p. 96
- ^ Maubach, p. 96
- ^ a b c Alexander Carlebach, Cologne, Encyclopaedia Judaica, The Gale Group, 2008
- ^ Kirsten Serup-Bilfeld, Zwischen Dom und Davidstern. Jüdisches Leben in Köln von den Anfängen bis heute. Köln 2001, p. 193
- ^ Giorgio Sacerdoti, Falls wir uns nicht wiedesehen..., Prospero Verlag, Münster 2010 ISBN 978-3-941688-00-1
- ^ Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-69809-0002
- ^ Barbara Becker-Jákli: Das jüdische Krankenhaus in Köln, p. 152
- ^ a b Adolf Kober, Cologne
- ^ Adolf Kober, Cologne, p. 246
- ^ see website
- ^ Elena Makarova, Sergei Makarov & Victor Kuperman, University Over the Abyss, The story behind 520 lecturers and 2,430 lectures in KZ Theresienstadt 1942-1944 [2]
- ^ Adam Wrede, Band I, p. 393
- ^ Archeological Zone and Jewish Museum: Website www.koelnarchitektur.de [3] Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine; retrieved, 14 September 2008
- ^ Jüdisches Museum soll 2010 öffnen, Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger vom 1. März 2007
- ^ David Ohrndorf: Kölner Synagoge wird ausgegraben. Westdeutscher Rundfunk, retrieved 14 September 2008
enlaces externos
- "Cologne", Jewish Encyclopedia, 1902
- Adolf Kober, Cologne, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1940
- Alexander Carlebach, "Cologne", Encyclopaedia Judaica, The Gale Group, 2008
- Literature by and about History of the Jews in Cologne in the German National Library catalogue
- Geschichte der Jüdischen Liberalen Gemeinde Köln
- Alexander Tyurin, Die Geschichte der Kölner Gemeinde, Synagogen-Gemeinde of Cologne