El Señor de los Anillos es unanovela épica [1] de alta fantasía [a] del autor y erudito inglés JRR Tolkien . Ambientada en la Tierra Media , el mundo en algún momento distante del pasado, la historia comenzó como una secuela del libro infantil de Tolkien de 1937 El Hobbit , pero finalmente se convirtió en una obra mucho más grande. Escrito por etapas entre 1937 y 1949, El señor de los anillos es uno de los libros más vendidos jamás escritos , con más de 150 millones de copias vendidas. [2]
Autor | J. R. R. Tolkien |
---|---|
País | Inglaterra |
Idioma | inglés |
Género | |
Editor | Allen y Unwin |
Fecha de publicación |
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Tipo de medio | Imprimir (tapa dura y rústica) |
OCLC | 1487587 |
Precedido por | El Hobbit |
Seguido por | Las aventuras de Tom Bombadil |
El título nombra al principal antagonista de la historia , el Señor Oscuro Sauron , quien en una época anterior había creado el Anillo Único para gobernar los otros Anillos de Poder como el arma definitiva en su campaña para conquistar y gobernar toda la Tierra Media . Desde sus inicios en la Comarca , una tierra hobbit que recuerda a la campiña inglesa, la historia se extiende por la Tierra Media, siguiendo la búsqueda para destruir el Anillo Único principalmente a través de los ojos de los hobbits Frodo , Sam , Merry y Pippin .
Aunque generalmente es conocido por los lectores como una trilogía, Tolkien pretendía inicialmente que el trabajo fuera un volumen de un conjunto de dos volúmenes junto con El Silmarillion , pero esta idea fue descartada por su editor. [3] [T 2] Por razones económicas, El señor de los anillos se publicó en tres volúmenes durante el transcurso de un año desde el 29 de julio de 1954 hasta el 20 de octubre de 1955. [3] [4] Los tres volúmenes se titulaban The Fellowship of el Anillo , Las Dos Torres y El Retorno del Rey . Estructuralmente, el trabajo se divide internamente en seis libros, dos por volumen, con varios apéndices de material de referencia al final. Algunas ediciones imprimen el trabajo completo en un solo volumen, siguiendo la intención original del autor.
La obra de Tolkien, después de una recepción inicialmente mixta por parte del establecimiento literario, ha sido objeto de un análisis extenso de sus temas y orígenes. Las influencias en este trabajo anterior y en la historia de El señor de los anillos incluyen filología , mitología, cristianismo , obras de fantasía anteriores y sus propias experiencias en la Primera Guerra Mundial . El Señor de los Anillos, a su vez, ha tenido un gran efecto en la fantasía moderna.
Desde entonces, El Señor de los Anillos se ha reimpreso muchas veces y se ha traducido a al menos 38 idiomas . [b] La perdurable popularidad de El Señor de los Anillos ha dado lugar a numerosas referencias en la cultura popular, la fundación de muchas sociedades por fanáticos de las obras de Tolkien , [5] y la publicación de muchos libros sobre Tolkien y sus obras. Ha inspirado numerosas obras derivadas que incluyen obras de arte, música, películas y televisión, videojuegos , juegos de mesa y literatura posterior. Se han realizado adaptaciones premiadas de El señor de los anillos para radio , teatro y cine . Ha sido nombrada la mejor novela británica de todos los tiempos en The Big Read de la BBC .
Gráfico
La comunidad del anillo
Prólogo
El prólogo explica que el libro "se ocupa en gran medida de los hobbits" y habla de sus orígenes en una migración desde el este; de cómo fuman " hierba de pipa "; de cómo está organizada la Comarca , donde vive la mayoría de ellos; y cómo la narración sigue a El Hobbit , en la que el hobbit Bilbo Bolsón encuentra el Anillo Único , que había estado en posesión de la criatura Gollum .
Libro uno
Bilbo celebra su cumpleaños número 111 y abandona la Comarca repentinamente sin previo aviso, dejando el Anillo a Frodo Bolsón , su primo [c] y heredero. Ninguno de los hobbit conoce la naturaleza del Anillo, pero el mago Gandalf se da cuenta de que es un Anillo de Poder . Diecisiete años después, Gandalf le dice a Frodo que ha confirmado que el Anillo es el que perdió el Señor Oscuro Sauron hace mucho tiempo y le aconseja que se lo quite de la Comarca. Gandalf se va, prometiendo regresar para el cumpleaños de Frodo y acompañarlo en su viaje, pero no lo hace.
Frodo parte a pie, aparentemente mudándose a su nuevo hogar en Crickhollow, acompañado por su jardinero Sam Gamgee y su primo Pippin Took . Son perseguidos por misteriosos Jinetes Negros , pero se encuentran con un grupo de Elfos liderados por Gildor Inglorion , sus cánticos a Elbereth protegen a los Jinetes. Los hobbits pasan la noche con ellos, luego toman un atajo para evitar a sus perseguidores al día siguiente y llegan a la granja de Farmer Maggot. Los lleva a Bucklebury Ferry, donde se encuentran con su amigo Merry Brandybuck que los estaba buscando. Cuando llegan a la casa de Crickhollow, Merry y Pippin revelan que saben sobre el Anillo e insisten en viajar con Frodo y Sam. Deciden tratar de deshacerse de los Jinetes Negros cortando el Viejo Bosque . Merry y Pippin quedan atrapados por Old Man Willow , un árbol malvado que controla gran parte del bosque, pero son rescatados por el misterioso Tom Bombadil . Al irse, son atrapados por un túmulo , que los lleva dentro de un túmulo en las llanuras. Frodo, al despertar del hechizo del túmulo-wight, logra llamar a Bombadil, quien los libera, y los equipa con antiguas espadas del tesoro del túmulo-wight.
Los hobbits llegan al pueblo de Bree , donde se encuentran con un Ranger llamado Strider . El posadero le da a Frodo una carta de Gandalf escrita tres meses antes que identifica a Strider como un amigo. Strider lleva a los hobbits al desierto después de otro escape cercano de los Black Riders, a quienes ahora saben que son los Nazgûl , hombres de la antigüedad esclavizados por Anillos de Poder menores para servir a Sauron. En la colina de Weathertop , son atacados nuevamente por los Nazgûl, quienes hieren a Frodo con una espada maldita. Strider los rechaza y conduce a los hobbits hacia el refugio élfico de Rivendel . Frodo enferma de muerte; Strider lo trata con las hierbas athelas, salvándole la vida. Los Nazgûl casi capturan a Frodo en el Vado de Bruinen, pero Strider, Sam y el señor de los elfos Glorfindel empujan a los Nazgûl al agua, donde las inundaciones convocadas por Elrond , maestro de Rivendel, se levantan y los abruman.
Libro Dos
Frodo se recupera en Rivendel bajo el cuidado de Elrond. El Consejo de Elrond analiza la historia de Sauron y el Anillo. Strider se revela como Aragorn , el heredero de Isildur . Isildur cortó el Anillo Único de la mano de Sauron en una Era anterior, pero se negó a destruirlo. Se perdió cuando Isildur fue asesinado, y finalmente terminó en posesión de Bilbo. Gandalf informa que el mago jefe, Saruman , los ha traicionado y ahora está trabajando para convertirse en un poder por derecho propio. Gandalf fue capturado por Saruman, pero escapó, explicando por qué no había regresado para encontrarse con Frodo como había prometido. El Consejo decide que el Anillo debe ser destruido, pero eso solo se puede hacer enviándolo al fuego del Monte Doom en Mordor, donde fue forjado. Frodo se encarga de esta tarea. Elrond, con el consejo de Gandalf, elige compañeros para él. La Comunidad del Anillo consta de nueve caminantes para oponerse a los nueve Jinetes Negros: Frodo, Sam, Merry, Pippin, Aragorn, Gandalf, Gimli el Enano , Legolas el Elfo y Boromir , hijo de Denethor , el Mayordomo de Gondor .
Después de un intento fallido de cruzar las Montañas Nubladas sobre el Paso Cuerno Rojo, la Comunidad toma el peligroso camino a través de las Minas de Moria . Se enteran de que Balin , uno de los Enanos que acompañó a Bilbo en El Hobbit , y su colonia de Enanos fueron asesinados por Orcos . Después de sobrevivir a un ataque, son perseguidos por Orcos y un Balrog , un antiguo demonio de fuego de una era anterior. Gandalf se enfrenta al Balrog y ambos caen al abismo. Los demás escapan y encuentran refugio en el intemporal bosque élfico de Lothlórien , donde son asesorados por Lady Galadriel . Antes de irse, Galadriel pone a prueba su lealtad y les da obsequios individuales, más o menos mágicos, para ayudarlos en su búsqueda. Ella permite que Frodo y Sam miren en su fuente, el Espejo de Galadriel, para ver visiones del pasado, el presente y quizás el futuro.
El esposo de Galadriel, Celeborn, les da a la Comunidad botes, mantos élficos y pan de ruta, y ellos viajan por el río Anduin hasta la colina de Amon Hen. Allí, Boromir intenta quitarle el Anillo a Frodo, pero inmediatamente se arrepiente después de que Frodo se pone el Anillo y desaparece. Frodo elige ir solo a Mordor, pero Sam, adivinando lo que pretende, lo intercepta mientras intenta tomar un bote para cruzar el río y lo acompaña.
Las dos torres
Libro Tres
Un grupo de grandes Orcos, Uruk-hai, enviados por Saruman , y otros Orcos enviados por Sauron y liderados por Grishnákh, atacan la Comunidad. Boromir intenta proteger a Merry y Pippin de los Orcos, pero lo matan y capturan a los dos hobbits. Aragorn, Gimli y Legolas deciden perseguir a los Orcos llevando a Merry y Pippin a Saruman. En el reino de Rohan , los Orcos son asesinados por Jinetes de Rohan , liderados por Éomer . Merry y Pippin escapan al bosque de Fangorn , donde se hacen amigos de Bárbol , el más viejo de los Ents con forma de árbol . Aragorn, Gimli y Legolas rastrean a los hobbits hasta Fangorn. Allí se encuentran inesperadamente con Gandalf.
Gandalf explica que mató al Balrog. También murió en la pelea, pero fue enviado de regreso a la Tierra Media para completar su misión. Está vestido de blanco y ahora es Gandalf el Blanco, porque ha tomado el lugar de Saruman como el jefe de los magos. Gandalf les asegura a sus amigos que Merry y Pippin están a salvo. Juntos viajan a Edoras , capital de Rohan. Gandalf libera a Théoden , rey de Rohan, de la influencia del espía Gríma Wormtongue de Saruman . Théoden reúne su fuerza de lucha y cabalga con sus hombres hacia la antigua fortaleza de Helm's Deep , mientras que Gandalf sale para buscar ayuda de Treebeard.
Mientras tanto, los Ents, despertados por Merry y Pippin de sus caminos pacíficos, atacan y destruyen Isengard , la fortaleza de Saruman, y la inundan, atrapando al mago en la torre de Orthanc . Gandalf convence a Bárbol de que envíe un ejército de huorns en ayuda de Théoden. Trae un ejército de Rohirrim a Helm's Deep, y derrotan a los Orcos, que huyen al bosque de Huorns, para no ser vistos nunca más. Gandalf, Theoden, Legolas y Gimli viajan a Isengard y se sorprenden al encontrar a Merry y Pippin relajándose en medio de las ruinas. Gandalf le ofrece a Saruman la oportunidad de alejarse del mal. Cuando Saruman se niega a escuchar, Gandalf lo despoja de su rango y la mayoría de sus poderes. Después de que Saruman se va, Wormtongue lanza un objeto redondo y duro para tratar de matar a Gandalf. Pippin lo coge; Gandalf lo toma rápidamente, pero Pippin lo roba en la noche. Se revela que es un palantír , una piedra de visión que Saruman solía hablar con Sauron, y que Sauron solía atraparlo. Sauron ve a Pippin, pero Sauron malinterpreta las circunstancias. Gandalf cabalga inmediatamente hacia Minas Tirith , la ciudad principal de Gondor, llevándose a Pippin con él.
Libro Cuatro
Frodo y Sam, que se dirigen a Mordor, luchan a través de las colinas y acantilados áridos del Emyn Muil . Se dan cuenta de que están siendo observados y rastreados; en una noche de luna capturan a Gollum, que los ha seguido desde Moria. Frodo hace que Gollum jure servirle, como Portador del Anillo, y le pide que los guíe a Mordor. Gollum los conduce a través de los Pantanos Muertos . Sam escucha a Gollum debatir con su alter ego, Sméagol, si romper su promesa y robar el Anillo.
Encuentran que la Puerta Negra de Mordor está demasiado bien protegida, por lo que viajan hacia el sur a través de la tierra de Ithilien hasta un paso secreto que Gollum conoce. En el camino, son capturados por guardabosques liderados por Faramir , el hermano de Boromir. Resiste la tentación de apoderarse del Anillo y, desobedeciendo las órdenes vigentes de arrestar a los extraños que se encuentran en Ithilien, los libera.
Gollum, que se debate entre su lealtad a Frodo y su deseo por el Anillo, guía a los hobbits hasta el paso, pero los conduce a la guarida de la gran araña Shelob en los túneles de Cirith Ungol . Frodo sostiene el regalo que se le dio en Lothlorien: la ampolla de Galadriel, que contiene la luz de la estrella de Eärendil . La luz hace retroceder a Shelob. Frodo corta una red gigante usando su espada Sting . Shelob ataca de nuevo y Frodo cae bajo su veneno. Sam recoge a Sting y la ampolla. Él hiere gravemente y expulsa al monstruo. Creyendo que Frodo está muerto, Sam toma el Anillo para continuar la búsqueda solo. Los orcos encuentran a Frodo; Sam los escucha y se entera de que Frodo todavía está vivo.
El retorno del Rey
Libro Cinco
Sauron envía un gran ejército contra Gondor. Gandalf llega a Minas Tirith para advertir a Denethor del ataque, mientras Théoden reúne a los Rohirrim para que cabalguen en ayuda de Gondor. Minas Tirith está sitiada; el Señor de los Nazgûl usa un ariete y el poder de su Anillo para destruir las puertas de la ciudad. Denethor, engañado por Sauron, se desespera. Se quema vivo en una pira; Merry y Gandalf rescatan a su hijo Faramir del mismo destino.
Aragorn, acompañado por Legolas, Gimli y los Rangers del Norte, toma los Senderos de los Muertos para reclutar a los Hombres Muertos de Dunharrow, rompedores de juramentos que están atados por una antigua maldición que les niega el descanso hasta que cumplan su juramento de luchar por el Rey de Gondor. Aragorn desata al Ejército de los Muertos contra los Corsarios de Umbar que invaden el sur de Gondor. Con esa amenaza eliminada, Aragorn usa los barcos de los Corsarios para transportar a los hombres del sur de Gondor por el Anduin , llegando a Minas Tirith justo a tiempo para cambiar el rumbo de la batalla. La sobrina de Théoden, Éowyn , que se unió al ejército disfrazada, mata al Señor de los Nazgûl con la ayuda de Merry; ambos están heridos. Juntos, Gondor y Rohan derrotan al ejército de Sauron en la Batalla de los Campos de Pelennor , aunque a un gran costo; Théoden está entre los muertos.
Aragorn entra en Minas Tirith y cura a Faramir, Eowyn y Merry. Lidera un ejército de hombres de Gondor y Rohan, marchando a través de Ithilien hacia la Puerta Negra para distraer a Sauron de su verdadero peligro. En la Batalla de Morannon , su ejército es enormemente superado en número.
Libro seis
Mientras tanto, Sam rescata a Frodo de la torre de Cirith Ungol. Se pusieron en camino a través de Mordor. Cuando llegan al borde de las Grietas de la Perdición , Frodo ya no puede resistir el Anillo. Lo reclama para sí mismo y se lo pone. Gollum reaparece de repente. Lucha con Frodo y muerde el dedo de Frodo con el Anillo todavía en él. Celebrando salvajemente, Gollum pierde el equilibrio y cae al Fuego, llevándose el Anillo con él. Cuando se destruye el Anillo, Sauron pierde su poder para siempre. Todo lo que creó se derrumba, los Nazgûl perecen y sus ejércitos están tan desordenados que las fuerzas de Aragorn salen victoriosas.
Aragorn es coronado rey de Arnor y Gondor, y se casa con Arwen , hija de Elrond. Théoden es enterrado y Éomer es coronado rey de Rohan. Su hermana Éowyn está comprometida para casarse con Faramir, ahora mayordomo de Gondor y príncipe de Ithilien. Galadriel, Celeborn y Gandalf se encuentran y se despiden de Bárbol y Aragorn.
Los cuatro hobbits regresan a la Comarca, solo para descubrir que ha sido tomada por hombres dirigidos por "Sharkey" (a quien más tarde descubren que es Saruman). Los hobbits, liderados por Merry, levantan una rebelión y recorren la maldad de la Comarca de Sharkey. Gríma Wormtongue se vuelve contra Saruman y lo mata frente a Bag End, la casa de Frodo. A su vez, es asesinado por arqueros hobbit. Merry y Pippin son celebrados como héroes. Sam se casa con Rosie Cotton y usa sus dones de Galadriel para ayudar a curar la Comarca. Pero Frodo todavía está herido en cuerpo y espíritu, después de haber llevado el Anillo durante tanto tiempo. Unos años más tarde, en compañía de Bilbo y Gandalf, Frodo navega desde los Puertos Grises al oeste sobre el Mar hasta las Tierras Imperecederas para encontrar la paz.
Apéndices
El Apéndice A proporciona antecedentes extensos del mundo más amplio de la Tierra Media, con breves descripciones de los eventos de las dos primeras edades del mundo, y luego historias más detalladas de las naciones de Hombres en Gondor y Rohan, así como una historia de la línea real enana de Durin durante la Tercera Edad. " El cuento de Aragorn y Arwen " cuenta cómo sucedió, como se cuenta en la historia principal, que un elfo inmortal vino a casarse con un hombre, como lo había hecho el antepasado de Arwen, Lúthien, en la Primera Edad , renunciando a su inmortalidad.
El Apéndice B proporciona una línea de tiempo cronológica de los eventos a lo largo de la serie y la mitología más amplia.
También se cuenta que Sam le da a su hija Elanor el Libro Rojo de Westmarch , que contiene la historia de las aventuras de Bilbo y la Guerra del Anillo según lo presenciaron los hobbits. Se dice que existía la tradición de que Sam cruzó el mar hacia el oeste él mismo, el último de los Portadores del Anillo; y que algunos años más tarde, tras las muertes de Aragorn y Arwen, Legolas y Gimli también navegaron "sobre el mar".
Los Apéndices adicionales describen más detalles de las culturas, genealogías e idiomas de los pueblos de la Tierra Media.
Historia del marco
Tolkien presenta El señor de los anillos dentro de una historia de marco ficticio en la que no es el autor original, sino simplemente el traductor de parte de un documento antiguo, el Libro Rojo de Westmarch . [6] Ese libro está inspirado en el Libro Rojo real de Hergest , que también presenta una mitología más antigua. Varios detalles de la historia marco aparecen en el Prólogo, su "Nota sobre los registros de Shire " y en los Apéndices, en particular el Apéndice F.En esta historia marco, el Libro Rojo es la supuesta fuente de otras obras de Tolkien relacionadas con la Tierra Media : El Hobbit , El Silmarillion y Las aventuras de Tom Bombadil . [7]
Concepto y creación
Background
Although a major work in itself, The Lord of the Rings was only the last movement of a much older set of narratives Tolkien had worked on since 1917 encompassing The Silmarillion,[8] in a process he described as mythopoeia.[d]
The Lord of the Rings started as a sequel to Tolkien's work The Hobbit, published in 1937.[10] The popularity of The Hobbit had led George Allen & Unwin, the publishers, to request a sequel. Tolkien warned them that he wrote quite slowly, and responded with several stories he had already developed. Having rejected his contemporary drafts for The Silmarillion, putting Roverandom on hold, and accepting Farmer Giles of Ham, Allen & Unwin continued to ask for more stories about hobbits.[11]
Writing
Persuaded by his publishers, he started "a new Hobbit" in December 1937.[10] After several false starts, the story of the One Ring emerged. The idea for the first chapter ("A Long-Expected Party") arrived fully formed, although the reasons behind Bilbo's disappearance, the significance of the Ring, and the title The Lord of the Rings did not arrive until the spring of 1938.[10] Originally, he planned to write a story in which Bilbo had used up all his treasure and was looking for another adventure to gain more; however, he remembered the Ring and its powers and thought that would be a better focus for the new work.[10] As the story progressed, he brought in elements from The Silmarillion mythology.[12]
Writing was slow, because Tolkien had a full-time academic position, marked exams to bring in a little extra income, and wrote many drafts.[10][T 3] Tolkien abandoned The Lord of the Rings during most of 1943 and only restarted it in April 1944,[10] as a serial for his son Christopher Tolkien, who was sent chapters as they were written while he was serving in South Africa with the Royal Air Force. Tolkien made another major effort in 1946, and showed the manuscript to his publishers in 1947.[10] The story was effectively finished the next year, but Tolkien did not complete the revision of earlier parts of the work until 1949.[10] The original manuscripts, which total 9,250 pages, now reside in the J. R. R. Tolkien Collection at Marquette University.[13]
Poetry
Unusually for 20th century novels, the prose narrative is supplemented throughout by over 60 pieces of poetry. These include verse and songs of many genres: for wandering, marching to war, drinking, and having a bath; narrating ancient myths, riddles, prophecies, and magical incantations; and of praise and lament (elegy).[14] Some, such as riddles, charms, elegies, and narrating heroic actions are found in Old English poetry.[14] Scholars have stated that the poetry is essential for the fiction to work aesthetically and thematically, as it adds information not given in the prose, and it brings out characters and their backgrounds.[15][16] The poetry has been judged to be of high technical skill, reflected in Tolkien's prose; for instance, he wrote much of Tom Bombadil's speech in metre.[17]
Illustrations
Tolkien worked on the text using his maps of Middle-earth as a guide, to ensure the elements of the story fitted together in time and space.[T 4] He prepared a variety of types of illustration – maps, calligraphy, drawings, cover designs, even a facsimile painting of the Book of Mazarbul – but only the maps, the inscription on the Ring, and a drawing of the Doors of Durin were included in the first edition.[18][T 5]
The hardback editions sometimes had cover illustrations by Tolkien,[e] sometimes by other artists.[19] According to The New York Times, Barbara Remington's cover designs for Ballantine's paperback editions "achieved mass-cult status in the 1960s, particularly on college campuses"[19] across America. In the rush to print, Remington had no time to read the book, and surprised Tolkien with details such as a tree with pumpkin-like fruits, and a lion, which was painted out for later editions.[19]
Influences
Tolkien drew on a wide array of influences including language,[T 6] Christianity,[T 7] mythology and Germanic heroic legend including the Norse Völsunga saga,[21] archaeology, especially at the Temple of Nodens,[22] ancient and modern literature, and personal experience. He was inspired primarily by his profession, philology;[T 8] his work centred on the study of Old English literature, especially Beowulf, and he acknowledged its importance to his writings.[20] He was a gifted linguist, influenced by Celtic,[23][21] Finnish,[24] Slavic,[25] and Greek language and mythology.[26] Commentators have attempted to identify literary and topological antecedents for characters, places and events in Tolkien's writings; he acknowledged that he had enjoyed adventure stories by authors such as John Buchan and Rider Haggard.[27][28][29] The Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris was a major influence,[T 9] and Tolkien undoubtedly made use of some real place-names, such as Bag End, the name of his aunt's home.[30] Tolkien stated, too, that he had been influenced by his childhood experiences of the English countryside of Worcestershire near Sarehole Mill, and its urbanisation by the growth of Birmingham,[T 10] and his personal experience of fighting in the trenches of the First World War.[31]
Themes
Scholars and critics have identified many themes in the book with its complex interlaced narrative, including a reversed quest,[32][33] the struggle of good and evil,[34] death and immortality,[35] fate and free will,[36] the addictive danger of power,[37] and various aspects of Christianity such as the presence of three Christ figures, for prophet, priest, and king, as well as elements like hope and redemptive suffering.[38][39][40][41] There is a common theme throughout the work of language, its sound, and its relationship to peoples and places, along with hints of providence in descriptions of weather and landscape.[42] Out of these, Tolkien stated that the central theme is death and immortality.[T 11] To those who supposed that the book was an allegory of events in the 20th century, Tolkien replied in the Foreword to the Second Edition that it was not, saying he preferred "history, true or feigned, with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers."
Some commentators have accused the book of being a story about men for boys, with no significant women; or about a purely rural world with no bearing on modern life in cities; of containing no sign of religion; or of racism. All of these charges have been rebutted by other commentators, who note that there are three powerful women in the book, Galadriel, Éowyn, and Arwen; that life, even in rural Hobbiton, is not idealised; that Christianity is a pervasive theme; and that Tolkien was sharply anti-racist both in peacetime and during the Second World War, while Middle-earth is evidently polycultural.[43][44][45]
Historial de publicaciones
A dispute with his publisher, George Allen & Unwin, led to his offering the work to William Collins in 1950. Tolkien intended The Silmarillion (itself largely unrevised at this point) to be published along with The Lord of the Rings, but Allen & Unwin were unwilling to do this. After Milton Waldman, his contact at Collins, expressed the belief that The Lord of the Rings itself "urgently wanted cutting", Tolkien eventually demanded that they publish the book in 1952.[46] Collins did not; and so Tolkien wrote to Allen and Unwin, saying, "I would gladly consider the publication of any part of the stuff", fearing his work would never see the light of day.[10]
For publication, the work was divided into three volumes to minimize any potential financial loss due to the high cost of type-setting and modest anticipated sales: The Fellowship of the Ring (Books I and II), The Two Towers (Books III and IV), and The Return of the King (Books V and VI plus six appendices).[47] Delays in producing appendices, maps and especially an index led to the volumes being published later than originally hoped – on 29 July 1954, on 11 November 1954 and on 20 October 1955 respectively in the United Kingdom.[48] In the United States, Houghton Mifflin published The Fellowship of the Ring on 21 October 1954, The Two Towers on 21 April 1955, and The Return of the King on 5 January 1956.[49]
The Return of the King was especially delayed as Tolkien revised the ending and prepared appendices (some of which had to be left out because of space constraints). Tolkien did not like the title The Return of the King, believing it gave away too much of the storyline, but deferred to his publisher's preference.[50] Tolkien wrote that the title The Two Towers "can be left ambiguous,"[T 12] but considered naming the two as Orthanc and Barad-dûr, Minas Tirith and Barad-dûr, or Orthanc and the Tower of Cirith Ungol.[T 13] However, a month later he wrote a note published at the end of The Fellowship of the Ring and later drew a cover illustration, both of which identified the pair as Minas Morgul and Orthanc.[51][52]
Tolkien was initially opposed to titles being given to each two-book volume, preferring instead the use of book titles: e.g. The Lord of the Rings: Vol. 1, The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South; Vol. 2, The Treason of Isengard and The Ring Goes East; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring and The End of the Third Age. However, these individual book titles were dropped, and after pressure from his publishers, Tolkien suggested the volume titles: Vol. 1, The Shadow Grows; Vol. 2, The Ring in the Shadow; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring or The Return of the King.[53][54]
Because the three-volume binding was so widely distributed, the work is often referred to as the Lord of the Rings "trilogy". In a letter to the poet W. H. Auden, who famously reviewed the final volume in 1956,[55] Tolkien himself made use of the term "trilogy" for the work[T 14] though he did at other times consider this incorrect, as it was written and conceived as a single book.[T 15] It is often called a novel; however, Tolkien objected to this term as he viewed it as a heroic romance.[T 16]
The books were published under a profit-sharing arrangement, whereby Tolkien would not receive an advance or royalties until the books had broken even, after which he would take a large share of the profits.[56] It has ultimately become one of the best-selling novels ever written, with 50 million copies sold by 2003[57] and over 150 million copies sold by 2007.[2] The work was published in the UK by Allen & Unwin until 1990, when the publisher and its assets were acquired by HarperCollins.[58][59]
Editions and revisions
In the early 1960s Donald A. Wollheim, science fiction editor of the paperback publisher Ace Books, claimed that The Lord of the Rings was not protected in the United States under American copyright law because Houghton Mifflin, the US hardcover publisher, had neglected to copyright the work in the United States.[60][61] Then, in 1965, Ace Books proceeded to publish an edition, unauthorized by Tolkien and without paying royalties to him. Tolkien took issue with this and quickly notified his fans of this objection.[62] Grass-roots pressure from these fans became so great that Ace Books withdrew their edition and made a nominal payment to Tolkien.[63][T 17]
Authorized editions followed from Ballantine Books and Houghton Mifflin to tremendous commercial success. Tolkien undertook various textual revisions to produce a version of the book that would be published with his consent and establish an unquestioned US copyright. This text became the Second Edition of The Lord of the Rings, published in 1965.[63] The first Ballantine paperback edition was printed in October that year, selling a quarter of a million copies within ten months. On 4 September 1966, the novel debuted on The New York Times's Paperback Bestsellers list as number three, and was number one by 4 December, a position it held for eight weeks.[66] Houghton Mifflin editions after 1994 consolidate variant revisions by Tolkien, and corrections supervised by Christopher Tolkien, which resulted, after some initial glitches, in a computer-based unified text.[67]
In 2004, for the 50th Anniversary Edition, Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull, under supervision from Christopher Tolkien, studied and revised the text to eliminate as many errors and inconsistencies as possible, some of which had been introduced by well-meaning compositors of the first printing in 1954, and never been corrected.[68] The 2005 edition of the book contained further corrections noticed by the editors and submitted by readers. Yet more corrections were made in the 60th Anniversary Edition in 2014.[69] Several editions, including the 50th Anniversary Edition, print the whole work in one volume, with the result that pagination varies widely over the various editions.[T 18]
Posthumous publication of drafts
From 1988 to 1992 Christopher Tolkien published the surviving drafts of The Lord of The Rings, chronicling and illuminating with commentary the stages of the text's development, in volumes 6–9 of his History of Middle-earth series. The four volumes carry the titles The Return of the Shadow, The Treason of Isengard, The War of the Ring, and Sauron Defeated.[70]
Translations
The work has been translated, with varying degrees of success, into at least 38,[b] and reportedly at least 70, languages.[71] Tolkien, an expert in philology, examined many of these translations, and made comments on each that reflect both the translation process and his work. As he was unhappy with some choices made by early translators, such as the Swedish translation by Åke Ohlmarks,[T 19] Tolkien wrote a "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings" (1967). Because The Lord of the Rings purports to be a translation of the fictitious Red Book of Westmarch, using the English language to represent the Westron of the "original", Tolkien suggested that translators attempt to capture the interplay between English and the invented nomenclature of the English work, and gave several examples along with general guidance.[72][73]
Recepción
1950s
Early reviews for The Lord of the Rings were mixed. The initial review in the Sunday Telegraph described it as "among the greatest works of imaginative fiction of the twentieth century".[74] The Sunday Times echoed this sentiment, stating that "the English-speaking world is divided into those who have read The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit and those who are going to read them."[74] The New York Herald Tribune appeared to predict the books' popularity, writing in its review that they were "destined to outlast our time".[75] W. H. Auden, a former pupil of Tolkien's and an admirer of his writings, regarded The Lord of the Rings as a "masterpiece", further stating that in some cases it outdid the achievement of John Milton's Paradise Lost.[76] Kenneth F. Slater wrote in Nebula Science Fiction, April 1955, "... if you don't read it, you have missed one of the finest books of its type ever to appear".[77][78]
Even within Tolkien's literary group, The Inklings, the work had a mixed reception. Hugo Dyson complained loudly at its readings,[79][80] whereas C. S. Lewis had very different feelings, writing, "here are beauties which pierce like swords or burn like cold iron. Here is a book which will break your heart."[8] Lewis observed that the writing is rich, in that some of the 'good' characters have darker sides, and likewise some of the villains have "good impulses".[81] Despite the mixed reviews and the lack of a paperback until the 1960s, The Lord of the Rings initially sold well in hardback.[8]
Later
Judith Shulevitz, writing in The New York Times, criticized the "pedantry" of Tolkien's literary style, saying that he "formulated a high-minded belief in the importance of his mission as a literary preservationist, which turns out to be death to literature itself".[82] The critic Richard Jenkyns, writing in The New Republic, criticized the work for a lack of psychological depth. Both the characters and the work itself were, according to Jenkyns, "anemic, and lacking in fibre".[83] The science fiction author David Brin interprets the work as holding unquestioning devotion to a traditional hierarchical social structure.[84] In his essay "Epic Pooh", fantasy author Michael Moorcock critiques the world-view displayed by the book as deeply conservative, in both the "paternalism" of the narrative voice and the power structures in the narrative.[85] Tom Shippey, like Tolkien an English philologist, notes the wide gulf between Tolkien's supporters, both popular and academic, and his literary detractors, and attempts to explain in detail both why the literary establishment disliked The Lord of the Rings, and the work's subtlety, themes, and merits, including the impression of depth that it conveys.[86] The scholar of humanities Brian Rosebury analysed Tolkien's prose style in detail, showing that it was generally quite plain, varying to suit the voices of the different characters, and rising to a heroic register for special moments.[87]
Awards
In 1957, The Lord of the Rings was awarded the International Fantasy Award. Despite its numerous detractors, the publication of the Ace Books and Ballantine paperbacks helped The Lord of the Rings become immensely popular in the United States in the 1960s. The book has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century, judged by both sales and reader surveys.[88] In the 2003 "Big Read" survey conducted in Britain by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the "Nation's best-loved book". In similar 2004 polls both Germany[89] and Australia[90] chose The Lord of the Rings as their favourite book. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium".[91] In 2019, the BBC News listed The Lord of the Rings on its list of the 100 most influential novels.[92]
Adaptaciones
The Lord of the Rings has been adapted for radio, stage, film and television.
Radio
The book has been adapted for radio four times. In 1955 and 1956, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a 13-part radio adaptation of the story. In the 1960s radio station WBAI produced a short radio adaptation. A 1979 dramatization of The Lord of the Rings was broadcast in the United States and subsequently issued on tape and CD. In 1981, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a new dramatization in 26 half-hour instalments.[93][94]
Film and television
A variety of filmmakers considered adapting Tolkien's book, among them Stanley Kubrick, who thought it unfilmable,[95][96] Michelangelo Antonioni,[97] Heinz Edelmann,[98] and John Boorman.[99] A Swedish live action television film, Sagan om ringen, was broadcast in 1971.[100] In 1978, Ralph Bakshi made an animated film version covering The Fellowship of the Ring and part of The Two Towers, to mostly poor reviews.[101] In 1980, Rankin/Bass released an animated TV special based on the closing chapters of The Return of the King, gaining mixed reviews.[102][103] In Finland, a live action television miniseries, Hobitit, was broadcast in 1993 based on The Lord of the Rings, with a flashback to Bilbo's encounter with Gollum in The Hobbit.[104][105]
A far more successful adaptation was Peter Jackson's live action The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, produced by New Line Cinema and released in three instalments as The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003). All three parts won multiple Academy Awards, including consecutive Best Picture nominations. The final instalment of this trilogy was the second film to break the one-billion-dollar barrier and won a total of 11 Oscars (something only two other films in history, Ben-Hur and Titanic, have accomplished), including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay.[106][107] Commentators including Tolkien scholars, literary critics and film critics are divided on how faithfully Jackson adapted Tolkien's work, or whether a film version is inevitably different, and if so the reasons for any changes, and the effectiveness of the result.[108]
The Hunt for Gollum, a 2009 film by Chris Bouchard,[109][110] and the 2009 Born of Hope, written by Paula DiSante and directed by Kate Madison, are fan films based on details in the appendices of The Lord of the Rings.[111]
In 2017, Amazon acquired the global television rights to The Lord of the Rings for a multi-season television series of new stories set before The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings,[112] based on Tolkien's descriptions of events of the Second Age of Middle-earth.[113]
Stage
In 1990, Recorded Books published an audio version of The Lord of the Rings,[114] read by the British actor Rob Inglis. A large-scale musical theatre adaptation, The Lord of the Rings, was first staged in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 2006 and opened in London in June 2007; it was a commercial failure.[115]
Legado
Influence on fantasy
The enormous popularity of Tolkien's work expanded the demand for fantasy. Largely thanks to The Lord of the Rings, the genre flowered throughout the 1960s and enjoys popularity to the present day.[116] The opus has spawned many imitations, such as The Sword of Shannara, which Lin Carter called "the single most cold-blooded, complete rip-off of another book that I have ever read".[117]The Legend of Zelda, which popularized the action-adventure game genre in the 1980s, was inspired by The Lord of the Rings among other fantasy books.[118][119] Dungeons & Dragons, which popularized the role-playing game genre in the 1970s, features several races from The Lord of the Rings, including halflings (hobbits), elves, dwarves, half-elves, orcs, and dragons. However, Gary Gygax, lead designer of the game, maintained that he was influenced very little by The Lord of the Rings, stating that he included these elements as a marketing move to draw on the popularity the work enjoyed at the time he was developing the game.[120] Because Dungeons & Dragons has gone on to influence many popular role-playing video games, the influence of The Lord of the Rings extends to many of them, with titles such as Dragon Quest,[121][122] the Ultima series, EverQuest, the Warcraft series, and The Elder Scrolls series of games[123] as well as video games set in Middle-earth itself.
Music
In 1965, the songwriter Donald Swann, best known for his collaboration with Michael Flanders as Flanders & Swann, set six poems from The Lord of the Rings and one from The Adventures of Tom Bombadil ("Errantry") to music. When Swann met with Tolkien to play the songs for his approval, Tolkien suggested for "Namárië" (Galadriel's lament) a setting reminiscent of plain chant, which Swann accepted.[124] The songs were published in 1967 as The Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle,[125] and a recording of the songs performed by singer William Elvin with Swann on piano was issued that same year by Caedmon Records as Poems and Songs of Middle Earth.[126]
Rock bands of the 1970s were musically and lyrically inspired by the fantasy-embracing counter-culture of the time. The British rock band Led Zeppelin recorded several songs that contain explicit references to The Lord of the Rings, such as mentioning Gollum and Mordor in "Ramble On", the Misty Mountains in "Misty Mountain Hop", and Ringwraiths in "The Battle of Evermore". In 1970, the Swedish musician Bo Hansson released an instrumental concept album entitled Sagan om ringen ("The Saga of the Ring", the title of the Swedish translation at the time).[127] The album was subsequently released internationally as Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings in 1972.[127] From the 1980s onwards, many heavy metal acts have been influenced by Tolkien.[128]
In 1988, the Dutch composer and trombonist Johan de Meij completed his Symphony No. 1 "The Lord of the Rings". It had 5 movements, titled "Gandalf", "Lothlórien", "Gollum", "Journey in the Dark", and "Hobbits".[129]
The 1991 album Shepherd Moons by the Irish musician Enya contains an instrumental titled "Lothlórien", in reference to the home of the wood-elves.[130]
Impact on popular culture
The Lord of the Rings has had a profound and wide-ranging impact on popular culture, beginning with its publication in the 1950s, but especially during the 1960s and 1970s, when young people embraced it as a countercultural saga.[131] "Frodo Lives!" and "Gandalf for President" were two phrases popular amongst United States Tolkien fans during this time.[132] Its impact is such that the words "Tolkienian" and "Tolkienesque" have entered the Oxford English Dictionary, and many of his fantasy terms, formerly little-known in English, such as "Orc" and "Warg", have become widespread in that domain.[133] Among its effects are numerous parodies, especially Harvard Lampoon's Bored of the Rings, which has had the distinction of remaining continuously in print from its publication in 1969, and of being translated into at least 11 languages.[134]
In 1969, Tolkien sold the merchandising rights to The Lord of The Rings (and The Hobbit) to United Artists under an agreement stipulating a lump sum payment of £10,000[135] plus a 7.5% royalty after costs,[136] payable to Allen & Unwin and the author.[137] In 1976, three years after the author's death, United Artists sold the rights to Saul Zaentz Company, who now trade as Tolkien Enterprises. Since then all "authorised" merchandise has been signed off by Tolkien Enterprises, although the intellectual property rights of the specific likenesses of characters and other imagery from various adaptations is generally held by the adaptors.[138]
Outside any commercial exploitation from adaptations, from the late 1960s onwards there has been an increasing variety of original licensed merchandise, with posters and calendars created by illustrators such as Barbara Remington.[139]
The work was named Britain's best novel of all time in the BBC's The Big Read.[140] In 2015, the BBC ranked The Lord of the Rings 26th on its list of the 100 greatest British novels.[141] It was included in Le Monde's list of "100 Books of the Century".[142]
Notas
- ^ J. R. R. Tolkien did not like it when the word "novel" was used to describe his works, but the term is commonly applied. He preferred the phrase "heroic romance".[T 1]
- ^ a b At least 38 languages are listed at the FAQ. This number is a conservative estimate; some 56 translations are listed at translations of The Lord of the Rings, and 57 languages are listed at Elrond's Library.
- ^ Although Frodo refers to Bilbo as his "uncle", the character is introduced in "A Long-expected Party" as one of Bilbo's younger cousins. The two were in fact first and second cousins, once removed either way (his paternal great-great-uncle's son's son and his maternal great-aunt's son).
- ^ Tolkien created the word to define a different view of myth from C. S. Lewis's "lies breathed through silver", writing the poem Mythopoeia to present his argument; it was first published in Tree and Leaf in 1988.[9]
- ^ See the lead images in the articles on the three separate volumes, e.g. The Fellowship of the Ring.
Referencias
Primary
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #329 to Peter Szabo Szentmihalyi, October 1971
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #126 to Milton Waldman (draft), 10 March 1950
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #17 to Stanley Unwin, 15 October 1937
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #144 to Naomi Mitchison, 25 April 1954
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #141 to Allen & Unwin, 9 October 1953
- ^ Tolkien 1997, pp. 162–197 "English and Welsh"
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #142 to Robert Murray, S. J., 2 December 1953
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #165 to Houghton Mifflin, 30 June 1955
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #19 to Stanley Unwin, 31 December 1960
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #178 to Allen & Unwin, 12 December 1955, and #303 to Nicholas Thomas, 6 May 1968
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #140 to Rayner Unwin, 17 August 1953
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #143 to Rayner Unwin, 22 January 1954
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #163 to W. H. Auden, 7 June 1955
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #149 to Rayner Unwin, 9 September 1954
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #239 to Peter Szabo Szentmihalyi, draft, October 1971
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letters #270, #273 and #277
- ^ Tolkien, J. R. R. (2004). The Lord of the Rings 50th Anniversary Edition. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10320-7.
This special 50th anniversary hardback edition of J.R.R. Tolkien's classic masterpiece includes the complete revised and reset text, two-fold out maps printed in red and black and, unique to this edition, a full-colour fold-out reproduction of Tolkien's own facsimile pages from the Book of Mazarbul that the Fellowship discover in Moria.
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letters #228 and #229 to Allen & Unwin, 24 January 1961 and 23 February 1961
Secondary
- ^ Chance, Jane (1980) [1979]. The Lord of the Rings: Tolkien's Epic. Tolkien's Art: A Mythology for England. Macmillan. pp. 97–127. ISBN 0-333-29034-8.
- ^ a b Wagner, Vit (16 April 2007). "Tolkien proves he's still the king". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
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- ^ "The Life and Works for JRR Tolkien". BBC. 7 February 2002. Archived from the original on 1 November 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
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- ^ Bowman, Mary R. (October 2006). "The Story Was Already Written: Narrative Theory in "The Lord of the Rings"". Narrative. 14 (3): 272–293. doi:10.1353/nar.2006.0010. JSTOR 20107391. S2CID 162244172.
the frame of the Red Book of Westmarch, which becomes one of the major structural devices Tolkien uses to invite meta-fictional reflection... He claims, in essence, that the story was already written...
- ^ a b c Doughan, David. "J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biographical Sketch". TolkienSociety.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2006. Retrieved 16 June 2006.
- ^ Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2006). The J.R.R. Tolkien Companion and Guide: II. Reader's Guide. pp. 620–622. ISBN 978-0-00-821453-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Carpenter 1977, pp. 187–208
- ^ Carpenter 1977, p. 195.
- ^ Rérolle, Raphaëlle (5 December 2012). "My Father's 'Eviscerated' Work – Son Of Hobbit Scribe J.R.R. Tolkien Finally Speaks Out". Le Monde/Worldcrunch. Archived from the original on 10 February 2013.
- ^ "J. R. R. Tolkien Collection | Marquette Archives | Raynor Memorial Libraries | Marquette University". Archived from the original on 19 December 2013.
- ^ a b Kullmann, Thomas (2013). "Poetic Insertions in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings". Connotations: A Journal for Critical Debate. 23 (2): 283–309. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
- ^ Higgins, Andrew (2014). "Tolkien's Poetry (2013), edited by Julian Eilmann and Allan Turner". Journal of Tolkien Research. 1 (1). Article 4. Archived from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
- ^ Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif (2005). "Gilraen's Linnod : Function, Genre, Prototypes". Journal of Tolkien Studies. 2 (1): 235–244. doi:10.1353/tks.2005.0032. ISSN 1547-3163. S2CID 170378314.
- ^ Zimmer, Paul Edwin (1993). "Another Opinion of 'The Verse of J.R.R. Tolkien'". Mythlore. 19 (2). Article 2.
- ^ Holmes, John R. (2013) [2007]. "Art and Illustrations by Tolkien". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 27–32. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.
- ^ a b c d Carmel, Julia (15 February 2020). "Barbara Remington, Illustrator of Tolkien Book Covers, Dies at 90". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ a b Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-earth (Third ed.). HarperCollins. pp. 74, 169–170 and passim. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0.
- ^ a b Lee, Stuart D.; Solopova, Elizabeth (2005). The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien. Palgrave. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-1-4039-4671-3.
- ^ Anger, Don N. (2013) [2007]. "Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric, Roman and Post-Roman Site in Lydney Park, Gloucestershire". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. Routledge. pp. 563–564. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.
- ^ Burns, Marjorie (2005). Perilous Realms: Celtic and Norse in Tolkien's Middle-earth. University of Toronto Press. pp. 13–29 and passim. ISBN 978-0-8020-3806-7.
- ^ Handwerk, Brian (1 March 2004). "Lord of the Rings Inspired by an Ancient Epic". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original on 16 March 2006. Retrieved 4 October 2006.
- ^ Kuzmenko, Dmitry. "Slavic echoes in the works of J.R.R. Tolkien" (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Stanton, Michael (2001). Hobbits, Elves, and Wizards: Exploring the Wonders and Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 18. ISBN 1-4039-6025-9.
- ^ Resnick, Henry (1967). "An Interview with Tolkien". Niekas: 37–47.
- ^ Nelson, Dale (2013) [2007]. "Literary Influences, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. Routledge. pp. 366–377. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.
- ^ Hooker, Mark T. (2011). Fisher, Jason (ed.). Reading John Buchan in Search of Tolkien. Tolkien and the study of his sources : critical essays. McFarland. pp. 162–192. ISBN 978-0-7864-6482-1. OCLC 731009810.
- ^ "Lord of the Rings inspiration in the archives". Explore the Past (Worcestershire Historic Environment Record). 29 May 2013.
- ^ Livingston, Michael (2006). "The Shellshocked Hobbit: The First World War and Tolkien's Trauma of the Ring". Mythlore. Mythopoeic Society. pp. 77–92. Archived from the original on 23 December 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ Campbell, Lori M. (2010). Portals of Power: Magical Agency and Transformation in Literary Fantasy. McFarland. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-7864-5655-0.
- ^ West, Richard C. (1975). Lobdell, Jared (ed.). Narrative Pattern in 'The Fellowship of the Ring'. A Tolkien Compass. Open Court. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-87548-303-0.
- ^ Flieger, Verlyn (2002). Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien's World (2nd ed.). Kent State University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-87338-744-6.
- ^ Hannon, Patrice (2004). "The Lord of the Rings as Elegy". Mythlore. 24 (2): 36–42.
- ^ Spacks, Patricia Meyer (2005). "Power and Meaning in 'The Lord of the Rings'". In Isaacs, Neil David; Zimbardo, Rose A. (eds.). Understanding The Lord of the Rings: The Best of Tolkien Criticism. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 58–64. ISBN 978-0-618-42253-1.
- ^ Perkins, Agnes; Hill, Helen (1975). Lobdell, Jared (ed.). The Corruption of Power. A Tolkien Compass. Open Court. pp. 57–68. ISBN 978-0-87548-303-0.
- ^ Kreeft, Peter J. (November 2005). "The Presence of Christ in The Lord of the Rings". Ignatius Insight.
- ^ Kerry, Paul E. (2010). Kerry, Paul E. (ed.). The Ring and the Cross: Christianity and the Lord of the Rings. Fairleigh Dickinson. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-1-61147-065-9.
- ^ Schultz, Forrest W. (1 December 2002). "Christian Typologies in The Lord of the Rings". Chalcedon. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
- ^ Williams, Stan. "20 Ways 'The Lord of the Rings' Is Both Christian and Catholic". Catholic Education Resource Center. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
- ^ Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-earth (Third ed.). HarperCollins. pp. 129–133, 245–247. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0.
- ^ Wood, Ralph C. (2003). The Gospel According to Tolkien. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 2-4. ISBN 978-0-664-23466-9.
- ^ Rearick, Anderson (2004). "Why is the Only Good Orc a Dead Orc? The Dark Face of Racism Examined in Tolkien's World". Modern Fiction Studies. 50 (4): 866–867. doi:10.1353/mfs.2005.0008. S2CID 162647975.
- ^ Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif (2004). Chance, Jane (ed.). Myth, Late Roman History, and Multiculturalism in Tolkien's Middle-earth. Tolkien and the invention of myth : a reader. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 112–115. ISBN 978-0-8131-2301-1.
- ^ Carpenter 1977, pp. 211 ff..
- ^ Unwin, Rayner (1999). George Allen & Unwin: A Remembrancer. Merlin Unwin Books. pp. 97–99. ISBN 1-873674-37-6.
- ^ Carpenter 1977, pp. 220–221.
- ^ The Fellowship of the Ring: Being the First Part of The Lord of the Rings] (publication history) Tolkien, J. R. R. (15 February 2012). The Fellowship of the Ring: Being the First Part of the Lord of the Rings. ISBN 978-0547952017. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2017.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
- ^ "From Book to Script", The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring Appendices (DVD). New Line Cinema. 2002.
- ^ "The second part is called The Two Towers, since the events recounted in it are dominated by Orthanc, ..., and the fortress of Minas Morgul..."
- ^ "Tolkien's own cover design for The Two Towers". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Carpenter 1981, letter #137, #140, #143 all to Rayner Unwin, his publisher, in 1953-4
- ^ Tolkien, Christopher (2000). The War of the Ring: The History of The Lord of the Rings. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-08359-6.
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Fuentes
- Carpenter, Humphrey (1977), J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography, New York: Ballantine Books, ISBN 978-0-04-928037-3
- Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (1981), The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-31555-7
- Drout, Michael D. C. (2006). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96942-0.
- Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2005). The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion. Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 978-0-00-720907-1.
- Tolkien, Christopher (ed.) (1988–1992). The History of The Lord of the Rings, 4 vols.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (1997). The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10263-7.
enlaces externos
- Tolkien website of Harper Collins (the British publisher)
- Tolkien website of Houghton Mifflin (the American publisher)
- Lord of the Rings, The at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy