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No confundir con agricultura agrícola o corporativa .
Agricultores comprobando un cerdo nativo en Filipinas

La agroindustria (también llamada bioempresa [1] [2] o bioempresa ) se refiere a las empresas , la industria , el sistema y el campo de estudio de las cadenas de valor interrelacionadas e interdependientes [3] en la agricultura [4] y bioeconomía . [5] El objetivo principal de la agroindustria es maximizar las ganancias mientras se satisfacen de manera sostenible las necesidades de los consumidores de productos relacionados con los recursos naturales como la biotecnología , las granjas ,alimentos , silvicultura , pesca , combustible y fibra , generalmente con la exclusión de recursos no renovables como la minería . [6] [7]

La agroindustria no se limita a la agricultura . Abarca un espectro más amplio a través del sistema de agronegocios que incluye insumos, valor agregado , mercadeo , emprendimiento , microfinanciamiento , extensión agrícola , entre otros.

En algunos países como Filipinas , la creación y gestión de empresas de agronegocios requieren la consulta con agricultores registrados si se alcanza un cierto nivel de operaciones, capitalización, superficie de tierra o número de animales en la granja.

Evolución del concepto de agronegocios [ editar ]

La palabra "agroindustria" es un acrónimo de las palabras agricultura y negocios. El primer uso conocido de la palabra fue en el Volumen 155 del Canadian Almanac & Directory publicado en 1847. [8] Aunque la mayoría de los profesionales reconocen que fue acuñado en 1957 por dos profesores de Harvard Business School , John Davis y Ray Goldberg después de que publicaron el libro " Un concepto de agroindustria ". [9]

"Agronegocios es la suma total de todas las operaciones involucradas en la fabricación y distribución de suministros agrícolas; operaciones de producción en la finca; y el almacenamiento, procesamiento y distribución de productos agrícolas y artículos elaborados con ellos". (Davis y Goldberg, 1956)

Su libro argumentaba en contra de los programas del New Deal del entonces presidente de los Estados Unidos, Franklin Roosevelt, ya que condujo al aumento de los precios agrícolas. Davis y Goldberg favorecieron la agricultura impulsada por las empresas o la agricultura a gran escala para revolucionar el sector agrícola, disminuyendo la dependencia del poder y la política estatales. [10] Explicaron en el libro que las empresas integradas verticalmente dentro de las cadenas de valor agrícolas tienen la capacidad de controlar los precios y dónde se distribuyen. [10] Goldberg luego ayudó en el establecimiento del primer programa de pregrado en agroindustria en 1966 en la UP College of Agriculture enLos Baños, Filipinas como Licenciado en Ciencias Agrícolas con especialización en Agronegocios. [11] [12] [13] El programa fue inicialmente una empresa conjunta con la UP College of Business Administration en Diliman, Quezon City hasta 1975. [11] El Dr. Jose D. Drilon de la Universidad de Filipinas luego publicó el libro " Materiales de recursos para la gestión de agronegocios " (1971) que sería la base de los programas actuales de agronegocios en todo el mundo. [12] [14] En 1973, Drilon y Goldberg ampliaron aún más el concepto de agronegocios para incluir organizaciones de apoyo comogobiernos , instituciones de investigación , escuelas, instituciones financieras y cooperativas dentro del Sistema Integrado de Agronegocios. [15]

Mark R. Edwards y Clifford J. Shultz II (2005) de la Universidad Loyola de Chicago reformularon la definición de agronegocios para enfatizar su falta de enfoque en la producción agrícola, sino hacia la centralización del mercado y un enfoque innovador para servir a los consumidores en todo el mundo. [7]

"La agroindustria es un esfuerzo dinámico y sistémico que sirve a los consumidores a nivel mundial y local a través de la innovación y la gestión de múltiples cadenas de valor que entregan bienes y servicios valiosos derivados de la orquestación sostenible de alimentos, fibras y recursos naturales". (Edwards y Shultz, 2005)

In 2017, noting the rise of genetic engineering and biotechnology in agriculture, Goldberg further expanded the definition of agribusiness which covers all the interdependent aspects of the food system including medicine, nutrition, and health.[3] He also emphasized the responsibility of agribusiness to be environmentally and socially conscious towards sustainability.[16]

"Agribusiness is the interrelated and interdependent industries in agriculture that supply, process, distribute, and support the products of agriculture." (Goldberg, 2017)

Today, agribusinesses are adopting the triple bottom line framework such as aligning for fair trade, organic, good agricultural practices, and B-corporation certifications towards the concept of social entrepreneurship. With the globalization of the startup movement[17], innovative agribusiness technology startups continue to emerge.[18]

Agribusiness System[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural value chain § Background[edit]
Value chain representation

The term value chain was first popularized in a book published in 1985 by Michael Porter,[19] who used it to illustrate how companies could achieve what he called “competitive advantage” by adding value within their organization. Subsequently, the term was adopted for agricultural development purposes [20] and has now become very much in vogue among those working in this field, with an increasing number of bilateral and multilateral aid organisations using it to guide their development interventions.

At the heart of the agricultural value chain concept is the idea of actors connected along a chain producing and delivering goods to consumers through a sequence of activities.[21] However, this “vertical” chain cannot function in isolation and an important aspect of the value chain approach is that it also considers “horizontal” impacts on the chain, such as input and finance provision, extension support and the general enabling environment. The approach has been found useful, particularly by donors, in that it has resulted in a consideration of all those factors impacting on the ability of farmers to access markets profitably, leading to a broader range of chain interventions. It is used both for upgrading existing chains and for donors to identify market opportunities for small farmers.[22]

Inputs Sector[edit]

Agricultural supplies[edit]

An agricultural supply store or agrocenter is an agriculturally-oriented shop where one sells agricultural supplies -- inputs required for agricultural production such as pesticides, feed and fertilizers . Sometimes these stores are organized as cooperatives, where store customers aggregate their resources to purchase agricultural inputs. Agricultural supply and the stores that provide it are part of the larger Agribusiness industry.

Agricultural labor[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Farmworker[edit]
Farm workers on a field near Mount Williamson. This photograph is by Ansel Adams.

A farmworker or agricultural worker is someone employed for labor in agriculture. In labor law, the term "farmworker" is sometimes used more narrowly, applying only to a hired worker involved in agricultural production, including harvesting, but not to a worker in other on-farm jobs, such as picking fruit.

Agricultural work varies widely depending on context, degree of mechanization and crop. In countries like the United States where there is a declining population of American citizens working on farms—temporary or iterant skilled labor from outside the country is recruited for labor intensive crops like vegetables and fruits.

Agricultural labor is often the first community effected by the human health impacts of environmental issues related to agriculture, such as health effects of pesticides or exposure to other health challenges such as valley fever. To address these environmental concerns, immigration challenges and marginal working conditions, many labor rights, economic justice and environmental justice movements have been organized or supported by farmworkers.

Irrigation[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Irrigation[edit]
The hub of a center-pivot irrigation system
Leaks in micro-irrigation drip lines

Irrigation is the artificial process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to assist in production of crops.[23] Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection,[24] suppressing weed growth in grain fields[25] and preventing soil consolidation.[26] In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed.

Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location.

Irrigation canal in Osmaniye, Turkey
Sprinkler irrigation of blueberries in Plainville, New York, United States
Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to the Americas.

Seeds[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Seed company[edit]
A street full of seed shops in Wuhan, China, a few blocks from Wuchang Railway Station

Seed companies produce and sell seeds for flowers, fruit and vegetables to commercial growers and amateur gardeners. The production of seed is a multibillion-dollar business, which uses growing facilities and growing locations worldwide. While most seed is produced by large specialist growers, large amounts are produced by small growers that produce only one to a few crop types. These larger companies supply seed both to commercial resellers and wholesalers. The resellers and wholesalers sell to vegetable and fruit growers, and to companies who package seed into packets and sell them on to the amateur gardener.

Most seed companies or resellers that sell retail, produce a catalog – generally published during early winter for seed to be sown the following spring. These catalogs are eagerly awaited by the amateur gardener, as during winter months there is little that can be done in the garden, so this time can be spent planning the following year’s gardening. The largest collection of nursery and seed trade catalogs in the U.S. is held at the National Agricultural Library. The earliest catalogs there date from the late 18th century, with most published from the 1890s to the present.[27]

Seed companies produce a huge range of seeds from highly developed F1 hybrids to open pollinated wild species. They have extensive research facilities to produce plants with genetic materials that result in improved uniformity and appeal. These qualities might include disease resistance, higher yields, dwarf habit and vibrant or new colors. These improvements are often closely guarded to protect them from being utilized by other producers, thus plant cultivars are often sold under their own names and by international laws protected from being grown for seed production by others. Along with the growth in the allotment movement, and the increasing popularity of gardening, there have emerged many small independent seed companies. Many of these are active in seed conservation and encouraging diversity. They often offer organic and open pollinated varieties of seeds as opposed to hybrids. Many of these varieties are heirloom varieties. The use of old varieties will continue to maintain diversity in the horticultural gene pool. There is a good case for amateur gardeners to use older (heirloom) varieties as the modern seed types are often the same as those grown by commercial producers, and so characteristics which are useful to them (e.g. vegetables ripening at the same time) may be unsuited to home growing.

Fertilizers[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Fertilizer[edit]
A large, modern fertilizer spreader
A Lite-Trac Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show

A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.[28] For most modern agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) with occasional addition of supplements like rock dust for micronutrients. Farmers apply these fertilizers in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes, using large agricultural equipment or hand-tool methods.

Historically fertilization came from natural or organic sources: compost, animal manure, human manure, harvested minerals, crop rotations and byproducts of human-nature industries (i.e. fish processing waste, or bloodmeal from animal slaughter). However, starting in the 19th century, after innovations in plant nutrition, an agricultural industry developed around synthetically created fertilizers. This transition was important in transforming the global food system, allowing for larger-scale industrial agriculture with large crop yields. In particular nitrogen-fixing chemical processes such as the Haber process at the beginning of the 20th century, amplified by production capacity created during World War II led to a boom in using nitrogen fertilizers. In the later half of the 20th century, increased use of nitrogen fertilizers (800% increase between 1961 and 2019) have been a crucial component of the increased productivity of conventional food systems (more than 30% per capita) as part of the so called "Green Revolution".[29]

Synthetic fertilizer used in agriculture has wide-reaching environmental consequences. According to the IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land, production of these fertilizers and associated land use practices are key drivers of global warming.[29] The use of fertilizer has also led to a number of direct environmental consequences: agricultural runoff which leads to downstream effects like ocean dead zones and waterway contamination, soil microbiome degradation,[30] and accumulation of toxins in ecosystems. Additionally, use of synthetic fertilizers can have significant indirect environmental impacts as well: for example, the environmental impacts of fracking for natural gas used in the Haber process, the agricultural boom is partially responsible for the rapid growth in human population and large-scale industrial agricultural practices are associated with habitat destruction, pressure on biodiversity and agricultural soil loss.

In order to mitigate environmental and food security concerns, the international community has included food systems in Sustainable Development Goal 2 which focuses on creating a climate-friendly and sustainable food production system.[31] Most policy and regulatory approaches to address these issues focus on pivoting agricultural practices towards sustainable or regenerative agricultural practices that use less synthetic fertilizers, better soil management (i.e. no-till agriculture) and use more organic fertilizers.

Production Sector[edit]

Farming[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Farm[edit]
Farmland in the United States. The round fields are due to the use of center pivot irrigation
Typical plan of a medieval English manor, showing the use of field strips

A farm (also called an agricultural holding) is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops; it is the basic facility in food production.[32] The name is used for specialized units such as arable farms, vegetable farms, fruit farms, dairy, pig and poultry farms, and land used for the production of natural fibres, biofuel and other commodities. It includes ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations and estates, smallholdings and hobby farms, and includes the farmhouse and agricultural buildings as well as the land. In modern times the term has been extended so as to include such industrial operations as wind farms and fish farms, both of which can operate on land or sea.

There are about 570 million farms in the world, with most of which are small and family-operated. Small farms with land area of less than 2 hectares operate about 12% and family farms, comprising about 75% of the world’s agricultural land.[33]

Modern farms in developed countries are highly mechanized. In the United States, livestock may be raised on rangeland and finished in feedlots and the mechanization of crop production has brought about a great decrease in the number of agricultural workers needed. In Europe, traditional family farms are giving way to larger production units. In Australia, some farms are very large because the land is unable to support a high stocking density of livestock because of climatic conditions. In less developed countries, small farms are the norm, and the majority of rural residents are subsistence farmers, feeding their families and selling any surplus products in the local market.

Farm Mechanization[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural engineering[edit]
An Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer fixing his agricultural robot

Agricultural Engineering (also known as Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering) is the field of study and application of engineering science and designs principles for agriculture purposes. They combine the various disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical, food science, environmental, software, and chemical engineering to improve the efficiency of farms and agribusiness enterprises[34] as well as to ensure sustainability of natural and renewable resources.[35]

An agricultural engineer is an engineer with an agriculture background. Agricultural engineers make the engineering designs and plans in an agricultural project, usually in partnership with an agriculturist who is more proficient in farming and agricultural science.

Processing Sector[edit]

Primary Processing[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Food processing[edit]
These whole, dried bananas in Thailand are an example of primary food processing.

Primary food processing turns agricultural products, such as raw wheat kernels or livestock, into something that can eventually be eaten. This category includes ingredients that are produced by ancient processes such as drying, threshing, winnowing and milling grain, shelling nuts, and butchering animals for meat.[36][37] It also includes deboning and cutting meat, freezing and smoking fish and meat, extracting and filtering oils, canning food, preserving food through food irradiation, and candling eggs, as well as homogenizing and pasteurizing milk.[37][38][39]

Contamination and spoilage problems in primary food processing can lead to significant public health threats, as the resulting foods are used so widely.[37] However, many forms of processing contribute to improved food safety and longer shelf life before the food spoils.[38] Commercial food processing uses control systems such as hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) to reduce the risk of harm.[37]

Secondary Processing[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Food processing[edit]
Baking bread is an example of secondary food processing.
Secondary food processing is the everyday process of creating food from ingredients that are ready to use. Baking bread, regardless of whether it is made at home, in a small bakery, or in a large factory, is an example of secondary food processing.[37] Fermenting fish and making wine, beer, and other alcoholic products are traditional forms of secondary food processing.[39] Sausages are a common form of secondary processed meat, formed by comminution (grinding) of meat that has already undergone primary processing.[40] Most of the secondary food processing methods known to human kind are commonly described as cooking methods.

Marketing Sector[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural marketing[edit]
Market display in China
Agricultural marketing covers the services involved in moving an agricultural product from the farm to the consumer. These services involve the planning, organizing, directing and handling of agricultural produce in such a way as to satisfy farmers, intermediaries and consumers. Numerous interconnected activities are involved in doing this, such as planning production, growing and harvesting, grading, packing and packaging, transport, storage, agro- and food processing, provision of market information, distribution, advertising and sale. Effectively, the term encompasses the entire range of supply chain operations for agricultural products, whether conducted through ad hoc sales or through a more integrated chain, such as one involving contract farming.

Farmers' Market[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Farmers' market[edit]
A farmers' market in Lansing, Michigan, United States in autumn
A farmers' market in Layyah, Pakistan at twilight

A farmers' market (or farmers market according to the AP stylebook) is a physical retail marketplace intended to sell foods directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers' markets may be indoors or outdoors and typically consist of booths, tables or stands where farmers sell their produce, live animals and plants, and sometimes prepared foods and beverages. Farmers' markets exist in many countries worldwide and reflect the local culture and economy. The size of the market may be just a few stalls or it may be as large as several city blocks. Due to their nature, they tend to be less rigidly regulated than retail produce shops.[41]

They are distinguished from public markets, which are generally housed in permanent structures, open year-round, and offer a variety of non-farmer/non-producer vendors, packaged foods and non-food products.[42][43]

Support Sector[edit]

Education[edit]

Agricultural extension is the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of 'extension' now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organized for rural people by educators from different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business studies.

Extension practitioners can be found throughout the world, usually working for government agencies. They are represented by several professional organizations, networks and extension journals.

Agricultural extension agencies in developing countries receive large amounts of support from international development organizations such as the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Cooperatives[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural cooperative[edit]
Agricultural cooperative in Guinea

An agricultural cooperative, also known as a farmers' co-op, is a cooperative in which farmers pool their resources in certain areas of activity.

A broad typology of agricultural cooperatives distinguishes between agricultural service cooperatives, which provide various services to their individually-farming members, and agricultural production cooperatives in which production resources (land, machinery) are pooled and members farm jointly.[44] Examples of agricultural production cooperatives include collective farms in former socialist countries, the kibbutzim in Israel, collectively-governed community shared agriculture, Longo Maï co-operatives[45] and Nicaraguan production co-operatives.[46]

The default meaning of "agricultural cooperative" in English is usually an agricultural service cooperative, the numerically-dominant form in the world. There are two primary types of agricultural service cooperatives: supply cooperatives and marketing cooperatives. Supply cooperatives supply their members with inputs for agricultural production, including seeds, fertilizers, fuel, and machinery services. Marketing cooperatives are established by farmers to undertake transportation, packaging, distribution, and marketing of farm products (both crop and livestock). Farmers also widely rely on credit cooperatives as a source of financing for both working capital and investments.

Governments[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Food and Agriculture Organization[edit]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)[47] is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates to "let there be bread". It was founded in October 1945.[48]

The FAO is composed of 197 member states. It is headquartered in Rome, Italy, and maintains regional and field offices around the world, operating in over 130 countries.[49] It helps governments and development agencies coordinate their activities to improve and develop agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources. It also conducts research, provides technical assistance to projects, operates educational and training programs, and collects data on agricultural output, production, and development.[50]

The FAO is governed by a biennial conference representing each member country and the European Union, which elects a 49-member executive council.[51] The Director-General, currently Qu Dongyu of China, serves as the chief administrative officer.[52] There are various committees governing matters such as finance, programs, agriculture, and fisheries.[53]

100 lire (FAO's celebration.)
Obverse: Young woman with braid facing left. Surrounded by Repubblica Italiana [Republic of Italy].Reverse: Cow nursing calf, face value & date. FAO at bottom and Nutrire il Mondo [Feed the world] at top.
Coined minted by Italy in 1970s to celebrate and promote Food and Agriculture Organization.

Professionals[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Agriculturist[edit]
An Agriculturist doing routine check-up of agronomic crops

A Professional Agriculturist (abbreviated as Agr.), also known as Agrologist or Agronomist, is a professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness.[54][55] It is a regulated profession in Canada, the Philippines, and United States. Other names used to designate the profession include agricultural scientist, agriculturalist, agrologist, agronomist, agricultural manager, agricultural planner, or agriculture researcher.

The primary role of agriculturists are in leading agricultural projects, usually in agribusiness planning or research for the benefit of farms, food, and agribusiness related organizations.[56] Agriculturists also have designated plantilla positions in governments as public agriculturists.[57] Agriculturists provide technical advice for farmers and farm workers such as in making crop calendars and work flows to optimize farm production, tracing agricultural market channels,[58] prescribing fertilizers and pesticides to avoid misuse,[59] and in aligning for Organic accreditation[60] or the national agricultural quality standards.[61]

Preparation of technical engineering designs and construction for agriculture meanwhile are reserved for agricultural engineers.[62]

Studies and Reports[edit]

Studies of agribusiness often come from the academic fields of agricultural economics and management studies, sometimes called agribusiness management.[4] To promote more development of food economies, many government agencies support the research and publication of economic studies and reports exploring agribusiness and agribusiness practices. Some of these studies are on foods produced for export and are derived from agencies focused on food exports. These agencies include the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Austrade, and New Zealand Trade and Enterprise (NZTE).

The Federation of International Trade Associations publishes studies and reports by FAS and AAFC, as well as other non-governmental organizations on its website.[63]

In their book A Concept of Agribusiness,[9] Ray Goldberg and John Davis provided a rigorous economic framework for the field. They traced a complex value-added chain that begins with the farmer's purchase of seed and livestock and ends with a product fit for the consumer's table. Agribusiness boundary expansion is driven by a variety of transaction costs.[citation needed]

As concern over global warming intensifies, biofuels derived from crops are gaining increased public and scientific attention. This is driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from government subsidies. In Europe and in the US, increased research and production of biofuels have been mandated by law.[64]

See also[edit]

  • Agrarian law
  • Agrarian reform
  • Agricultural machinery industry
  • Agricultural marketing
  • Agricultural value chain
  • Agroecology
  • Biofuel
  • Contract farming
  • Energy crop
  • Environmental impact of agriculture
  • Factory farming
  • Industrial agriculture
  • Land banking
  • Agribusiness in Kenya

Notes and references[edit]

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  2. ^ "Curriculum|TOKYO UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE". www.nodai.ac.jp. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
  3. ^ a b Ward, Natalee (2017-05-25). "Ray Goldberg: The man that coined the term "agribusiness"". www.weeklytimesnow.com.au. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
  4. ^ a b Ng, Desmond; Siebert, John W. (2009). "Toward Better Defining the Field of Agribusiness Management" (PDF). International Food and Agribusiness Management Review. 12 (4).
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  6. ^ "The Growing Battle between Mining and Agriculture". politicsofpoverty.oxfamamerica.org. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
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  11. ^ a b "Academic Programs". 2015-05-03. Archived from the original on 2015-05-03. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
  12. ^ a b Desai, D.K. (October 1974). "Evolution of a Concept of Agribusiness and its Application" (PDF). International Journal of Agricultural Economics. XXIX (4): 32–43.
  13. ^ "Department of Agribusiness Management and Entrepreneurship". College of Economics and Management. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
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  17. ^ Lazarow, Alex. "The Startup Movement Is Globalizing: New Report Proves It". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  18. ^ Sorvino, Chloe. "The 25 Most Innovative Ag-Tech Startups". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  19. ^ Porter, Michael E. (1998). Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance; with a new introduction (1st Free Press ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0684841465.
  20. ^ Kaplinsky, R.; Morris, M. "A Handbook for Value Chain Analysis" (PDF). IDRC. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  21. ^ Henriksen, L.; L. Riisgaard; S. Ponte; F. Hartwich; P. Kormawa. "Agro-Food Value Chain Interventions in Asia: A review and analysis of case studies. Working Paper" (PDF). UNIDO. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  22. ^ Editorial: Adding Value, by Michael Hailu, ‘’Spore’’ No 157
  23. ^ "Definition of irrigation | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2021-01-21.
  24. ^ Snyder, R. L.; Melo-Abreu, J. P. (2005). Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and economics. Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-105328-7. ISSN 1684-8241. |volume= has extra text (help)
  25. ^ Williams, J. F.; S. R. Roberts; J. E. Hill; S. C. Scardaci; G. Tibbits. "Managing Water for 'Weed' Control in Rice". UC Davis, Department of Plant Sciences. Archived from the original on 2007-04-03. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  26. ^ "Arid environments becoming consolidated". Retrieved 2012-06-19.
  27. ^ "Guide to the Collections: Henry G. Gilbert Nursery and Seed Trade Catalog Collection." National Agricultural Library, Special Collections. Retrieved April 23, 2009.
  28. ^ Scherer, Heinrich W.; Mengel, Konrad; Kluge, Günter; Severin, Karl (2009). "Fertilizers, 1. General". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub3.
  29. ^ a b Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 439–442.
  30. ^ Chen, Huaihai; Yang, Zamin K.; Yip, Dan; Morris, Reese H.; Lebreux, Steven J.; Cregger, Melissa A.; Klingeman, Dawn M.; Hui, Dafeng; Hettich, Robert L.; Wilhelm, Steven W.; Wang, Gangsheng (2019-06-18). "One-time nitrogen fertilization shifts switchgrass soil microbiomes within a context of larger spatial and temporal variation". PLOS ONE. 14 (6): e0211310. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211310. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6581249. PMID 31211785.
  31. ^ United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
  32. ^ Gregor, 209; Adams, 454.
  33. ^ "The Number, Size, and Distribution of Farms, Smallholder Farms, and Family Farms Worldwide". World Development.
  34. ^ "ASABE". www.asabe.org. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
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Further reading[edit]

  • John Wilkinson. "The Globalization of Agribusiness and Developing World Food Systems". Monthly Review.
  • Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2012). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 3: Agribusiness and Food Security: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280
  • https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034828/http://www.ifama.org/files/IS_Ledesma_Formatted.pdf