Sultanato de Ajuran

Somali Muslim empire (13th-late 17th century)

Imperio AjuranDawladdii Ajuuraan دولة الأجورانية
Siglo XIII-Finales del siglo XVII
Bandera
Capital	Mareeg (inicialmente) Qelafo Merca
Lenguajes comunes	Somalí  · árabe
Religión	Islam sunita
Gobierno	Monarquía
Sultán , Imam
Historia
• Establecido	siglo 13
•  Primera guerra Ajuran-Portuguesa	1538-1557
•  Segunda guerra Ajuran-Portuguesa	1580–89
•  Invasión oromo	Mediados del siglo XVII
• Rechazar	Finales del siglo XVII
Divisa	Ajuran • Mogadishan
Precedido por Sucesor Sultanato de Mogadiscio Sultanato de Tunni Sultanato de Geledi Imamato de Hiraab
Hoy parte de	Somalia Etiopía

El Imperio Ajuran ( somalí : Saldanadda Ajuuraan , árabe : سلطنة الأجورانية ), también escrito Imperio Ajuuraan , ^[1] y a menudo simplemente como Ajuran , ^[2] era un imperio somalí en la época medieval en el Cuerno de África que dominaba el comercio. en el norte del océano Índico . Pertenecían al sultanato musulmán somalí ^{[3] [4] [5]} que gobernó gran parte del Cuerno de África en la Edad Media. . A través de una administración centralizada fuerte y una postura militar agresiva hacia los invasores, el Imperio Ajuran resistió con éxito una invasión oromo desde el oeste y una incursión portuguesa desde el este durante las guerras Gaal Madow y Ajuran-portuguesas . Las rutas comerciales que datan de los períodos antiguo y medieval temprano de la empresa marítima somalí se fortalecieron o restablecieron, y el comercio exterior y el comercio en las provincias costeras florecieron con barcos que navegaban hacia y desde muchos reinos e imperios en Asia oriental , Asia meridional y Europa. , el Cercano Oriente , África del Norte yÁfrica oriental . ^[6]

El imperio dejó un extenso legado arquitectónico , siendo una de las principales potencias somalíes medievales dedicadas a la construcción de castillos y fortalezas . Muchas de las fortificaciones en ruinas que salpican los paisajes del sur de Somalia en la actualidad se atribuyen a los ingenieros del Imperio Ajuran, ^[7] incluidos varios campos de tumbas de pilares , necrópolis y ciudades en ruinas construidas en esa época. Durante el período Ajuran, muchas regiones y personas en la parte sur del Cuerno de África se convirtieron al Islam debido a la naturaleza teocrática del gobierno. ^[8] La familia real, la Casa de Garen, expandió sus territorios y estableció su dominio hegemónico a través de una hábil combinación de guerra , vínculos comerciales y alianzas . ^[9]

Como imperio hidráulico , Ajuran monopolizó los recursos hídricos de los ríos Shebelle y Jubba . A través de la ingeniería hidráulica , también construyó muchos de los pozos y cisternas de piedra caliza del estado que aún están operativos y en uso en la actualidad. Los gobernantes desarrollaron nuevos sistemas para la agricultura y los impuestos, que continuaron utilizándose en partes del Cuerno de África hasta el siglo XIX. ^[1] El gobierno de los gobernantes ajuran posteriores provocó el estallido de múltiples rebeliones en el imperio y, a finales del siglo XVII, el estado Ajuran se desintegró.en varios reinos y estados sucesores, siendo el más prominente el Sultanato de Geledi . ^[10]

Ubicación

La esfera de influencia del Imperio Ajuran en el Cuerno de África fue una de las más grandes de la región. El imperio cubría gran parte del sur de Somalia y el este de Etiopía , ^{[6] [11]} y su dominio se extendía desde Hobyo en el norte, hasta Qelafo en el oeste y Kismayo en el sur. ^[12]

Orígenes y la casa de Garen

Miembros conocidos de la Casa de Gareen
Ajuran Gareen Arliqo Gareen Sarjelle Gareen Fadumo Gareen Umur Gareen

La Casa de Garen era la dinastía hereditaria gobernante del Imperio Ajuran. ^{[13] [9]} Su origen se encuentra en el Reino de Garen que durante el siglo XIII gobernó partes de la región somalí de Etiopía . Con la migración de los somalíes de la mitad norte de la región del Cuerno a la mitad sur, se introdujeron nuevas órdenes culturales y religiosas que influyeron en la estructura administrativa de la dinastía , un sistema de gobierno que comenzó a evolucionar hasta convertirse en un gobierno islámico . A través de su Baraka genealógica , que vino del santo Balad (que se sabía que venía de fuera del Reino de Garen), ^[14]los gobernantes de Garen reclamaron supremacía y legitimidad religiosa sobre otros grupos en el Cuerno de África. Se dice que los antepasados ​​de Balad procedían de la histórica región norteña de Barbara .

Etimología

El Imperio Ajuran tiene su nombre del árabe إيجار / 'ijara , que significa alquiler o impuesto . Un nombre bien merecido por los exorbitantes tributos pagados al Imperio. Hoy los descendientes del Imperio permanecen como Ajuran , un clan de somalíes . El clan reside en Etiopía , Kenia y Somalia . Se dice que los Ajuran son descendientes de Alama, quien a su vez es un hijo de Bal'ad que tiene descendencia del inmigrante árabe Harmalle Samale , que remonta su ascendencia a través de Aqil bin Abu Talib. ^[15]

Administración

Artículo principal: títulos aristocráticos y de la corte somalíes

La ciudad de Merca fue uno de varios centros administrativos prominentes de los Ajurans.

La nobleza Ajuran usó muchos de los títulos aristocráticos y de la corte típicos de Somalia , con los gobernantes de Garen llamados Imam . Estos líderes eran la máxima autoridad del imperio y contaban a varios sultanes , emires y reyes como clientes o vasallos . Los gobernantes de Garen también tenían palacios estacionales en Mareeg , Qelafo y Merca , que visitaban periódicamente para practicar primae noctis . ^[9] Otras ciudades importantes del Imperio fueron Mogadiscio y Barawa . La religión del estado era el Islam y, por lo tanto, la ley se basaba enSharia .

1. Imán - Jefe del Estado ^[14]
2. Emir - Comandante de las fuerzas armadas y la marina.
3. Na'ibs - Virreyes ^[14]
4. Wazirs - recaudadores de impuestos y rentas
5. Qadis - Jueces jefes

Ciudadanos nómadas y comunidades agrícolas

El río Jubba

Granjas de Afgooye

A través de su control de los pozos de la región, los gobernantes de Garen tenían efectivamente un monopolio sobre sus súbditos nómadas , ya que eran el único imperio hidráulico en África durante su reinado. Se construyeron grandes pozos hechos de piedra caliza en todo el estado, lo que atrajo a somalíes y oromonómadas con su ganado. Las regulaciones centralizadas de los pozos facilitaron que los nómadas resolvieran las disputas al llevar sus consultas a los funcionarios del gobierno que actuarían como mediadores. El comercio de caravanas de larga distancia, una práctica de larga data en el Cuerno de África, continuó sin cambios en la época de Ajuran. Hoy en día, numerosas ciudades en ruinas y abandonadas en todo el interior de Somalia y el Cuerno de África son evidencia de una red de comercio interior que alguna vez estuvo en auge y que data de la época medieval. ^[dieciséis]

Con la supervisión centralizada de los Ajuran, las granjas en Afgooye , Kismayo y otras áreas en los valles de Jubba y Shabelle aumentaron su productividad. Un sistema de acequias conocido localmente como Kelliyo alimentaba directamente de los ríos Shebelle y Jubba a las plantaciones donde se cultivaba sorgo , maíz , frijoles, granos y algodón durante las temporadas gu ( primavera en somalí) y xagaa ( verano en somalí) Calendario somalí . Este sistema de riego fue apoyado por numerososdiques y presas. Para determinar el tamaño promedio de una granja, un sistema de medición de la tierra también se inventó con Moos , taraab y guldeed siendo los términos utilizados.

Fiscalidad

Artículo principal: moneda de Mogadiscio

Moneda de Mogadishan

Ciudad de piedra de Gondershe

El Estado recaudó tributo de los agricultores en forma de productos recolectados como durra , sorgo y bollo, y de los nómadas, bovinos, camellos y cabras. La recaudación de tributos la realizaba un wazir . Los artículos de lujo importados de tierras extranjeras también fueron obsequiados a los gobernantes de Garen por los sultanes costeros del estado.

Un dispositivo político que fue implementado por los gobernantes de Garen en su reino fue una forma de ius primae noctis , ^[17] que les permitió crear matrimonios que imponían su dominio hegemónico sobre todos los grupos importantes del imperio. Los gobernantes también reclamarían una gran parte de la riqueza de la novia, que en ese momento era de 100 camellos.

Para el comercio, el Imperio Ajuran acuñó su propia moneda Ajuran . ^[18] También utilizó la moneda Mogadishan acuñada originalmente por el Sultanato de Mogadiscio , que luego se incorporó al Imperio Ajuran. ^[19] Se han encontrado monedas de Mogadishan en lugares tan lejanos como el actual país de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos en el Medio Oriente . ^[20]

Centros urbanos y marítimos

La ciudad amurallada de Mogadiscio en el Atlas Miller del siglo XVI .

Los centros urbanos de Merca , Mogadiscio , Barawa y sus respectivos puertos se convirtieron en rentables puntos de venta de productos originarios del interior del Estado. Las comunidades agrícolas del interior llevaban sus productos a las ciudades costeras, donde se vendían a los comerciantes locales que mantenían un lucrativo comercio exterior con barcos que navegaban hacia y desde Arabia , India , Venecia , ^[21] Persia , Egipto , Portugal y tan lejos como China . Vasco de Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.^[22] In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.^[23] Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),^[24] together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.^[25] Jewish merchants from the Hormuz also brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.^[26]

Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century,^[27] with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.^[28] In addition, giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, making Somali merchants leaders in the commerce between Asia and Africa.^[29] and influencing the Chinese language on Somali in the process. Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani interference used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.^[30]

Economy

Main article: Maritime history of Somalia

Mogadishu imported valuable gold Sequin coins from the Venetian Empire in Europe.

The Ajuran Empire relied on agriculture and trade for most of its income. Major agricultural towns were located on the Shebelle and Jubba rivers, including Kismayo and Afgooye. Situated at the junction of some of the busiest medieval trade routes, the Ajuran and its clients were active participants in the East African gold trade, the Silk Road commerce, trade in the Indian Ocean, and commercial enterprise as far as East Asia.

The Ajuran Empire also minted its own Ajuran currency. Many ancient bronze coins inscribed with the names of Ajuran Sultans have been found in the coastal Benadir province, in addition to pieces from Muslim rulers of Southern Arabia and Persia.^[18] additionally, Mogadishan coins have been found as far as the United Arab Emirates in the Middle East. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from a myriad of kingdoms and empires in East Asia, South Asia, Europe, the Near East, North Africa and the Horn of Africa.^[6] Through the use of commercial vessels, compasses, multiple port cities, light houses and other technology, the merchants of the Ajuran Empire did brisk business with traders from the following states:

Trading countries in Asia	Imports	Exports
Ming Empire	celadon wares and their currency	horses, exotic animals, and ivory
Mughal Empire	cloth and spices	gold, wax and wood
Malacca Sultanate	ambergris and porcelain	cloth and gold
Maldive Islands	cowries	musk and sheep
Kingdom of Jaffna	cinnamon and their currency	cloth
Trading countries in the Near East
Ottoman Empire	muskets and cannons	textiles
Safavid Persian Empire	textiles and fruit	grain and wood
Trading countries in Europe
Portuguese Empire	gold	cloth
Venetian Empire	sequins	–
Dutch Empire	–	–
Trading countries in Africa
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)	–	cloth
Adal Sultanate	–	–
Ethiopian Empire	–	–
Swahili World	–	–
Monomopata	gold and ivory	spices and cloth
Gonderine Empire	gold and cattle	cloth
Merina Kingdom	–	–

Diplomacy

The Ajuran Empire maintained commercial ties with the Ming dynasty and other kingdoms.

With their maritime pursuits and history, the Empire established trading and diplomatic ties across the old world, especially in Asia, from being a close ally to the grand power of the Ottomans to having cordial ties to the mighty Ming Dynasty and even having their merchants following the greatest maritime expedition in their history as far as Java and Vietnam.^[31]

The ruler of the Somali Ajuran Empire sent ambassadors to China to establish diplomatic ties, creating the first ever recorded African community in China and the most notable Somali ambassador in medieval China was Sa'id of Mogadishu who was the first African man to set foot in China in recorded history. In return, Emperor Yongle, the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), dispatched one of the largest fleets in history to trade with the Somali nation. The fleet, under the leadership of the famed Hui Muslim Zheng He, arrived at Mogadishu while the city was at its peak in economic and social vibrancy. Along with gold, frankincense and fabrics, Zheng brought back the first ever African wildlife to China, which included hippos, giraffes and gazelles.^{[32][33][34][35]}

Major cities

Medieval city of Barawa

The Ajuran Empire was an influential Somali kingdom that held sway over several cities and towns in central and southern Somalia during the Middle Ages. With the fall of the Sultanate, a number of these settlements continued to prosper, eventually becoming major cities in present-day Somalia. A few of these cities and towns were eventually abandoned or destroyed:

Capitals

• Mareeg (initially) (town in the Galguduud region of Somalia)
• Qelafo (town in the Somali Region of Ethiopia)
• Merca (port city in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)

Port cities

• Mogadishu (harbor city and current capital of Somalia)
• Hobyo (harbor city in the Mudug region of Somalia
• Kismayo (port city in the Lower Juba region of Somalia)
• Barawa (port town in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)
• Warsheikh (port town in the Middle Shebelle region of Somalia)

Other cities

• Afgooye (town in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)
• Baidoa (a city in the Bay region of Somalia)
• Gondershe (abandoned, but now a popular tourist attraction site)
• Hannassa (abandoned)
• Ras Bar Balla (abandoned)

Culture

Main article: Somali architecture

14th century Somali-Arabo stone tablet

The Ajurans developed a very rich culture with various forms of Somali culture such as architecture, astronomy, festivals, music and art evolving and flourishing during this period. The majority of the inhabitants were ethnic Somali, but there were also Yemeni, Persian, and Turkish minorities. The vast majority of the population adhered to Sunni Islam with a Shia minority (mostly those of Persian descent)^{[citation needed]}. Somali was the most commonly used language of government and social life while Arabic was most prominently used for religious studies.

Example of an historic Somali figurehead from Mogadishu

The Somali martial art Istunka, also known as Dabshid, was born during their reign. An annual tournament is held every year for it in Afgooye.^[36] Carving, known in Somali as qoris, was practiced in the coastal cities of the state. Many wealthy urbanites in the medieval period regularly employed the finest wood and marble carvers in Somalia to work on their interiors and houses. The carvings on the mihrabs and pillars of ancient Somali mosques are some of the oldest on the continent, with Masjid Fakhr al-Din being the 7th oldest mosque in Africa.^[37] Artistic carving was considered the craft of men similar to how the Somali textile industry was mainly a women's business. Amongst the nomads, carving, especially woodwork, was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such as spoons, combs and bowls, but it also included more complex structures such as the portable nomadic tent, the aqal.^[38]

During its tenure, the Empire left an extensive architectural legacy, being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle and fortress building. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Empire's engineers.^[7] These structures include a number of pillar tomb fields, necropolises, castles, fortresses and ruined cities built in that era.^[1] In the Marca area, various pillar tombs exist, which local tradition holds were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Empire's naa'ibs governed the district.^[39]

Muslim migration

Many Arab and Persian families would call the Ajuran realm their home.

The late 15th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of Muslim families from Arabia, Persia, India and Spain to the Ajuran realm of territories, the majority of whom settled in the coastal provinces. Some migrated because of the instability in their respective regions,^[40] as was the case with the Hadhrami families from the Yemen and the Muslims from Spain fleeing the Inquisition.^[41] Others came to conduct business or for religious purposes. Due to their strong tradition in religious learning, the new Muslim communities also enjoyed high status among the Somali ruling elite and commoners.^[40]

Colonies & Influence

Sofala

Somali merchants from Mogadishu established a colony in Mozambique to extract gold from the mines in Sofala.^[42]

Sofala is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique. It was founded by Somali merchants and seafarers. Sofala in Somali literally means "Go dig". This name was given because the area is rich with many natural resources.^[43]

One of the oldest harbours documented in Southern Africa, medieval Sofala was erected on the edge of a wide estuary formed by the Buzi River (called Rio de Sofala in older maps). By the Somali merchants from Mogadishu established a colony in Mozambique to extract gold from the mines in Sofala.^[42]

The Somalis strengthened their trading capacity by having, among other things, rivergoing dhows ply the Buzi and Save rivers to ferry the gold extracted in the hinterlands to the coast.^[44]

Maldives Islands

The first king of the Maldivian Hilaalee dynasty was proclaimed king in the year 1388 AD. Hilaalee dynasty was a Somali Dynasty. Some historical writing and some folklores reveal that this Dynasty is from Somali descent. It seems they were travellers and traders of Ajuran Empire where they established a colony in Maldive islands. They settled in Hlhule' in Male' atoll. Some historical documents reveal that Hilali Kalo Hassan dethroned King Uthman Rasgefaan, who reveal the ruling King at that time and outcast him and all his ministers. After his Hilai Kalo Hassan started the Hilai Dynasty. The Hilaalee dynasty was a sub-dynasty of Garen Dynasty.^[45][46]

Abd al-Aziz of Mogadishu was a Somali governor of Maldives islands and a famous member of the Hilaalee dynasty.

The presence and high position of Abd al-Aziz in this region highlights the close connections between medieval Maldives and the Somali seamen from Mogadishu sailing the Indian Ocean. They supplied Maldivian traders with exotic animals and musk, and contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Maldivian population.^[45][46]

In 1346, Abd al-Aziz welcomed Ibn Battuta at his court and entertained him before giving him a barque to continue his journey.^[47]

Bale

The tomb of Sheikh Hussein

The most famous Somali scholar of Islam from the Ajuraan period is Sheikh Hussein, who was born in Merca, one of the power jurisdiction and cultural centers of the Ajuran Empire.^[48] He is credited with converting the Sidamo people living in the area of what is now the Bale Province, Ethiopia to Islam. He is also credited with establishing the Sultanate of Bale. Despite the Bale Sultanate not being directly under Ajuran rule, the two kingdoms were deeply connected and Bale was heavily influenced by Ajuran.^[49]

His tomb lies in the town of Sheikh Hussein in what is the most sacred place in the country for Ethiopian Muslims mostly Oromo Muslims.^[50]

Military

Almnara Somalia defensive tower

Model of a medieval Mogadishan ship

The Ajuran State had a standing army with which the Garen imams and the governors ruled and protected their subjects. The bulk of the army consisted of mamluke soldiers,^[51] who did not have any loyalties to the traditional Somali clan system, thereby making them more reliable. The soldiers were recruited from the inter-riverine area; other recruits came from the surrounding nomadic region. Arab, Persian and Turkish mercenaries were at times employed as well.^[52][53]

In the early Ajuran period, the army's weapons consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, battle axe, and bows. The Empire received assistance from its close ally the Ottoman Empire, and with the import of firearms through the Muzzaffar port of Mogadishu, the army began acquiring muskets and cannons. The Ottomans would also remain a key ally during the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Horses used for military purposes were also raised in the interior, and numerous stone fortifications were erected to provide shelter for the army in the coastal districts.^[54] In each province, the soldiers were under the supervision of a military commander known as an emir,^[51] and the coastal areas and the Indian ocean trade were protected by a navy.^[55]

Ajuran-Portuguese wars

Main articles: Battle of Barawa and Battle of Benadir

The Ottomans regularly aided the Ajurans in their struggles with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.

During the Battle of Barawa, Tristão da Cunha was wounded and requested to be knighted by Albuquerque.^[56]

The European Age of discovery brought Europe's then superpower the Portuguese empire to the coast of East Africa, which at the time enjoyed a flourishing trade with foreign nations. The wealthy southeastern city-states of Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Pate and Lamu were all systematically sacked and plundered by the Portuguese. Tristão da Cunha then set his eyes on Ajuran territory, where the battle of Barawa was fought. After a long period of engagement, the Portuguese soldiers burned the city and looted it. However, fierce resistance by the local population and soldiers resulted in the failure of the Portuguese to permanently occupy the city, and the inhabitants who had fled to the interior would eventually return and rebuild the city. After Barawa, Tristão would set sail for Mogadishu, which was the richest city on the East African coast. But word had spread of what had happened in Barawa, and a large troop mobilization had taken place. Many horsemen, soldiers and battleships in defense positions were now guarding the city. Nevertheless, Tristão still opted to storm and attempt to conquer the city, although every officer and soldier in his army opposed this, fearing certain defeat if they were to engage their opponents in battle. Tristão heeded their advice and sailed for Socotra instead.^[57] After the battle the city of Barawa quickly recovered from the attack.^[58]

The Portuguese Empire would try to an invade and conquer Mogadishu But despite the City being destroyed by a powerful naval Portuguese commander called João de Sepúvelda, after the Battle of Benadir a peace treaty was signed.

In 1698, the Portuguese in Mombasa surrendered to a joint Somali-Omani force.^[59]

Over the next several decades Somali-Portuguese tensions would remain high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman corsairs worried the Portuguese who sent a punitive expedition against Mogadishu under João de Sepúlveda, which was unsuccessful.^[60] Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the Arabs and Swahilis under Portuguese rule and sent an envoy to the Turkish corsair Mir Ali Bey for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in Southeast Africa.^[55]

The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and Kilwa. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to Portuguese India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu, securing the city's autonomy in the Indian Ocean.^[19][61] The Ottoman Empire would remain an economic partner of the Somalis.^[6] Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries successive Somali Sultans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.^[62]

Oromo invasion

Main article: Oromo migrations

Somali maritime enterprise took a significant hit after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other Somali polities such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Geledi Sultanate, the Majeerteen Sultanate, the Dervish state and the Sultanate of Hobyo ensured its continuity.

In the mid-17th century, the Oromo Nation began expanding from its homeland around Lake Abaya in southern Ethiopia towards the southern Somali coast at the time when the Ajuran was at the height of its power.^[63][64] The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as the Gaal Madow wars against the Oromo warriors, converting those that were captured to Islam. The Ajuran military supremacy forced the Oromo conquerors to reverse their migrations towards the Christian Solomonids and the Muslim Adalites, devastating the two warring empires in the process.

Decline and successor states

The Ajuran Empire slowly declined in power at the end of the 17th century, which paved the way for the ascendance of new Somali powers. The most prominent setbacks against the state were the dethronement of the Muzaffar clients in Mogadishu and other coastal cities by the Hawiye Hiraab King,^[65] and the defeat of the Silis Kingdom by a former Ajuran general, Ibrahim Adeer, in the interior of the state who then established the Gobroon dynasty.

Taxation and the practice of primae noctis were the main catalysts for the revolts against Ajuran rulers. The loss of port cities and fertile farms meant that much needed sources of revenue were lost to the rebels.

See also

Part of a series on the
History of Somalia
Prehistory Land of Punt (2,500-1,500 BCE)
Ancient Macrobians Berber city-states (c. 1st century) Azania city-states (c. 1st century)
Middle Ages Ajuran Sultanate (13th-17th c.) Sultanate of Mogadishu (13th-16th c.)
Early modern Geledi Sultanate (17th-1911) Hiraab Imamate (17th-1890) Majeerteen Sultanate (18th-1924) Sultanate of Hobyo (1876-1926)
Colonial period(1884–1960) Italian Somaliland (1889-1941) Dervish movement (1896-1920) Trust Territory (1941-1960)
Modern Somalia(since 1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) Communist rule (1969-1991) Interim Government (1991-1997) Transitional National Government (2000-2004) Transitional Federal Government (2004-2012) Federal Government (2012-)
Somalia portal
v t e

• History of Somalia
• List of Muslim states and dynasties
• List of Sunni dynasties

References

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2. "Ajuran | historical state, Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica.
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4. Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316
5. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (1989). "The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960". Ufahamu. 17 (2): 98.
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7. Cassanelli (1982), p. 101
8. Ramsamy, Edward, ed. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Volume 2: Africa. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7.
9. Pouwels, Randall L. (2006). Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900. African Studies. 53. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 9780521523097.
10. Njoku (2013), p. 41.
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Sources cited

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• Cassanelli, Lee V. (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-7832-1.