Ali ibn Abi Talib (en árabe : عَلِيّ ٱبْن أَبِي طَالِب , ʿAlīy ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib ; 13 de septiembre de 601 - 29 de enero de 661) [2] era un primo, yerno y compañero del profeta islámico Mahoma , quien gobernó como el cuarto califa desde 656 hasta su asesinato en 661. Es una de las figuras centrales del Islam chiíta y los musulmanes chiítas lo consideran el sucesor inmediato legítimo de Mahoma como imán .
Ali ibn Abi Talib عَلِيّ ٱبْن أَبِي طَالِب | ||||
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Haydar Abu Turab Al-Murtadha Amir al-Mu'minin | ||||
4to califa del califato de Rashidun ( visión sunita ) | ||||
Reinado | 656–661 [1] | |||
Predecesor | Uthman ibn Affan | |||
Sucesor | Hasan ibn Ali | |||
1er imán ( visión chiíta ) | ||||
Reinado | 632–661 | |||
Sucesor | Hasan ibn Ali | |||
Nació | 15 de septiembre de 601 (13 Rajab 21 BH ) [1] [2] [3] [ verificación fallida ] La Meca , Hejaz , Arabia [1] [4] | |||
Fallecido | 28 de enero de 661 (21 de Ramadán 40 AH) (59 años) [5] Kufa | |||
Entierro | Santuario Imam Ali en Najaf o Hazrat Ali Mazar en Balkh | |||
Esposos |
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Asunto | ||||
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Tribu | Quraysh ( Banu Hashim ) | |||
Padre | Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib | |||
Mamá | Fatimah bint Asad | |||
Religión | islam |
Ali nació dentro de la Kaaba en La Meca , el lugar más sagrado del Islam , de Abu Talib [6] y Fatimah bint Asad . [1] [7] Fue el primer hombre que aceptó el Islam bajo la dirección de Mahoma. [8] [9] Ali protegió a Mahoma desde una edad temprana, [10] y participó en casi todas las batallas libradas por la naciente comunidad musulmana. Después de emigrar a Medina , se casó con la hija menor de Muhammad, Fatimah , [1] y después de su muerte, tuvo otras esposas, incluida la nieta de Muhammad, Umamah bint Zaynab . [11] [12] Fue nombrado califa por los compañeros de Mahoma en 656, después de que el califa Uthman ibn Affan fuera asesinado. [13] [14] El reinado de Ali vio guerras civiles y el 27 de enero de 661, fue atacado y asesinado por un jarijita mientras rezaba en la Gran Mezquita de Kufa , muriendo dos días después, el 29 de enero. [15] [16] [17]
Ali es importante tanto para los chiítas como para los sunitas , política y espiritualmente. [18] Las numerosas fuentes biográficas sobre Ali suelen estar sesgadas de acuerdo con líneas sectarias, pero coinciden en que era un musulmán piadoso, devoto de la causa del Islam y un gobernante justo de acuerdo con el Corán y la Sunnah . [2] Mientras que los sunitas consideran a Ali como el cuarto califa de Rashidun , los musulmanes chiítas consideran a Ali como el primer califa e imán después de Mahoma. Los musulmanes chiítas también creen que Ali y los demás imanes chiítas , todos ellos de la Casa de Mahoma, conocida como Ahl al-Bayt , son los legítimos sucesores de Mahoma.
Nacimiento y linaje
El padre de Ali, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib , era el custodio de la Ka'bah y un jeque de Banu Hashim , una rama importante de la poderosa tribu Quraysh . También era tío de Muhammad y había criado a Muhammad después de la muerte de Abd al-Muttalib (el padre de Abu Talib y el abuelo de Muhammad). [19] [20] La madre de Ali, Fatima bint Asad , también pertenecía a Banu Hashim, por lo que Ali era descendiente de Isma'īl ( Ismael ), el primogénito de Ibrahim ( Abraham ). [21]
Nacimiento en la Kaaba
Muchas fuentes, especialmente las chiítas, atestiguan que Ali nació dentro de la Kaaba en la ciudad de La Meca , [1] [22] [23] donde permaneció con su madre durante tres días. [1] [24] Según los informes, su madre sintió el comienzo de su dolor de parto mientras visitaba la Kaaba y entró donde nació su hijo. Algunas fuentes chiítas contienen descripciones milagrosas de la entrada de la madre de Ali en la Kaaba. El nacimiento de Ali en la Kaaba se considera un evento único que demuestra su "alta posición espiritual" entre los chiítas, mientras que los eruditos sunitas lo consideran una gran, si no única, distinción. [5]
Durante la vida de Muhammad
En la meca
Vida temprana
Según una tradición, Muhammad fue la primera persona a quien Ali vio cuando tomó al recién nacido en sus manos y Muhammad lo llamó Ali, que significa "el exaltado" . Muhammad tenía una relación cercana con los padres de Ali. Cuando Muhammad quedó huérfano y luego perdió a su abuelo Abd al-Muttalib , el padre de Ali lo llevó a su casa. [1] Ali nació dos o tres años después de que Mahoma se casara con Khadijah bint Khuwaylid . [25] Cuando Ali tenía cinco años, Muhammad llevó a Ali a su casa para criarlo. Algunos historiadores dicen que esto se debió a que había una hambruna en La Meca en ese momento y que el padre de Ali tenía una gran familia que mantener; sin embargo, otros señalan que alimentar a Ali no habría sido una carga para su padre, ya que Ali tenía cinco años en ese momento y, a pesar de la hambruna, el padre de Ali, que era económicamente acomodado, era conocido por dar comida a extraños. si tuvieran hambre. [26] Si bien no se discute que Muhammad crió a Ali, no se debió a ningún estrés financiero por el que estaba pasando el padre de Ali.
Aceptación del Islam
Cuando Ali tenía nueve o diez años, Mahoma anunció que había recibido una revelación divina , y Ali le creyó y profesó el Islam. [1] [2] [27] [28] [29] Según Laura Veccia Vaglieri , Ali fue uno de los primeros creyentes, ya sea el segundo (después de Khadijah) o el tercero (después de Khadijah y Abu Bakr), en disputa por chiítas y sunitas. [30] Esta disputa, según Gleave, se ve afectada por (o quizás se origina en) intereses sectarios, aunque las fuentes más antiguas parecen colocar a Ali antes que Abu Bakr. [31] Según historiadores musulmanes como Ibn Ishaq [32] e Ibn Hazm [2] y eruditos como W. Montgomery Watt [33] Ali fue el primer hombre en profesar el Islam. Encyclopedia of Britannica [1] y John Esposito [34] lo consideran el segundo musulmán, después de Khadija , en aceptar el Islam. [1] Al-Tabari narra diferentes narraciones, cada una presenta a Ali, Abu Bakr o Zayd ibn Harithah como el primer hombre que aceptó el Islam. [35] Según Watt , algunas fuentes ( Ibn Sa'd , El libro de las clases principales , Historia de los profetas y reyes ) consideran a Abu Bakr como el primer hombre en aceptar el Islam, sin embargo, tienen la misma opinión sobre Ali. [36]
Fiesta de Dhul-Asheera
La llamada de Mahoma al Islam en La Meca duró 13 años, de los cuales 3 años fue en secreto. Según Al-Tabari , al comienzo de la llamada pública, y después de la revelación del verso coránico, " Avisa a tus parientes más cercanos " (26: 214), se le ordenó a Mahoma que invitara a sus parientes a una fiesta . Por lo tanto, invitó a 40 de sus parientes cercanos del clan Banu Hashim a la fiesta. Según la Historia de los profetas y reyes , Ali ibn al-Athir y Abulfeda , en esta fiesta, Mahoma preguntó a sus familiares; que esté dispuesto a ayudarlo en la misión. Y declaró que quien lo ayudara, sería su hermano, fideicomisario y sucesor. Ninguno de los familiares dio una respuesta afirmativa excepto Ali. Muhammad repitió su petición por segunda y tercera vez. Aún así, Ali era el único voluntario. Después de la tercera vez, según al-Tabari, Muhammad puso su brazo alrededor del cuello de Ali y dijo "este es mi hermano, mi fideicomisario y mi sucesor entre ustedes, así que escúchenlo y obedezcan", mientras que Ali tenía 13 o 14 años. en el momento. "Y entonces la gente se levantó y bromeaban diciéndole a Abu Talib [el padre de Ali]: ¡ Él te ha ordenado que escuches a tu hijo y lo obedezcas! " [37] [38] [39]
Sir Richard Burton escribe sobre el banquete en su libro de 1898, diciendo: "Le ganó [a Muhammad] un prosélito por valor de mil sables en la persona de Ali, hijo de Abu Talib". [40]
Durante la opresión de los musulmanes
Durante la persecución de los musulmanes y el boicot de los Banu Hashim en La Meca, Ali apoyó firmemente a Mahoma. [41]
Según Nasr , durante el período (610-622 d. C.) cuando Mahoma recibió sus primeras revelaciones, Ali junto con Zayd ibn Harithah , Abu Bakr ; Y Khadijeh era uno de los leales compañeros de Mahoma. Ayudó a formar el núcleo de la primera sociedad islámica. Durante estos años, pasó la mayor parte de su tiempo satisfaciendo las necesidades de los creyentes en La Meca, especialmente los pobres, distribuyendo su riqueza entre ellos y ayudándoles con sus asuntos diarios. [1]
Migración a Medina
En el año 622, que se conoce como el año de la migración , los enemigos de Muhmammad estaban conspirando para matarlo, por lo que le pidió a Ali que durmiera en su cama para poder escapar a Yathrib. [1] Ali arriesgó su vida durmiendo en la cama de Muhammad para hacerse pasar por él, en una noche llamada Laylat al-Mabit . [42] [1] [27] [43] En la misma noche, Muhammad y Abu Bakr salieron en secreto de La Meca y llegaron a Yathrib (ahora Medina), unos días después. Esta migración se convirtió en el comienzo del calendario islámico . Cuando los enemigos entraron en la casa de Muhammad con dagas desenvainadas, se sorprendieron al ver que Ali, sin embargo, no lo lastimó. [1] Según la exégesis de Tabatabaei , Tafsir al-Mizan , el verso (2: 207) se refiere a este evento: "Y entre los hombres está el que vende su nafs (yo) a cambio del placer de Allah ". [44] [45] [1] Ali se quedó con la familia de Muhammad por unos días más, [1] para llevar a cabo las instrucciones de Muhammad: restaurar a sus dueños todos los bienes y propiedades que habían sido confiados a Muhammad para su custodia. [46] Ali luego fue a Medina con Fatimah bint Asad (su madre), Fatimah bint Muhammad (la hija de Muhammad) y otras dos mujeres. [2] [27] Por orden de Muhammad, Ali fue a Quba en las afueras de Medina. Según algunas fuentes, Ali fue uno de los primeros emigrantes a Medina. Tenía 22 o 23 años en ese momento. [1]
En medina
Matrimonio con Fátima
Poco después de la migración a Medina, en 623, Muhammad le dijo a Ali que Dios le ordenó que le diera a su hija Fatimah Zahra a Ali en matrimonio. [1] Este matrimonio es visto por los musulmanes como una unión entre las figuras sagradas más importantes de los parientes de Mahoma. Muhammad, que visitaba a su hija casi todos los días, se acercó a Ali con este matrimonio y una vez le dijo que eres mi hermano en este mundo y en el más allá. [1] También se narra de Muhammad quien le dijo a Fatimah: "Te he casado con el más querido de mi familia". [47] La familia de Ali fue frecuentemente elogiada por Muhammad, ya que Muhammad mencionó a ALi, Fatimah y sus hijos al-Hasan y al-Husain , como su Ahl al-Bayt en eventos como Mubahala y Hadith del Evento de la Capa . También fueron glorificados en el Corán en casos como " el verso de la purificación ". [48] [49] Aunque se permitió la poligamia, Ali no se casó con otra mujer mientras Fatimah estaba viva. [50] Después de la muerte de Fatima, Ali se casó con otras mujeres y tuvo muchos otros hijos. [1]
Evento de Mubahalah
Según las colecciones de hadices, en 631, un enviado cristiano árabe de Najran (actualmente en el norte de Yemen y en parte en Arabia Saudita ) llegó a Muhammad para discutir cuál de las dos partes se equivocó en su doctrina sobre 'Isa ( Jesús ). Después de comparar el nacimiento milagroso de Jesús con la creación de Adán , [51] Muhammad los llamó a mubahala (conversación), donde cada grupo debe traer a sus hombres, mujeres y niños conocedores, y pedirle a Dios que maldiga al grupo mentiroso ya sus seguidores. [52] Mahoma, para demostrarles que era un profeta, trajo a su hija Fatimah, 'Ali y sus nietos Hasan y Husayn. Se dirigió a los cristianos y dijo "esta es mi familia" y se cubrió a sí mismo ya su familia con un manto. [53] Según fuentes musulmanas, cuando uno de los monjes cristianos les vio la cara, aconsejó a sus compañeros que se retiraran de Mubahala por el bien de sus vidas y sus familias. Así, los monjes cristianos desaparecieron de Mubahala. De acuerdo con Allameh Tabatabaei 's Tafsir al-Mizan , la palabra "Nuestro yo" en este verso [52] se refiere a Muhammad y Ali. Luego narra que el Imam Ali al-Rida , octavo Imam chiita , en una discusión con Al-Ma'mun , califa abasí , se refirió a este verso para demostrar la superioridad de la progenie de Muhammad sobre el resto de la comunidad musulmana, y lo consideró una prueba de El derecho de Ali al califato debido a que Dios hizo que Ali fuera como el yo de Mahoma. [54]
Misiones para el Islam
Ali emprendió varias misiones importantes en nombre de Mahoma. Mahoma designó a Ali como uno de los escribas que escribiría el texto del Corán, que le había sido revelado a Mahoma durante las dos décadas anteriores. [1] Después de la migración , cuando Muhammad estaba creando lazos de hermandad entre sus compañeros , seleccionó a Ali como su hermano, afirmando que "Ali y yo pertenecemos al mismo árbol, mientras que la gente pertenece a árboles diferentes". [2] [27] [55] [56] En 628 d. C., Ali recibió instrucciones de escribir el Tratado de Hudaybiyyah , el tratado de paz entre Muhammad y Quraysh. En el año 630 d.C., el año anterior a la conquista de La Meca , cuando Abu Bakr dirigía el Hajj, Mahoma recitó la Surah Bara'ah Min al-Mushrikin (declarando que Mahoma y la comunidad islámica ya no estaban obligados por los acuerdos hechos anteriormente con los politeístas árabes ). [2] [1] de Ali a la gente de La Meca . [2] Un año después, en 631, Ali fue enviado a Yemen para difundir las enseñanzas del Islam, lo que se conoce como Expedición de Ali ibn Abi Talib . [1] Ali fue elegido para romper los ídolos dentro de la Kaaba y otros ídolos adorados por las tribus Aws , Khazraj y Tayy . [2] También fue conocido por resolver varias disputas y sofocar los levantamientos de varias tribus. [1]
Carrera militar
Ali participó en casi todas las expediciones (con la excepción de la batalla de Tabouk ) [27] durante la vida de Mahoma, a menudo como abanderado ; y dos veces como comandante, a saber, Expedición de Fadak y Expedición de Yemen . La valentía de Ali se convirtió en legendaria más tarde. Junto con Hamza , Abu Dajana y Zubayr , es conocido por sus ataques al enemigo. Se dice que él solo mató a más de un tercio del enemigo en la Batalla de Badr , [57] junto con el campeón de La Meca, Walid ibn Utba . [58] En el año 5 AH, ejecutó a los enemigos que habían sido condenados a muerte por Muhammad y, junto con Zubayr , supervisó la matanza de la tribu Banu Qurayza . [59]
Defendió vigorosamente a Mahoma en las batallas de la Batalla de Uhud cuando la mayor parte del ejército musulmán huyó de la batalla, [1] y en la Batalla de Hunayn . La victoria de los musulmanes en la batalla de Khaybar se atribuye a su valentía. [2] Ali usó la puerta pesada y de hierro del fuerte de Khyber como escudo. [60] [2]
Según una narración, Gabriel se refirió a la batalla de Ali y su espada de Zulfiqar , que le había quitado a Muhammad, y le dijo a Muhammad: "No hay espada sino Zulfiqar, y no hay héroe sino Ali". [a] [1] Ali luchó contra el gran guerrero Quraysh Talha ibn Abi Talha . Talha se jactaba constantemente de que derrotaba a cualquier musulmán que se le cruzara. Cuando Talha fue derrotado por Ali, pidió misericordia diciendo la frase Karram-Allah-u Wajhahu . Según Nasr , esta oración de bondad se convirtió en uno de los títulos de Ali más utilizados por los sunitas. Esta frase, que suele ir acompañada de otras palabras, se utiliza para enviar saludos y buenas oraciones. [1]
Muhammad nombró a Ali comandante en la Batalla de la Trinchera , afirmando que "Le entregaré el estandarte a un hombre que ama a Allah y Su Mensajero y es amado por Allah y Su Mensajero. [56] , luego Ali derrotó al legendario guerrero árabe Amr ibn Abd al-Wud . [61] Después de esta batalla, Muhammad le dio a Ali el nombre de Asadullah (León de Dios) y, según los informes, lo elogió diciendo que "el ataque de Ali contra Amr ibn Abd al-Wud es mayor que la adoración de la humanidad y los genios hasta el Día del Juicio". [56]
Sherira Gaon (c. 906–c. 1006) describes in a responsum how that the head of the Jewish community in Peroz-Shapur (now al-ʾAnbār), a community numbering some 90,000, warmly welcomed Ali ibn Abi Talib when he marched with his army into the country and conquered it, and how that he received them with a friendly disposition.[62]
Conquest of Mecca
During the Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to purify Kaaba from idols after its defilement by the polytheism of old times.[1][2]
Ghadir Khumm
As Muhammad was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, he made statements about Ali that are interpreted very differently by Sunnis and Shias.[1] He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm, gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them.[63]
According to the Encyclopedia of Islam:
Taking Ali by the hand, he asked of his faithful followers whether he, Muhammad, was not closer (awlā) to the Believers than they were to themselves; the crowd cried out: "It is so, O Apostle of God!"; he then declared: "He of whom I am the mawla, of him Ali is also the mawla (man kuntu mawlāhu fa-ʿAlī mawlāhu)".[64][65]
Shias regard these statements as constituting the designation of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast, Sunnis take them only as an expression of close spiritual relationship between Muhammad and Ali, and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death, but not necessarily a designation of political authority.[66][67] According to Madelung, Ali during his caliphate in Kufa, citing this event, emphasized the superiority of his position over the previous caliphs.[68] Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.[1][69]
Sources, among them both Shia and Sunni, state that, after the sermon, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman pledged allegiance to Ali.[70][71][72] However, there have been doubts regarding the veracity of the tradition due to evidence that Ali may not have been present during the sermon, instead being in Yemen at the time—a view held by the historian Ibn Kathir.[73]
De la muerte de Mahoma al califato
The next phase of Ali's life started in 632, after the death of Muhammad, and lasted until the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan, the third caliph, in 656. During those 24 years, Ali took no part in battle or conquest.[2]
Succession to Muhammad
While Ali was preparing Muhammad's body for burial and performing his funeral rites, a small group of approximately fourteen Muslims[74] met at Saqifah. There, Umar ibn al-Khattab pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, who subsequently assumed political power. The gathering at Saqifah was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself.[29][75]
Nevertheless, the issue of succession to Muhammad caused the Muslims to split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him by dint of divine order.[29]
According to Laura Veccia Vaglieri, whether Ali hoped he could take the position of Caliphate after Muhammad, is doubtful, since he made no effort to take control of community, in spite of being advised by al-Abbas and Abu Sufyan to do so.[76] According to Madelung, Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for the caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his knowledge of Islam, and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) to him was based on his belief in his own claim to the caliphate. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.[29][77] According to Madelung, if the Muslim community, or a small segment of it, favored him, he would no longer consider the caliphate just as his "right," but also as his "duty."[78] Ali believed that he could fulfill the role of Imam without fighting.[79]
According to Lewinstein, regarding the succession of Ali, historians and scholars of Islamic history have generally either accepted the view of the Sunnis or considered the truth of the matter undetectable. One of the historians who has distanced himself from this common belief is Wilferd Madelung.[80] In the Encyclopedia of Islam, Wilferd Madelung considers the main Shia claims, to be Ali's own view, because Ali considered himself the most worthy person for the caliphate, compared to other companions, and blamed the Muslim community for turning away from him, but, at the same time, he praised the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, and condemned the destruction of their character.[81] Madelung believes that, since in the Arab customs of the time, especially the Quraysh, hereditary succession was common, and since the Quran emphasized the importance of blood ties between the early prophets, especially the Ahl al-Bayt, and since the Ansar supported Ali's caliphate, Abu Bakr knew that forming a council would lead to the election of Ali, so he led the situation in a manner that insured his own election.[82]Laura Veccia Vaglieri, On the other hand, doubts that Ali really hoped to succeed the Prophet, because the Arabs traditionally chose their leaders from among the elders, and Ali was a little over thirty years old at the time, and did not have the necessary credibility to succeed Muhammad, according to Arab traditions. Vaglieri believes that the Shias, by inventing or interpreting the words attributed to Muhammad in the light of their beliefs, insist that the Prophet intended to choose Ali as his successor, while there is no doubt that at the time of his last illness, Muhammad did not mention this desire.[83] Some sources mention Hadith of the pen and paper, as the last words of Muhammad, which is interpreted differently by Shias and Sunnis.[84]
Caliphate of Abu Bakr
According to Tabari, a group of Abu Bakr's opponents, including Zubayr, gathered at Fatimah's house. To make them come out and swear allegiance to Abu Bakr, Umar threatened to set the house on fire and pulled them out.[85] While Al-Baladhuri states that the altercation never became violent and ended with Ali's compliance,[86] some traditions add that Umar and his supporters forcibly entered the house, resulting in Fatimah's miscarriage of their unborn son Muhsin.[87] Professor Coeli Fitzpatrick surmises that the story of the altercation reflects the political agendas of the period and should therefore be treated with caution.[88]
Ali lived an isolated life during Abu Bakr's period and was mainly engaged in religious affairs, devoting himself to studying and teaching the Quran. He also advised Abu Bakr and Umar on government matters.[1] According to Ismail Poonawala, the first historically compiled Quran is attributed to Ali. Ali's knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah would help the previous caliphs in religious matters.[2][89] According to Tabatabaei, the order of Quran, compiled be Ali, differed from that which was gathered later during the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no resistance against the standardised mus'haf.[90]
At the beginning of Abu Bakr's caliphate, there was a controversy about Muhammad's endowment to his daughter, especially the oasis of Fadak, between Fatimah and Ali on one side and Abu Bakr on the other side. Fatimah asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar, but Abu Bakr refused and told her that prophets did not have any legacy and that Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Together with Umm Ayman, Ali testified to the fact that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested her to summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude until she died.[91] According to some sources, 'Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah, in the year 633.[2]
Caliphate of Umar
According to Encyclopedia of Brittanica, Ali pledged allegiance to the second caliph, Umar ibn Khattab, and even gave his daughter, Umm Kulthum in marriage to him.[1] Ali also helped Umar as a trusted advisor. 'Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the chief judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. 'Umar followed 'Ali's suggestions in political matters as well as religious ones.[92] According to Vaglieri, however, while it is probable that Umar asked Ali's advice on legal issues, due to his great knowledge of Quran and Sunnah, it is not certain whether his advice was accepted on political matters. As an example, Al-Baladhuri names Ali's view on Diwani revenue, which was opposite to that of Umar. Since, Ali believed the whole income should be distributed, without holding anything in stock. During the Caliphate of Umar (and Uthman) Ali held no position, except, according to Tabari, the lieutenancy of Madina, during Umar's journey to Syria and Palestine.[93] During the caliphate of Umar, Ali claimed Fatima's paternal inheritance again ; But Umar's answer was the same as Abu Bakr's. However, Umar agreed to return some of the property of Medina (which was considered part of Fatima's inheritance) to the sons of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, who represented Banu Hashim; But the property of Fadak and Khybar remained as state property and was not returned to Banu Hashim.[94]
Election of the third caliph
'Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which was appointed by 'Umar. Although 'Ali was one of the two major candidates, the council was inclined against him. Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf, who were cousins, were naturally inclined to support Uthman, who was Abdur Rahman's brother-in-law. In addition, Umar gave the deciding vote to Abdur Rahman, who offered the caliphate to Ali on the condition that he should rule in accordance with the Quran, the example set by Muhammad, and the precedents established by the first two caliphs. Ali rejected the third condition while Uthman accepted it. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.[95]
According to Wilferd Madelung, Ali could not have hoped to become the caliph after Umar, on the basis of his kinship with Muhammad; Because the Quraysh did not support the accumulation of prophethood and caliphate in one clan. He believes that it was not "Abu Bakr's and Umar's coup" at Saqifah which prevented ALi from becoming caliph, but it stems from the deep jealousy of the Quraysh toward Ali. Therefore, Ali's only chance to participate in the affairs of the Muslims could be his full participation in the council, which was founded by Umar. Ibn Abbas narrates that Umar once told him that Ali was in fact the most worthy person to succeed Muhammad, but we were afraid of him for two reasons. When Ibn Abbas eagerly asks Umar about these reasons, Umar replies that the first is his youth and the second is Ali's great interest in the Banu Hashim family. In his address, Omar refers to his belief in the formation of the council as the basis for appointing a caliph, and in practice, from now on, denounces any appointment of a caliph without consultation. Thus, by doing so, the caliphate could not be monopolized by certain clan and belonged to all the Quraysh.[96]
Caliphate of Uthman
There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman.[97] According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr in the Encyclopedia of Britannica, Ali recognized Uthman as the caliph, but had taken a neutral position among his supporters and opponents.[1] But according to Robert M Gleave, in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Ali was at least spiritually at the forefront of Uthman's opponents. During the caliphate of Uthman, Ali, along with other companions of Muhammad, including Talhah and Zubayr, were among the critics of Uthman. He stated that 'Uthman had deviated from the Sunnah of the Prophet,[98] especially on the question of religious law which should be meted out in several cases, such as those of Ubayd Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba(accused of drinking).[99][100][101] Also opposed him for changing the prayer ritual, and for declaring that he would take whatever he needed from the fey'. Ali also endeavoured to protect companions such as Ibn Mas'ud,[102] Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (who was exiled from Medina, due to his preaches against the misdeeds of the powerful)[103][104] and Ammar ibn Yasir[2] from maltreatment by the caliph.
According to Madelung, when people revolted against Uthman in some cities and regions and moved to Medina, Uthman asked Ali to speak with them and convince them to return to their cities. Uthman, committing himself to follow Ali's advice, from now on, gave him full authority to negotiate with the insurgents as he wished. Ali reminded him that he had talked to him about this before, but 'Uthman preferred to listen to Marwan ibn Hakam and the Umayyads instead. Uthman promised that from now on, he would turn away from them and listen to Ali and ordered other Ansar and Muhajirun to join Ali. He also asked Ammar to join the group, but he rejected the offer.[105] Accordiing to Poonawala Ali had a restraining influence on Uthman at this time without directly opposing him. He conveyed criticisms of the Companions to 'Uthman, and negotiated on behalf of' Uthman with the opposition who had come to Medina; which seems to have caused suspicion between 'Ali and' Uthman 's relatives. Later, when the rebels besieged Uthman's house, Ali tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.[2] When 'Uthman was in danger of being attacked, Ali sent his sons to protect his house. When Uthman was killed by the insurgents, Ali blamed his sons for inadequate protection of Uthman's house.[1]
According to Vaglieri, the rebels asked Ali to be their head, and although he refused and should be excluded from the bloody conclusion of their act, but, Vaglieri says, there are reasons that Ali was in agreement with rebels that Uthman should abdicate.[106] Wilferd Madelung believes that, due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support to be elected as a caliph, he could not be considered as a opposition. According to him, there is not even evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate, much less directed their actions. [107] It is reported from al-Tabari that Ali tried to detach himself from the besiegers of the house of Uthman and their partisans, as soon as circumstances allowed him.[108] Madelung relates that, years later, Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that "No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master."[109]
Califato
The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation).[110] circumstances, led to this civil war in Muslim history, wived differently by different Muslims. Some, known as Uthmanis, consider Uthman a rightful and just caliph till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Some others, known as the party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, had forfeited the caliphate, and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his ways or step down; thus, Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents were infidels. This was not the position of Ali himself. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[111]
Election
When Uthman was killed by insurgents from Egypt, Kufa and Basra, the potential candidates were Ali and Talha. Among the Egyptians, there were supporters for Talha, While the Basrians and Kufis, who had "heeded Ali's opposition to the use of violence", and most of the Ansar, openly tended to Ali's caliphate, and finally got the upper hand. Meanwhile, Malik al-Ashtar, the leader of the Kufis, seems to have played a key role in providing security for Ali to become caliph.[112] According to Poonawala, before the assassination of Uthman, the Basri rebels were in favor of Talha, and the Kufi rebels were in favor of Al-Zubayr, but with the assassination of Uthman, both groups converted to Ali. With the assassination of Uthman, the Umayyads fled Medina, and the Egyptians, prominent Muhajirun, and Ansar gained the control. They invited Ali to the caliphate and he accepted the position after a few days.[2] According to the narration of Muhammad Hanafiyyah, many companions met with Ali and wanted to pledge allegiance to him. At first, Ali objected, but later said that any allegiance should be in public and in the mosque. Kufi narrations state that Malik al-Ashtar was the first to pledge allegiance to him.[113] It seems that Ali personally did not force others to pledge allegiance to him. Thus, people such as Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Usama ibn Zayd refused to pledge allegiance to Ali.[114]
According to some other historians, the election of Ali as the new caliph took place in an circumstance full of tumult, fear and panic. Caetani believes that this choice was made without the prior consent of the famous companions of Muhammad. Della Vida believes that the choice of Ali as caliph was not because he and his family held a high position or because he was loyal to Muhammad, but rather because the Ansar who had regained their influence in their city, Medina, supported him, and on the other hand, the Umayyads were troubled and disturbed. However, from its beginning, Ali's fledgling government was attacked by unfulfilled companions, as well as by Mu'awiyah, the only Umayyad governor who was able to maintain control of his state, Syria.[115] According to Madelung, "the reign of Ali bore the marks of a counter-caliphate", because he lacked the criteria set by the first two caliphs. Ali was not elected by a council (which Umar considered it as a condition for choosing a proper succession); and did not have the support of the majority of the Quraysh, who, according to Abu Bakr's constitution, were the only ruling class entitled to decide on the caliphate.[116] According to Veccia Vaglieri, Ali, allowing himself to be nominated by rebels, was an error which "exposed him to accusations of complicity" in rebels' crime, in spit of his vain effort to detach himself from them.[117]
The beginning of the caliphate
Ali thus inherited the Rashidun caliphate – which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled.
Uthman had appointed his family members as governors and in other positions of power, and public dissatisfaction with this nepotism was one of the factors that had caused a rebellion against him.[118] In addition, Uthman's governors were widely known for their corruption and plundering. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed Uthman's governors immediately, against the counsel of his advisers that it would not be politically wise to do so, as he refused to be complicit in their injustice and corruption.[119][120][121][122] According to Madelung, Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[123] Some of Uthman's governors were replaced, but others, such as Muawiyah I (a relative of Uthman and governor of the Levant), refused to submit to Ali's orders.[2]
When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly.[124]
Ruling style
On becoming Caliph, Ali distributed all the sums collected in Bayt al-mal. According to Vaglieri, this action is not to be regarded as an act of demagogic, since Ali previously provoked Umar to do so.[125] 'Ali recovered the land granted by 'Uthman and swore to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralisation of capital control over provincial revenues, favouring an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; he distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. 'Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother 'Aqeel ibn Abu Talib. This reflected his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to those Muslims who played a role in the later conquests.[2][126]
Ali is said to have vowed an uncompromising campaign against financial corruption and unfair privileges after he assumed the caliphate following the death of Uthman. Shias argue that his determination in pushing these reforms aroused the ire of the wealthy and the privileged former companions of the Prophet.[127][128]
Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition, especially after the Battle of the Camel. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions, especially the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Qur'anic reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charisma.[2][129] This diverse coalition became known as Shia Ali, "adherents of Ali" or "followers of Ali". However, according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported 'Ali after his election as caliph were Shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who were counted as political Shia, few of them believed in Ali's religious leadership.[130]
His policies and ideas of governing are manifested in the letter he sent to Malik al-Ashtar after appointing him governor of Egypt. This instruction, which has historically been viewed as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance, alongside the Constitution of Medina, involved detailed descriptions of the duties and rights of the ruler, the various functionaries of the state, and the main classes of society at that time.[131][132] Ali wrote:
Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds: either they are your brothers in faith or in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them.[133]
Since the majority of 'Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed Malik to give more attention to land development than to the tax collection, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people.[134]
Battle of the Camel
According to Laura Veccia Vaglieri, although A'ishah had supported opposition against Uthman, she had gone on pilgrimage to Mecca when they killed Uthman. On her way back to Medina, when she learned about this, and specially on hearing that the new Caliph was Ali, she returned to Mecca and engaged in an active propaganda against Ali. Later on Talhah and Al-Zubayr joined her and together they marched towards Iraq to gain more supporters against Ali.[135] They wanted 'Ali to punish the rioters who had killed Uthman.[136][137] The rebels maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing according to the Quran and Sunnah; hence, no vengeance was to be invoked.[2][27][138] According to Vaglieri, since these three leaders (A'isha, Talaha, Zubayr) were in part responsible for the fate of Uthman, their reason for rising is not clear. However, Vaglieri writes, "social and economic motives, inspired by fear of the possible influence of the extremists on Ali, seem to provide a more convincing explanation".[139]
Troops encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted for many days. The two parties agreed on a peace agreement, however, according to Vaglieri, the rebels did not like the conclusion of the treaty. A brawl provoked, which expanded into a battle.[140] The Battle of the Camel started in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[141]
Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them,[124] while others say Ali accepted the rebels' argument or at least did not consider Uthman a just ruler.[142] Ali himself writes, in the Nahj al-Balagha, that he was blamed by the Umayyads for the assassination of Uthman.[143]
The Umayyads knowledge of me did not restrain them from accusing me, nor did my precedence in accepting Islam keep these ignorant people from blaming me. Allah's admonitions are more eloquent than my tongue. I am the contester against those who break away from Faith and the opposer of those who entertain doubts. Uncertainties should be placed before Qur'an, the Book of Allah (for clarification). Certainly, people will be recompensed according to what they have in their hearts. – Nahj al-Balagha: Sermon 75[143]
Battle of Siffin
Ali appointed 'Abd Allah ibn al'-Abbas[144] governor of Basra. Later, Muawiyah I, governor of the Levant and cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations, but Muawiyah insisted on Levantine autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah mobilised an army and refused to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in the election. Ali then moved his armies north and the two sides encamped at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657.[2][145]
A week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamour). Muawiyah's army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-As advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.[2][145] This gesture implied that two sides should put down their swords and settle their dispute referring to Quran.[146] Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.[29] The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, for his neutrality. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator.[147][148]
They agreed on a settlement, according which two arbitrators should meet seven months later at a place halfway between Syria and Iraq. According to Vaglieri, the matters to be examined by the two were not determined in details. However, whether Uthman's murder should be regarded as an act of justice or not, was among the issues to be determined. Since if the murder was unjust, then Muawiya would have the right to revenge. According to Vaglieri, "this was not all, for a decision in favour of Muawiya would inevitably involve, for Ali, the loss of the caliphate."[149]
Advent of Kharijites
The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave").[150][151][152] They asserted that according to Quran(8:9)[b][153] the rebel(Muawiya), should be fought and overcome. And since there is such an explicit verdict in Quran, leaving the case to judgment of human was a sin. They camped at a place near Kufa, called Harura, and proclaimed their repentance (because they themselves first forced ALi to ceasefire which led to arbitration). Ali made a visit to the camp and managed to reconcile with them. According to Vaglieri, Ali had appealed to the same verse in fighting against Aiysha, Talah, Zubayr and now Muawiya. When Ali came back to Kufa, he denied that he intended to step back from Seffin treaty. When Kharijites learned that he had sent Abu Musa to the meeting with Amr, they secretly left Kufa and gathered in a place called al-Nahrawan.[154]
Arbitration
Seven months after the battle of Siffin, in February 658, the two arbitrators met at Dumat al-Jandal. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ash'ari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and give the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also concurred.[150] Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision, which had lowered the caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah.[155][156]
According to Poonawala, in a second arbitration meeting, it seems that the arbiters and other eminent persons, with the exclusion of Ali's representatives.[2] According to Madelung, since Ali no longer considered Abu Musa as his representative, and did not appoint anyone in replace, he did not participate in the second arbitration. But, the religious leaders of Medina, who did not participate in the first arbitration, tried to resolve the crisis of the Caliphate in this way.[157] The two sides met in January 659 to discuss the selection of the new caliph. Amr supported Muawiyah, while Abu Musa preferred his son-in-law, Abdullah ibn Umar, but the latter refused to stand for election in default of unanimity. Abu Musa then proposed, and Amr agreed, to depose both Ali and Muawiyah and submit the selection of the new caliph to a Shura. In the public declaration that followed Abu Musa observed his part of the agreement, but Amr declared Ali deposed and confirmed Muawiya as caliph.[2] According to Vaglieri, this was judged in later time, as a treacherous trick and disloyal act.[158]
Ali refused to accept this state of affairs and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration.[159][160][161] 'Ali protested that it was contrary to the Qur'an and the Sunnah and hence not binding. Then he tried to organise a new army, but only the Ansar, the remnants of the Qurra led by Malik Ashtar, and a few of their clansmen remained loyal.[2] This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters.[159] The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of 'Ali's coalition, and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[2][162] Still he assembled his forces and mobilized them toward Syria to engage in war with Mu'awia again, however, on reaching to al-Anbar, he realized that he should move toward al-Nahrawan, to handle Kharejits' riot first.[163]
Battle of Nahrawan
After the first arbitration, when Ali learned that Muawiya let people to pledge allegiance to him,[164] he tried to gather a new army, and to enlist Kharijites too, by assertion that he is going, as Kharijites wished, to fight against Muawiya. The Kharijites, however, asserted that Ali should first confess himself guilty of infidel (the sin they believed Ali committed, by acceptance of arbitration), which he angrily refused.[165]
Ali was in his way to Syria, when Kharigites started killing Ali's supporters and other Muslims. Since they considered anyone who was not part of their group as an unbeliever.[166][152] Thus Ali's forces asked him to return to Naharawan and deal with Kharigites first. Ali asked Kharigites to hand over the killers, but they asserted that they did it together; and that it was permissible to shed the blood of Ali's followers(Shias).[167] Then Ali announced that those who leave Nahrawan, and have not committed murder, are safe. Thus, hundreds of Kharijites separated from their army, except for 1500 or 1800 out of about 4000, who were killed or injured afterward in the Battle of Nahrawan.[168][169]
Although 'Ali won the battle by a huge margin, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing.[150] While dealing with the Iraqis, 'Ali found it hard to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions. As a result, 'Ali found it hard to expand the state on its eastern front.[170]
The last year of the caliphate
Ali continued to be regarded as Caliph by his followers in the last year of his life, however the number of his partisan were reducing.[171] At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muawiyah allowed 'Amr ibn al-'As to move against Egypt and 'Amr eventually conquered it for the second time in his career.[172] Amr had first taken Egypt eighteen years earlier from the Romans but had been dismissed by Uthman.[172] Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had no popular support in Egypt and managed to muster 2000 men but they dispersed without a fight.[172] Muawiyah's army occupied many cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent, and the people offered no support for a defense. So Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[173] In the same time, revolts took place in Khorasan and the East Arab rules were overthrown, but the riot in Fars was put down by Caliph's governor.[174]
In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and Basra changed in Ali's favour as the people became disillusioned with Muawiyah's reign and policies. However, the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.[175]
Muerte y entierro
According to Shia Muslims, On 19 Ramadan AH 40, which would correspond to 26 January 661,[176] while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer.[177] 'Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he died from the hit).[178] 'Ali died two days later on 29 January 661 (21 Ramadan AH 40).[2][177] Al-Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death.[175]
According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be exhumed and profaned by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Ja'far al-Sadiq, that the grave was some miles from Kufa, where a sanctuary arose later and the city Najaf was built around it.[179][180] Most Shias accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.[181][182]
However, Afghanis believe that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazar-e-Sharif at the famous Hazrat Ali Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[183]
Shia pilgrims usually go to the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[184][185] while Sunni Muslims go to the Hazrat Ali Mazar in Balkh. Under the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to Najaf and Karbala.[29]
Many Shia Muslims also celebrate Imam Ali's birth anniversary (13th day of Rajab) as Father's Day in Iran.[186] The Gregorian date for this changes every year:
Year | Gregorian date |
---|---|
2019 | 21 March[187] |
2020 | 8 March[188] |
2021 | 25 February[189] |
Sucesión
After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just People of the House of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[190] At this time, Muawiyah held both the Levant and Egypt and declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army until the army rebelled against him. Hasan was forced to give the caliphate to Muawiyah, according to a Hasan–Muawiya treaty.[191] Umayyads placed pressure upon Ali's family and his Shia. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution until Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz abolished the practice, 60 years later.[109] According to Ibn Abi'l-Hadid the Umayyads "prevented people from reporting any narration that might refer to any of his accolades. Finally, they even prevented people from calling their newborns by his name."[56] According to Madelung, "Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful."[192]
Esposas e hijos
Ali had fourteen sons and nineteen daughters from nine wives and several concubines, among them Al-Hasan, Al-Husayn and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah played a historical role, and only five of them left descendants.[193] Ali had four children from Muhammad's youngest daughter, Fatimah: Al-Hasan, Al-Husayn, Zaynab[1] and Umm Kulthum. After Fatimah's death, he married Umamah the daughter of Zaynab the elder daughter of Muhammad, and had two sons with her: Hilal (also known as "Muhammad al-Awsat or Muhammad the Middle"), and 'Awn.[11] His other well-known sons were Al-Abbas ibn Ali, born to Umm al-Banin Fatimah binte Hizam, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah,[194][195] from Khawlah bint Ja'far, another wife from the central Arabian tribe of Banu Hanifah, whom Ali had also married after Fatimah's death.
Hasan, born in 625, was the second Shia Imam and he also assumed the role of caliph for several months after Ali's death. In the year AH 50 he died after being poisoned by a member of his own household who, according to historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[196] Husayn, born in 626, was the third Shia Imam, whom Mu'awiyah persecuted severely. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, Husayn lined up before the army of the caliph with his small band of followers and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shia Muslims.[197]
Posición en el pensamiento islámico
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. A wide range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and rhetoric are regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali.[182]
Prophetic knowledge
According to a hadith which is narrated by Shia and Sufis, Muhammad said "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ..."[182][198][199] Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. According to the Shia, Ali himself gave this testimony:
Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general ...[200]
It has been narrated that when Abbas was a baby, Ali placed him on his lap, kissed his hands and began to weep. He foretold the tragedy of Abbas and the inevitable fate of his hands which caused his wife, Umm ul-Banin, to also weep. However, he goes on to describe Abbas's future position and great status with God, and this relieves her.[56]
Theosophy
According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology, and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.[201] Ibn Abi al-Hadid has quoted
As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece, whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[202]
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1] According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers, especially after 1500. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[203]
In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr, Islamic numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali[1] through his having studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.
Eloquence
According to Vaglieri, Ali's position as an orator is not disputed, however, the same cannot be said of his poetic art. Still, Vaglieri, names a Diwan and prose works, attributed to him, which may be authentic.[204]
Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.[1] Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.[205] The most famous selection of Ali's utterances and writings has been gathered in a book called Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) by a 10th-century Shia scholar, Al-Sharif al-Radi, who selected them for their singular rhetorical beauty.[206]
The sermons without dots and alephs
Of note among sermons quoted in the book is the undotted sermon as well as the sermon without Aleph.[207] According to narrations, some companions of Muhammad had gathered somewhere discussing the role of letters in speaking. They concluded that Aleph had the greatest contribution in speaking and that dotted letters were also important. Meanwhile, Ali read two long impromptu sermons, one without using Aleph and the other without dotted letters, containing deep and eloquent concepts, according to Langroudi, a Shia author.[208] George Jordac, a Christian author, said that sermons without Aleph and dot had to be regarded as literary masterpieces.[209]
Compassion
Ali is revered for the deep sympathy and support he showed for the poor and orphans, and the egalitarian policies he pursued during his caliphate with the aim of achieving social justice. It is narrated in Kitab al-Kafi that Amir al-Mu'minin Ali ibn Abi Talib was presented with honey and figs from locations near Baghdad. Upon receiving the gifts, he ordered his officers to bring the orphans so that they could lick the honey from the containers while he distributed the rest himself among the people.[210]
Obras
The works attributed to Ali, first delivered to his followers in the form of sermons and speeches, then were written by his companions. There were also supplications such as Du'a Kumayl which were taught to his companions.[211]
Nahj al-Balagha
Nahj al-Balagha (The Peak of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali, compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Reza Shah Kazemi states: "Despite ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be attributed to Ali" and in support of this he makes reference to an article by Mokhtar Jebli.[182] This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam.[1][212][213] According to Gleave, Nahj al-Balagha's third sermon, Shaqshaqiya Sermon, in which Ali reveals his claim to Caliphate and his superiority over Abu bakr, Umar and Uthman, is the most controversial section of the book. Also Letter of Ali ibn Abi Talib to Malik al-Ashtar, in which Ali "outlines his conception of legitimate and righteous rule", is an important part of this book and got much attention.[214]
Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim
Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi, who according to Gleave, was either a Shafiʽi jurist or a Twelver. This book consists of over ten thousand short sayings of Ali.[215][216]
These pietistic and ethical statements, are taken from different works, including Nahj al-Balagha and Mi'a kalima ("100 sayings" of Ali) of Jāhiẓ.[217]
Mus'haf of Ali
Other works
Du'a Kumayl is a supplication by Ali, which been taught to his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad. This supplication is still used by Muslims as a supplicatory prayer.[218] See also Supplications (Du'a), translated by William Chittick.[219]Divan-i Ali ibn Abu Talib, is a poetry, attributed to Ali, which allegedly, is written by Ali himself.[220][2] According to Robert M Gleave, some secondary sources, attribute some other works to Ali such as Ṣaḥīfat al-farāʾiḍ (a short piece on inheritance law) and Kitāb al-zakāt (on alms tax) on legal matters as well as a Tafsir. These works are not extant nowadays. Ali's other attributed works are compiled in Kitab al-Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni and many works of Al-Shaykh al-Saduq.[221]
Apariencia y moralidad
Ali is described as being bald, heavy built, short legged, with broad shoulders, a hairy body, a long white beard; and was affected by a form of eye inflammation. In manner, it is said, he was rough, brusque, and unsociable. According to Madelung and Vaglieri, Ali has been a subject of controversy in the writings of later writers; since the conflicts in which he was involved, were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical and history materials is often biased.[222][223] Vaglieri names Lammens's writings as an example of hostile judgment towards Ali's behavior, and Caetani's as a milder one, however neither Lammens nor Caetani, Vaglieri says, took into consideration Ali's religiosity; and its impact on his policy. According to Vaglieri, much has been said about Ali's "austerity, his rigorous observance of religious rites, his detachment from worldly goods, his scruples in regard to booty and retaliation; and there is no reason to suppose all these details invented or exaggerated, since all his actions were dominated by this religious spirit. Without attempting to decide whether his devotion to Islam was always wholly unmixed with other motives, this aspect of his personality cannot be disregarded for the understanding that it affords of his psychology."[224] Authors have noted that Ali stood firmly by his principles and would not compromise them for political self-gain.[225]
Vaglieri is quoting Al-Baladhuri's view on Ali's war against "erring" Muslims as a duty "to sustain the Faith and to make the right way (al-huda) triumphant", then mentions Battle of the Camel as an example in which Ali, who had won the war, tried to relieve the defeated by preventing their women and children to be taken captive; in spite of being protested by a group of his partisans. After the battle, he "wept for the dead, and even prayed over his enemies."[226]
According to Leone Caetani, the "half-divine aureole which soon encircled the figure of Ali", aside from his closeness to the prophet Muhammad, was a result of his own impression on the people of his time. According to Vaglieri, the quality which caused this impression was a "programme of social and economic reforms"(based on his religious spirit) which Ali supported it by his own authority.[227]
According to Madelung, "In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies."[228] It is reported from Al-Baladhuri that Ali wished to distribute the Sawad, (like what he did about Bayt al-mal), which is viewed as Ali's only act of extremism, by Laura Veccia Vaglieri.[229]
Nombres y títulos
Ali is known by various titles, some given due to his personal qualities and others due to events in his life:[1]
- Al-Murtaza (Arabic: ٱلْمُرْتَضَىٰ, "The Chosen One")
- Amir al-Mu'minin (Arabic: أَمِير ٱلْمُؤْمِنِين, "Commander of the Faithful Ones")
- Bab-e Madinatul-'Ilm (Arabic: بَابِ مَديْنَةُ ٱلْعِلْم, "Door of City of the Knowledge")
- Abu Turab (Arabic: أَبُو تُرَاب, "Father of the Soil")
- Asad Allah (Arabic: أَسَد ٱلله, "Lion of God")
- Haydar (Arabic: حَيْدَر, "Braveheart" or "Lion")
- Walad al-Kaʿbah (Arabic: وَلَد ٱلْکَعْبَة, "Son of the Kaaba")[230]
Puntos de vista
Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1] In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[231] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history.[1] Sunni and Shia scholars agree that The Verse of Wilayah was narrated in honour of Ali, but there are differing interpretations of wilayah and the Imamate.[232] The Sunni scholars believe that the verse is about Ali but does not recognise him as an Imam while, in the Shia Muslim view, Ali had been chosen by God as successor of Muhammad.[233]
In the Quran
There are many verses interpreted by Shia scholars as referring to Ali or other Shia Imams. In answering question of why the names of the Imams are not expressly mentioned in the Quran Muhammad al-Baqir responds:[c] "Allah revealed Salat to his Prophet but never said of three or four Rakats, revealed Zakat but did not mention to its details, revealed Hajj but did not count its Tawaf and the Prophet interpreted their details. Allah revealed this verse and Prophet said this verse is about Ali, Hasan, Husayn and the other twelve Imams."[234][235] According to Ali, one quarter of Qur'anic verses are stating the station of Imams.[clarification needed] Momen has listed many of these verses in his An Introduction to Shi'i Islam.[236][237] However, there are few verses that some Sunni commentators interpret as referring to Ali, among which are The verse of Wilayah (Quran, 5:55) that Sunni and Shia scholars[d] believe refers to the incident where Ali gave his ring to a beggar who asked for alms while performing ritual prayers in the mosque.[232][238]The verse of Mawadda (Quran, 42:23) is another verse in which Shia scholars, along with Sunni ones like Al-Baydawi and Al-Zamakhshari and Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi, believe that the phrase Kinship refers to Ali, Fatimah and their sons, Hasan and Husayn.[239][240][241][242]
The verse of purification (Quran, 33:33) is also among the verses in which both Sunnis and Shia conjoined the name of Ali along with some other names.[e][236][240][243][244][245][246] The aforementioned verse of Mubahala, and also Quran 2:269, in which Ali is honoured with unique wisdom by both Shia and Sunni commentators, are other verses of this kind.[236][240][247]
In Hadiths
Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates in hadith that whatever virtue found in Muhammad was found in Ali, and that turning away from his guidance would be akin to turning away from Allah and his Prophet. Ali himself narrates that he is the gateway and supervisor to reach Allah.[210] According to Shia, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his death. This is supported by numerous hadiths which have been narrated by Shias, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Cloak, Hadith of position, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors.
Sunni
According to Gleave, since Ali was one of Rightly-Guided Caliphs , and one of Muhammad's close companions, he has a high position in Sunni thought. However, this was not the case from the beginning. The title of Rightly-Guided for Ali was considered legitimate by the Sunni doctrine, only after Ahmad ibn Hanbal accepted Ali, as one of the Rashidun caliphs. Later on Sunni authors regularly reported Ali's legal, theological, and historical views in their works, among them some sought to use Ali's sayings to disprove Shi'i position, or depict him as a supporter of Sunni doctrine.[248]
Among Sunnis, Ali has the same position as the other three caliphs; however, according to Sunni doctrine of sābiqa (according which, greater religious authority is given on the basis of the order of the caliphs), Ali is in a lower position than the other Rashidun Caliphs. The most troubling element of this view, is the apparent elevation of Ali's position in Muhammad's sayings, such as "I am from Ali and Ali is from me", and "Whoever counts me as his patron (mawla), then Ali is also his patron", which accordingly been interpreted so that solve the problem. (see mawla and Event of Ghadir Khumm) Some Sunni writers, on the other hand, acknowledge the preeminence of Ali's knowledge in the Sharia, and his importance in the hadiths of the Prophet, however, do not consider these as a reason to determine Ali's political designation by the Prophet.[249]
Shia
In Shia belief, Ali holds a high position, and the belief in his legitimacy in leading the Muslims is the definite belief of the Shias. His statements are a reference for Shia legal system, and most importantly, Shias believe that Ali was superior to the rest of the Companions and was appointed by Muhammad as his successor. Ali's piety and morality initiated a kind of mysticism among the Shias that brought them close to the Sunni Sufis.[250] Among the shias Imamate of Ali is one of the principles of the religion, according which, although Ali was not the recipient of a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. His words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result it is a source of sharia law.[251][252]
Musta'lis consider Ali's position superior to that of the Imam. Both Twelvers and Isma'ilis believe in infallibility, the knowledge of the unseen, and the intercession of Ali.[253] A large volume of Shiite religious literature in various languages such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Turkish is dedicated to Ali.[254]
Ghulat
Shia extremists believed that Ali had access to God's will; for example, the Nuṣayrīs believed that Ali appears as an incarnation of God, some of them(Khaṭṭābiyya), considered Ali higher than Muhammad. Nowadays, Alawites and Bektashis are viewed with suspicion by Shias and Sunnis. The Ahl al-Haq Kurds also hold a similar views mixed with reincarnation about Ali.[255]
Saba'iyya, the followers of Abdullah ibn Saba', who praised Ali beyond measures, were another Ghulat sect, which, according to Veccia Vaglieri, Ali dissociated himself from them.[256] Also, there is Ali-Illahism, a syncretic religion, which centres on the belief that there have been successive incarnations of their Deity throughout history, and reserves particular reverence for 'Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, who is considered one such incarnation.[257] These groups have, according to traditionalist Muslims, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits.[258] Studies carried out by Aryeh Kofsky and Meir M.Bar Asher support the claim that the Alawites do not deify Ali but rather identify him as the unique "wasīī", meaning a "guard of Islam" chosen by God [259] Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime.[258]
Sufism
Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali.[1] According to Gleave, even Naqshbandi include him into their spiritual hierarchy by depicting how Muhammad taught him special ritual principle of Ṣūfī practice, through which, believers may reach certain stages on the Sufi path.[260]
Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that enable Sufis in their spiritual journey to God.[1] Ali's position as a prominent narrator of Muhammad's esoteric knowledge, made him popular among Sufi writers. Ali is therefor, considered as an ascetic follower of Muhammad, by Sufis, as well as Sunnis and Shias.[261]
Early sufi Hasan Al Basri was disciple of Ali. Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition began with Ali and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principles and practices of Sufism.[262]
Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali.
Historiografía
The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and ahadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are coloured to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[1]
There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars to consider narrations and reports gathered in later periods as fabrications, due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shia partisan positions. This led these scholars to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. For example, Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentiousness alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[263]
Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work prior to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasids.[264] When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. Ninth- and tenth-century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist any more except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.923).[265]
Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al-Baqir and Jafar al-Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography.[266]
Ver también
- Outline of Islam
- Glossary of Islam
- Index of Islam-related articles
- Alevism
- Ali in Muslim culture
- Al-Farooq (title)
- Hashemites Royal Family of Jordan
- Idris I The First King of Morocco Founded 788
- List of expeditions of Ali during Muhammad's era
Notas al pie
- ^ see also Ibn Al Atheer, in his Biography, vol 2 p 107 "لا فتی الا علي لا سيف الا ذوالفقار"
- ^ "If two parties of the Believers fight with one another, make peace between them, but if one rebels against the other, then fight against that one which rebels, until it returns to obedience to God..."
- ^ Note that Al-Baqir is also regarded as an Imam by the Isma'ili Shia, who believe in different Imams to the Twelvers
- ^ See at-Tabari: at-Tarikh, vol.6, p.186; as-Suyuti: ad-Durru 'lmanthur, vol.2, pp. 293–4; ar-Razi: at-Tafsiru 'l Kabir, vol.12, p.26: az-Zamakhshari: at-Tafsir al-Kashshaf, vol.1, p.469; al-Jassas:Ahkamu 'l-Quran, vol.2, pp. 542–3; al-khazin: at-Tafsir, vol.2, p.68 Imamate: The vicegerency of the Holy Prophet By Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizv p24
- ^ see al-Bahrani, Ghayat al-Marum, p. 126:al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur, Vol. V, p.199; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al Musnad, Vol. I, p.331; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, al-Tafsir al-Kabir, Vol. I, p.783; Ibn Hajar, al-Sawa'iq p.85
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Fatima Zehra (sa) said: "May Allah (SWT) reward you with the best of goodness. Cousin, firstly I ask you to marry anybody you like after my death, but you must marry my niece Umamah; surely she will be to my children as I was. Besides, men cannot do without women. She loves my children and Hussain is very much attached to her. Let Fizza remain with you even after her marriage, if she so desires, she was more than a mere servant to me. I loved her like my daughter." Fatima Zehra (sa) then added: "I ask you not to let anyone who did injustice to me to witness my funeral, for they certainly are enemies of mine, and the enemy of Messenger of Allah, Muhammad (saw). Also don't give them the chance to pray over me, nor to any of their followers. I want you to wash me at night, put the shroud on me, perform the prayer upon my body, and bury me at night when eyes are rested and sight is put to sleep. And after my burial, sit beside my grave and recite Noble Qur'an for me."
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ali was born in kaaba.
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- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381
- ^ Singh 2003, p. 175.
- ^ Quran 33:33.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 14 and 15.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381
- ^ Quran 3:59.
- ^ a b Quran 3:61.
- ^ See:
- Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of virtues of Ali, 1980 Edition Pub. in Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1871, the end of tradition No. 32
- Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654
- Madelung 1997, p. 15 and 16.
- ^ Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, v.6, Al Imran, verses 61–63". almizan.org. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
- ^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 30–32.
- ^ a b c d e Shahin, Badr (2015). Al-Abbas. CA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-5193-0811-5.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381
- ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 136–137.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381
- ^ See:
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- Zeitlin 2007, p. 134
- ^ Gaon 1988, p. 125
- ^ Dakake 2008, pp. 34–39.
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri, Laura (April 24, 2012). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. Archived from the original on March 31, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
- ^ See:
- Dakake 2008, pp. 34–37
- Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ See also:
- Dakake 2008, pp. 43–48
- Tabatabaei 1979, p. 40.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 253
- ^ Dakake 2008, pp. 33–35.
- ^ "A Shi'ite Encyclopedia". Al-Islam.org. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. 12 November 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
- ^ Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Volume 4. p. 281.
- ^ al-Razi, Fakhr. Tafsir al-Kabir, Volume 12. pp. 49–50.
- ^ Alexander Wain, Mohammad Hashim Kamali, The Architects of Islamic Civilisation (2017), p. 12
- ^ Suhufi (2003). Stories from the Qur'an. Islamic Seminary Publications. p. 312.
- ^ See:
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 57
- Madelung 1997, pp. 26–27, 30–43 and 356–360
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 381-382
- ^ See:
- Madelung 1997, p. 141 and 270
- Ashraf 2005, p. 99 and 100
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 141
- ^ Chirri 1982
- ^ Lewinstein 2001, p. 326
- ^ Madelung 1986
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- ^ Vaglieri 1960
- ^ Miskinzoda, Gurdofarid (2014). Farhad Daftary (ed.). The Story of Pen & Paper and its interpretation in Muslim Literary and Historical Tradition. The Study of Shi‘i Islam: History, Theology and Law. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-529-4.
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- ^ Khetia 2013, p. 32.
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- ^ Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014, p. 22.
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- Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in San'a
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- ^ See:
- Madelung 1997, p. 50 and 51
- Qazwini & Ordoni 1992, p. 211
- [Quran 27:16]
- [Quran 21:89]
- Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:325
- Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:546
- Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:60
- Sahih Muslim, 19:4352
- ^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 107–110
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 62-64
- ^ See:
- Madelung 1997, pp. 70–72
- Dakake 2008, p. 41
- Momen 1985, p. 21
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 68
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 110
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 110
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 110
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 119
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ See:
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 67 and 68
- Madelung 1997, p. 107 and 111
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 334
- ^ See:
- Lapidus 2002, p. 47
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
- Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 50–53
- ^ See:
- Lapidus 2002, p. 47
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 72
- Tabatabaei 1979, p. 57
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 141
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 142-143
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 145
- ^ Levi Della Vida 2000
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 141
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383
- ^ Madelung, Wilferd (1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. p. 87.
- ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 561–562.
- ^ "Full text of "Address delivered at the dedication of the hall of the Boston medical library association, on December III, MDCCCLXXVIII"". Internet Archive. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
Ali had been advised by several of his councillors to defer the dismissal of the corrupt governors appointed by the late Cahph until he himself was secure against all enemies." The Bayard of Islam, the hero, without fear and without reproach," ^ refused to be guilty of any duplicity or compromise with injustice.
- ^ Dungersi, Mohamed Raza (1994). A Brief Biography of Imam Ali (a.s.). Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania. p. 55.
- ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 148 and 149
- ^ a b Ashraf 2005, p. 121
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ See:
- Lapidus 2002, p. 46
- Madelung 1997, p. 150 and 264
- ^ "Politics in two Schools". Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- ^ "Hazrat Ali (A.S.): His Poor Subjects and Pro-Poor Government || Imam Reza (A.S.) Network". www.imamreza.net. Archived from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- ^ Shaban 1971, p. 72
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 63
- ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 81
- ^ United Nations Development Program, Arab human development report, (2002), p. 107
- ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 75
- ^ Lambton 1991, p. xix and xx
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383
- ^ Nahj al Balagha Sermon 72 Archived 7 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Meri, Josef W. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0.
- ^ See:
- Madelung 1997, p. 147 and 148
- Lewis 1991, p. 214
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.47
- Holt (1977a), p. 70–72
- Tabatabaei (1979), p. 50–53
- Nahj Al-Balagha Sermons 8, 31, 171, 173, Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lewis 1991, p. 214
- ^ a b ibn al-Ḥusayn Sharīf al-Radi, Muhammad (1981). Nahj al-Balagha: Sermons, letters, and sayings of Hazrat Ali. NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qurʼan; 2nd edition. pp. Sermon 75. ISBN 978-0-940368-00-2.
- ^ "'Abd Allah ibn al-'Abbas". Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A-Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. pp. 16. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
- ^ a b See:
- Lapidus 2002, p. 47
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
- Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (22 July 2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. p. 836. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
- ^ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 383-384
- ^ a b c A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 59
- ^ Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites. Peter Lang. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.
- ^ a b Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites. Peter Lang. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 384
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (22 July 2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. p. 836. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
- ^ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 238
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ a b A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 60
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes] A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 836. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
- ^ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
- ^ See:
- Madelung 1997, pp. 241–259
- Lapidus 2002, p. 47
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
- Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 384
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 257-258
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 384
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 259
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 259
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 259-261
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 384
- ^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 By H. U. Rahman
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ a b c A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 By H. U. Rahman Page 62
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 267–269 and 293–307
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 309
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri, Laura. "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.". Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046.
- ^ a b Tabatabaei 1979, p. 192
- ^ Kelsay 1993, p. 92
- ^ Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid 1986
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ Redha 1999
- ^ a b c d Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). "'Ali ibn Abu Talib". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7., Pages 36 and 37
- ^ "Silk Road Seattle – Balkh". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
- ^ Trust, p. 695
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- ^ "Yearly Islamic Hijri Calendar 2020". IslamicFinder. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
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- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 313 and 314
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 319–325
- Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 74–76
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 309-310
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ Stearns & Langer 2001, p. 1178
- ^ "Hasan ibn Ali". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
- ^ Tabatabaei 1979, p. 194
- ^ Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 196–201
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- ^ Corbin 1993, p. 46
- ^ Nasr 2006, p. 120
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- ^ Corbin 1993, p. 35
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ "حفظت سبعين خطبة من خطب الاصلع ففاضت ثم فاضت ) ويعني بالاصلع أمير المؤمنين عليا عليه السلام " مقدمة في مصادر نهج البلاغة Archived 17 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Sources of Nahj Al-Balagha". Archived from the original on 23 November 2012.
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- ^ Gleave 2008
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- ^ Gleave 2008
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- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
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'Ali, deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, ready to fight against overwhelming odds.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ Madelung, Wilferd (1998). The Succession to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. p. 149.
'Ali, deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, ready to fight against overwhelming odds.
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 385
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 386
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 309-310
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
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- ^ a b c Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Quran: an Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis e-Library. pp. 28–31. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 150–151
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- ^ Momen 1985, p. 152
- ^ a b c Hamid, Mavani (2013). Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism. New York and London: Routledge. pp. 68–73. ISBN 978-0-415-62440-4.
- ^ Ibn Kathir. Al-Bidāya wa-n-nihāya. 5. Dar al-kotob al-Elmie. p. 245.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari. 13. Dar al-fekr Publication. p. 27.
- ^ Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of the virtues of the Ahlul-Bayt of the Prophet, 1980 Edition Pub. in Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1883, Tradition No. 61
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- ^ "ĀL-E ʿABĀ". Archived from the original on 18 October 2014.
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- ^ Momen 1985, p. 16
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Gleave, Robert (2004). "Imamate". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 174 preface
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Quran". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Vaglieri 1960, p. 382
- ^ Layard, Austen Henry, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, Page 216
- ^ a b See:
- Peters 2003, pp. 320–321
- Halm 2004, pp. 154–159
- ^ Me'ir Mikha'el Bar-Asher; Gauke de Kootstra; Arieh Kofsky (2002). The Nuṣayr−i-ʻalaw−i Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. BRILL. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-12552-0.
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ Gleave 2008
- ^ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ali, The Father of Sufism". Alim.org. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. xi, 19 and 20
- ^ Lawson 2005, p. 59
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 28 and 34
- ^ "A Glance at Historiography in Shiite Culture". Al-Islam.org.
Bibliografía
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- Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8.
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(help) - Vaglieri, L. Veccia (1960). "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 381–386. OCLC 495469456.
- Watt, Montgomery William (1986). "Abū Bakr". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. E. J. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214.
- Madelung, Wilferd (1986). "S̲h̲īʿa". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. E. J. Brill.
- Levi Della Vida, Giorgio; Khoury, R.G. (2000). "ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. 10. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 946–49. ISBN 90-04-11211-1. Cite has empty unknown parameter:
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- Journal
- Lewinstein, Keith (2001). "The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 121. American Oriental Society (2): 326–27. doi:10.2307/606600.
- Newman, Andrew J. (1999). "The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung". Iranian Studies. 32. International Society for Iranian Studies (3): 403–5.
Otras lecturas
- Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1.
- Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (1986). Kitab Al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Routledge Kegan & Paul. ISBN 978-0-7103-0151-2.
- Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen Humphreys. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5. (volume XV.)
- Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-1940-0.
- Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, Michigan. Alibris. ISBN 978-0-942778-00-7.
- Corbin, Henry (1993) [1964]. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2. Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard.
- Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6.
- Gaon, Sherira (1988). The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon. Translated by Nosson Dovid Rabinowich. Jerusalem: Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press - Ahavath Torah Institute Moznaim. OCLC 923562173.
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- Halm, Heinz (2004). Shi'ism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0.
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-22-7.
- Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1970). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
- Kelen, Betty (2001). Muhammad: The Messenger of God. Taylor Production. ISBN 978-0-929093-12-3.
- Kelsay, John (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25302-8.
- Lambton, Ann K. S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-293-7.
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- Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62936-2.
- Shaban, Muḥammad ʻAbd al-Ḥayy (1971). Islamic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29131-6.
- Singh, N.K. (2003). Prophet Muhammad and His Companions. Global Vision Publishing Ho. ISBN 978-81-87746-46-1.
- Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
- Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Quran in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Zahra. ISBN 978-0-7103-0265-6.
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enlaces externos
Shia biography
- The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali Ibn Abu Talib (as) [permanent dead link] by Shaykh Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad
- Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- A Biographical Profile of Imam Ali Archived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine by Syed Muhammad Askari Jafari
- Online Biography by Witness-Pioneer
Quotes
- A Website featuring validated/referenced quotes of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- "Shadow of the Sun" published on first Shia Imam, a collection of 110 hadiths from Prophet (s) concerning the character of Ali.
Ali Banu Hashim Cadet branch of the Quraysh Born: 15 September 601 Died: 29 January 661 | ||
Sunni Islam titles | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded by Uthman ibn Affan | Caliph of Islam 4th Rashidun 656 | Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali |
Shia Islam titles | ||
Preceded by Muhammad as Final prophet | Twelver ImamZaidi ImamKaysanite ImamBatini Isma'ili Imam 632–661 | Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali as Imam |
Asās/Wāsih in Musta'li Isma'ilism 632–661 | ||
Nizari Isma'ili Imam 632–661 | Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali as Mustawda | |
Succeeded by Husayn ibn Ali as Imam | ||
Political offices | ||
Preceded by Muhammad | — TITULAR — Successor to Muhammad 632–656 | Election to Caliphate |
Preceded by Uthman ibn Affan | Rashidun Caliph 656–661 | Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali |
Tribal titles | ||
Preceded by Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib | Chief of Banu Hashim 653–661 | Succeeded by ? |