Los apellidos chinos son utilizados por los grupos étnicos chinos Han y Sinicizados en China , Taiwán , Corea , Vietnam y entre las comunidades chinas de ultramar de todo el mundo, como Singapur y Malasia . Los apellidos chinos se dan primero para los nombres escritos en chino, que es lo opuesto a la convención de nomenclatura occidental donde los apellidos van al final. Actualmente se utilizan alrededor de 2.000 apellidos chinos Han, pero la gran proporción de chinos Han utiliza sólo un número relativamente pequeño de estos apellidos; Aproximadamente la mitad de los chinos han utilizan 19 apellidos, mientras que alrededor del 87% de la población utiliza 100 apellidos. [1] [2] Un informe de 2019 da los apellidos chinos más comunes como Wang y Li , cada uno compartido por más de 100 millones de personas en China, con Zhang , Liu , Chen , Yang , Huang , Zhao , Wu yZhou compone el resto de los diez nombres chinos más comunes. [3]
En la antigua China existían dos tipos distintos de apellidos chinos, a saber, xing ( chino :姓; pinyin : xìng ) o nombres de clanes ancestrales, y shi ( chino :氏; pinyin : shì ) o nombres de linajes ramificados. Más tarde, los dos términos comenzaron a usarse indistintamente, y ahora, xing se refiere al apellido, mientras que shi puede usarse para referirse al nombre del clan o al apellido de soltera. Los dos términos también se pueden usar juntos como xingshi para apellidos o apellidos. La mayoría de los apellidos chinos ( xing ) que se utilizan actualmente eran originalmente shi . Se cree que el antiguo apellido xing es matrilineal , pero el apellido chino Han ha sido exclusivamente patrilineal durante más de dos mil años, pasando de padres a hijos. Este sistema de apellidos patrilineales es inusual en el mundo en su largo período de continuidad y profundidad de la historia escrita, y los chinos pueden ver sus apellidos como parte de su parentesco compartido e identidad china Han. [4] Las mujeres normalmente no cambian sus apellidos al casarse, excepto a veces en lugares con influencias más occidentales como Hong Kong . Tradicionalmente, los apellidos chinos han sido exógamos en el sentido de que las personas tienden a casarse con personas con apellidos diferentes. [5] [6]
Los apellidos chinos más comunes se recopilaron en la obra de la dinastía Song Cien apellidos familiares , que enumera más de 400 nombres. Las expresiones coloquiales lǎobǎixìng (老百姓; lit. "viejos cien apellidos") y bǎixìng (百姓, lit. "cien apellidos") se utilizan en chino que significa "gente común", "el pueblo", o " plebeyos ".
Historia
Los apellidos chinos tienen una historia de más de 3.000 años. La mitología china, sin embargo, se remonta a la figura legendaria Fuxi (con el apellido Feng), de quien se dice que estableció el sistema de apellidos chinos para distinguir diferentes familias y evitar el matrimonio de personas con el mismo apellido. [7] Antes del período de los Reinos Combatientes (siglo V aC), solo las familias gobernantes y la élite aristocrática tenían apellidos. Históricamente, existía una diferencia entre los nombres de los clanes ancestrales o xing (姓) y los nombres de linajes ramificados o shi (氏). Xing puede ser el apellido más antiguo que se refiere a la tribu o clan ancestral, mientras que shi denota una rama de la tribu o clan. Por ejemplo, los antepasados de Shang tenían Zi (子) como xing , pero los descendientes se subdividieron en numerosos shi, incluidos Yin (殷), Song (宋), Kong (空), Tong (同) y otros. [1] La distinción entre los dos comenzó a difuminarse con el período de los Reinos Combatientes . Durante la dinastía Qin , el uso del nombre se estandarizó, los plebeyos comenzaron a adquirir un apellido o xing , y el shi también se convirtió en xing . [8] En la dinastía Han , las familias solo tenían xing o xing-shi . La gran mayoría de los apellidos chinos Han (ahora llamados xing o xingshi ) que sobreviven hasta los tiempos modernos tienen sus raíces en shi en lugar del antiguo xing . [1]
En el uso moderno, xing es el apellido, pero la palabra shi sobrevive como palabra para referirse al clan. El término shi puede agregarse al apellido de una persona; por ejemplo, un hombre con el apellido Zhang puede ser referido como Zhang- shi en lugar de su nombre completo. Se usa en particular para el apellido paterno de una mujer casada, por lo que en este caso shi significa apellido de soltera , que una mujer china continuaría usando después del matrimonio. [8] [9]
Xing eran apellidos de los clanes nobles . Por lo general, se componen de un radical "femenino" ( chino :女; pinyin : nǚ ) , por ejemplo, Ji (姬), Jiang (姜), Yao (姚) y Yíng (嬴). Esto se toma comúnmente como evidencia de que se originaron en sociedades matriarcales basadas en linajes maternos . El carácter de xing en sí mismo contiene un radical femenino en combinación con el carácter de "dar a luz" (生, shēng). [10] Se cree que Xing se transmitió originalmente a través de mujeres de noble cuna, mientras que los hombres nobles tienen shi . [1]
Algunos eruditos como Edwin G. Pulleyblank , sin embargo, no están convencidos de la teoría del matriarcado de los apellidos chinos debido a la falta de evidencia independiente. Se ha propuesto una hipótesis alternativa, que sugiere que el uso de radicales femeninos en xing puede haber surgido del sistema de exogamia de clan utilizado durante la dinastía Zhou (las palabras xing y shi tampoco existían en los huesos del oráculo de la dinastía Shang ). En la antigüedad, no se permitía que las personas del mismo tipo xing se casaran entre sí y una mujer casada con un clan aristocrático debía tener un nombre diferente. [11] Basado en la observación de la evolución de los personajes en las escrituras oraculares desde la dinastía Shang hasta el Zhou : el radical 女 parece aparecer durante el período Zhou junto a los sinogramas Shang que indican un grupo étnico o una tribu. Esta combinación parece designar específicamente a una mujer y podría significar "dama de tal o cual clan". La estructura del sinograma xing podría reflejar el hecho de que en la corte real de Zhou, al menos al principio, solo las mujeres (esposas casadas con miembros de la familia Zhou de otros clanes) eran llamadas por el nombre de su clan de nacimiento, mientras que los hombres generalmente eran designado por su título o feudo.
Si bien a las personas del mismo xing no se les permitía casarse entre sí, las personas con el mismo shi sí pueden. En la dinastía Han, cuando todos tenían xing y el apellido se transmitía paternalmente, la práctica continuó, pero había cambiado y el matrimonio entre familias de hombres estaba prohibido por el lado paterno, pero no por el lado materno. [1]
Shi
Antes de la dinastía Qin (siglo III a. C.), China era en gran parte una sociedad fengjian (feudal). Como los feudos se dividieron y subdividieron entre descendientes, se crearon sub-apellidos adicionales conocidos como shi para distinguir entre linajes nobles según la antigüedad, aunque en teoría compartían el mismo antepasado. De esta manera, un noble tendría un shi y un xing . Xing , sin embargo, era más importante que shi .
La diferencia entre xing y shi se volvió borrosa en el período de primavera y otoño comenzando con las mujeres. Por ejemplo: Chunqiu se refería a la consorte del duque Xuan de Lu , Lady Mujiang (穆 姜), que llevaba el nombre del clan (姓, xing ) Jiang, como Jiangshi姜氏, "[dama de] Jiang shi " (!). [11]
Después de que los estados de China fueron unificados por Qin Shi Huang en 221 a. C., los apellidos se extendieron gradualmente a las clases bajas. La mayoría de los apellidos que sobreviven hasta nuestros días eran originalmente shi .
Orígenes de los apellidos chinos
Según el capítulo sobre apellidos en el trabajo de la dinastía Han Fengsu Tong - Xingshi Pian (風俗 通 姓氏 篇), hay 9 orígenes de los apellidos chinos: nombres de dinastía, títulos póstumos, rangos de nobleza, nombres de estado, cargos oficiales, nombres de estilo, lugares de residencia, ocupaciones y eventos. [1] Los eruditos modernos como Kiang Kang-Hu propusieron que hay 18 fuentes de las que pueden derivarse los apellidos chinos, [12] mientras que otros sugirieron al menos 24. [13] Estos pueden ser nombres asociados con una dinastía gobernante como la varios títulos y nombres de gobernantes, nobleza y dinastía, o pueden ser nombres de lugares de varios territorios, distritos, pueblos, aldeas y ubicaciones específicas, el título de puestos u ocupaciones oficiales, o nombres de objetos, o pueden derivarse de los nombres de miembros de la familia o clanes y, en algunos casos, nombres de desprecio dados por un gobernante. [14]
Las siguientes son algunas de las fuentes comunes:
- Xing : Estos generalmente se reservaban para el linaje central de la antigua familia real, con linajes colaterales que tomaban su propio shi . La descripción tradicional era lo que se conocía como el "ocho grandes Xing s de gran antigüedad" (上古八大姓), a saber Jiāng (姜), JI (姬), Yao (姚), Ying (嬴), Sì (姒), Yún (妘), Guī (媯) y Rèn (妊), aunque algunas fuentes citan a Jí (姞) como el último en lugar de Rèn. De estos xing , solo Jiang y Yao han sobrevivido en su forma original hasta los días modernos como apellidos frecuentes. [ ¿por qué? ]
- Real decreto del Emperador , como Kuang (鄺). [ se necesita más explicación ]
- Nombre del estado : muchos nobles y plebeyos tomaron el nombre de su estado, ya sea para mostrar su lealtad continua o como una cuestión de identidad nacional y étnica. Estos son algunos de los apellidos chinos más comunes en la actualidad, como Wú (吳, noveno más común), Zhōu (周, décimo más común)
- Nombre de un feudo o lugar de origen : los feudos a menudo se otorgaban a ramas colaterales de la aristocracia y era natural como parte del proceso de subnombre que se usaran sus nombres. Un ejemplo es Di, marqués de la aldea de Ouyang, cuyos descendientes tomaron el apellido Ouyang (歐陽). Hay unos doscientos ejemplos identificados de esto, a menudo de apellidos de dos caracteres, pero pocos han sobrevivido hasta el presente. Algunas familias adquirieron su apellido durante la dinastía Han de la Comandancia en la que residían. [15]
- Nombres de un antepasado : como en el ejemplo anterior, este también era un origen común con cerca de 500 o 600 ejemplos, 200 de los cuales son apellidos de dos caracteres. A menudo se usaba el nombre de cortesía de un antepasado . Por ejemplo, Yuan Taotu tomó el segundo carácter del nombre de cortesía de su abuelo Boyuan (伯爰) como apellido. A veces, los títulos otorgados a los antepasados también pueden tomarse como apellidos.
- Antigüedad dentro de la familia : En el uso antiguo, los caracteres de meng (孟) (destinado al hijo o niño nacido de la esposa / -ves secundarias y las concubinas, mientras que bo 伯, con la misma noción, se retuvo para el hijo o hijo nacido de la esposa principal), zhong (仲), shu (叔) y ji (季) se usaron para denotar al primer, segundo, tercer y cuarto (o último) hijo mayor de una familia. A veces se adoptaron como apellidos. De estos, Meng es el más conocido, siendo el apellido del filósofo Mencius .
- Ocupación
- De puestos oficiales, como Shǐ (史, "historiador"), Jí (籍, "bibliotecario real"), Líng (凌, "maestro de hielo"), Cāng (倉, "administrador del granero"), Kù (庫, " gerente de tienda "), Jiàn (諫," asesor "), Shàngguān (上官," alto funcionario "), Tàishǐ (太史," gran historiador "), Zhōngháng (中行," comandante de la columna central "), Yuèzhèng (樂 正"jefe de los músicos"), y en el caso de Shang 's 'cinco funcionarios'(五官), a saber Sīmǎ (司馬, 'ministro de caballos', similar a ministro de defensa ), situ (司徒, ' ministro de las masas ' , similar al tesorero), Sīkōng (司空, "ministro de obras", similar al ministro de infraestructura), Sīshì (司 士, "ministro de yeomen ", similar al defensor del pueblo en jefe ) y Sīkòu (司寇, "ministro de bandidos", similar al fiscal general );
- From more lowly occupations, as with Táo (陶, "potter"), Tú (屠, "butcher"), Bǔ (卜, "diviner"), Jiàng (匠, "craftsman"), Wū (巫, "shaman") and Chú (廚, "cook").
- Titles of nobility, such as Wáng (王, "king"), Hóu (侯, "marquis"), Xiàhóu (夏侯, "Marquis of Xia") and Gōngsūn (公孫, "Duke's grandchild")
- Ethnic and religious groups: Non-Han Chinese peoples in China sometimes took the name of their ethnic groups as sinicized surnames, such as Hú (胡, "barbarian"), Jīn (金, "Jurchen"), Mǎn (滿, "Manchu"), Dí (狄, "Di people"), Huí (回, "Hui people") and Mùróng (慕容, a Xianbei tribe). Many Hui Muslims adopted the surname Ma (馬), an old Chinese surname, when they were required to use Chinese surnames during the Ming dynasty as it sounded close to the first syllable of Mohammad; it was also fitting for some of those who were caravaneers as the word means "horse".[16]
Many also changed their surnames throughout history for a number of reasons.
- A ruler may bestow his own surname on those he considered to have given outstanding service to him; for example, the surname Liu (劉) was granted by emperors in the Han dynasty, Li (李) during the Tang dynasty, and Zhao (趙) from the Song dynasty.
- Others, however, may avoid using the name of a ruler, for example Shi (師) was changed to Shuai (帥) to avoid conflict with the name of Sima Shi. Others may modify their name in order to escape from their enemies at times of turmoil, for example Duanmu (端木) to Mu (木 and 沐), and Gong (共) to Gong (龔).
- The name may also be changed by simplification of the writing, e.g. Mu (幕) to Mo (莫), or reducing from double or multiple character names to single character names, e.g. Duangan (段干) to Duan (段).
- It may also have occurred through error, or changed due to a dissatisfaction with the name (e.g. 哀, "sorrow", to 衷, "heartfelt feeling").[17]
Uso
Chinese surnames or family names are written before the first name or given name.[18] Therefore, someone named Wei (伟) from the Zhang (张) family is called "Zhang Wei" (张伟) and not "Wei Zhang". Chinese women generally retain their maiden name and use their name unchanged after marriage, but in modern times in some communities, some women may choose to attach their husband's surname to the front.[19] Chinese surname is patrilinear where the father's surname is passed on to his children, but more recently some people have opted to use both parents' surnames; although this practice has increased in recent times, it is still relatively uncommon in China, with those who adopted both parents' surnames numbering at only 1.1 million in 2018 (up from 118,000 in 1990).[3]
Some Chinese outside of mainland China, particularly those from the Chinese immigrant communities around the world and those who have acquired a Christian or Western first name, have adopted the Western convention when giving their name in English, placing their surname last. Examples of those commonly known in the West include Jackie Chan (Chinese name Chan Kong-sang), Jimmy Choo (Chinese name Choo Yeang Keat), and Yo-Yo Ma. Those with a Western first name can write their name in English in various ways – some may add the Western first name in front and the Chinese given name last (the surname is therefore in the middle), or fully Westernised with both the Western and Chinese given names before the Chinese surname.[19] Examples include Carrie Lam, originally named Cheng Yuet-ngor (Cheng is the surname), but who has acquired her husband's surname Lam and a Western first name as Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor.
Due to the different spelling conventions and dialects as well as the different spelling preferences in the various countries these Chinese find themselves in, many people of the same Chinese surname can appear differently when written in English, for example the Lin surname (林) may also appear as Lam (Cantonese) or Lim (Hokkien). Some Chinese surnames that appear to be the same written in English may also be different in Chinese due to different characters having the same or similar pronunciations, dialectal differences, or non-standard romanisations (see section on variation in romanization below).[20][21]
Distribución de apellidos
Regions with high concentration of particular surnames | |
---|---|
Region | Surnames |
Liaoning | Zhang (张/張), Jiang (江) |
Guangdong | Liang/Leung (梁), Luo (罗/羅), Kuang (邝/鄺), Chan/Chen (陈/陳), Huang/Wong (黄/黃) |
Guangxi | Liang (梁), Lu (陆/陸), Zhang/Chong (章), Huang (黄/黃) |
Fujian | Zheng (郑/鄭), Lin (林), Huang (黄/黃), Xǔ (许/許), Xie (谢/謝), |
Anhui | Wang (汪) |
Jiangsu | Xú (徐), Zhu (朱) |
Shanghai | Wang (王), Yang (杨/楊) |
Zhejiang | Mao (毛), Shen (沈) |
Jiangxi | Hu (胡) |
Hubei | Hu (胡) |
Hunan | Tan/Tom (谭/譚), Huang (黄/黃) |
Sichuan | He (何), Deng (邓/鄧) |
Guizhou | Wu (吴/吳) |
Yunnan | Yang (杨/楊) |
Henan | Cheng (程) |
Gansu | Gao (高) |
Ningxia | Wan (万/萬) |
Shaanxi | Xue (薛) |
Qinghai | Bao (鲍/鮑) |
Xinjiang | Ma (马/馬) |
Shandong | Kong (孔) |
Shanxi | Dong (董) and Guo (郭) |
Inner Mongolia | Pan (潘) |
Manchuria | Yu (于) |
Surnames are not evenly distributed throughout China's geography. In northern China, Wáng (王) is the most common surname, being shared by 9.9% of the population. Next are Lǐ (李), Zhāng (张/張) and Liú (刘/劉). In the south, Chén (陈/陳) is the most common, being shared by 10.6% of the population. Next are Lǐ (李), Huáng (黄/黃), Lín (林) and Zhāng (张/張). Around the major crossing points of the Yangzi River, the most common surname is Lĭ (李), taking up 7.7%, followed by Wáng (王), Zhāng (张/張), Chan/Chén (陈/陳) and Liú (刘/劉).
A 1987 study showed over 450 family names in common use in Beijing, but there were fewer than 300 family names in Fujian.[citation needed] Furthermore, a 2012 study found that there was the lowest amount of isonymy in surnames among the population around middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River both on the provincial and county levels.[22] Additionally, it was found that counties with the highest values of isonymy were distributed in the provinces with high proportions of ethnic minorities. According to the dendrogram of surname distances, several clusters could be identified. Most provinces in a cluster were conterminous with one another. The one exception to this pattern could be explained by demic migration observed where the Han Chinese migrated to Northeastern China.
A study by geneticist Yuan Yida has found that of all the people with a particular surname, there tends to be a population concentration in a certain province,[citation needed] as tabulated to the right. It does not show, however, the most common surnames in any one province.
The 55th most common family name "Xiào" (肖) appears to be very rare in Hong Kong. This is explained by the fact Hong Kong uses Traditional Chinese characters rather than Simplified Chinese characters. Originally, the surname 蕭 (Xiāo) was rather common while the surname 肖 (Xiào) was extremely rare, if not non-existent (it is mentioned only sporadically in historical texts). The first round of simplification in 1956 simplified 蕭 into 萧, keeping 蕭/萧 and 肖 distinct. However the second-round in 1977, which has long been abolished, merged 萧 and 肖 into 肖. Despite the retraction of the second round, some people have kept 肖 as their surname, so that there are now two separate surnames, 萧 and 肖.[citation needed]
Chén (陈/陳) is perhaps the most common surname in Hong Kong and Macau, where it is romanized as Chan. It is the most common Chinese surname in Singapore, where it is usually romanized as Tan, and is also common in Taiwan, where it is romanized as Chén.
Fāng (方), which is only the 47th most common overall, is much more common in San Francisco's Chinatown in the United States, although the surname is more often than not romanized as Fong, as based on the Yue dialect. As with the concentration of family names, this can also be explained statistically, as a person with an uncommon name moving to an unsettled area and leaving his family name to large number of descendants.[citation needed]
After the Song Dynasty, surname distributions in China largely settled down.[citation needed] The Kuàng (邝/鄺) family, for example, migrated from the northern capital and settled in Guangdong after the Song Dynasty revolts.[citation needed] Villages are often made up of a single patrilineage with individuals having the same surname, often with a common male ancestor. They usually intermarry with others from nearby villages, creating genetic clusters.
Apellidos en la actualidad
Of the thousands of surnames which have been identified from historical texts prior to the modern era, most have either been lost (see extinction of family names) or simplified. Historically there are close to 12,000 surnames recorded including those from non-Han Chinese ethnic groups, of which only about 3,100 are in current use,[23] a factor of almost 4:1 (about 75%) reduction. A 2019 figure however put the total number of Chinese family names at 6,150.[3] Of Han Chinese surnames, the largest number ever recorded was 6,363 (3,730 single-character surnames, 2,633 multiple-character surnames), around 2,000 of which are still in use.[1] Chinese Surname extinction is due to various factors, such as people taking the names of their rulers, orthographic simplifications, taboos against using characters from an emperor's name, and others. A recent example of near surname extinction is the rare surname Shan (𢒉).[24] The character may not be displayed on computer systems used by government officials, and people born after the system change as well as people who want to avoid possible problems changed their name to another character such as Xian (冼). The name is still used the older people but some people from the village are concerned that future generations will forget their name origin.[24]
While new names have arisen for various reasons, this has been outweighed by old names disappearing. The most significant factor affecting the surname frequency is other ethnic groups identifying as Han and adopting Han names.[25] In recent centuries some two-character surnames have often dropped a character. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, moreover, some surnames have been graphically simplified.
Although there are thousands of Chinese family names, the 100 most common, which together make up less than 5% of those in existence, are shared by 85% of the population. The three most common surnames in Mainland China are Li, Wang and Zhang, which make up 7.9%, 7.4% and 7.1% respectively. Together they number close to 300 million and are easily the most common surnames in the world. In Chinese, the phrase "third son of Zhang, fourth son of Li" (Chinese: 张三李四; pinyin: zhāng sān lǐ sì) is used to say "just anybody".
In a 1990 study, the top 200 family names accounted for over 96% of a random sample of 174,900 persons, with over 500 other names accounting for the remaining 4%. In a different study (1987), which combined data from Taiwan and China (sample size of 570,000 persons), the top 19 names covered 55.6%,[26] and the top 100 names covered 87% of the sample. Other data suggest that the top 50 names comprise 70% of the population.[27]
Most commonly occurring Chinese family names have only one character; however, about twenty double-character family names have survived into modern times. These include Sima (司 馬, simp. 司 马), Zhuge (諸 葛, simp. 诸 葛), Ouyang (歐 陽, simp. 欧 阳), occasionally romanized as O'Young, suggesting an Irish origin to English-speakers, and Situ (or Sito 司 徒). Sima, Zhuge, and Ouyang also happen to be the surnames of four extremely famous premodern Chinese historical figures. There are family names with three or more characters, but those are not ethnically Han Chinese. For example, Aixinjueluo (愛新覺羅, also romanized from the Manchu language as Aisin Gioro), was the family name of the Manchu royal family of the Qing dynasty.
Variations in romanization
Transliteration of Chinese family names (see List of common Chinese surnames) into foreign languages poses a number of problems. Chinese surnames are shared by people speaking a number of dialects and languages which often have different pronunciations of their surnames. The spread of the Chinese diaspora into all parts of the world resulted in the Romanization of the surnames based on different languages. Countries that have adopted the system of Chinese surnames such as Vietnam and Korea also spell them according to their own pronunciations. As a result, it is common for the same surname to be transliterated differently. For example, the Chen (陳) surname can appear as Chan (Cantonese, e.g. Jackie Chan), Tan (Hokkien), Tang (Teochew), Chin (Hakka), Trần (Vietnamese) and others; the Li (李) surname may appear as Lee (an example is Lee Kuan Yew), the Zhou (周) surname can appear as Chou, Chew, Jew and many others (e.g. Wakin Chau and Jimmy Choo); while the Zheng surname (鄭/郑) can be romanized into Chang, Cheng, Chung, Teh, Tay, Tee, Tsang, Zeng or Zheng (note that in pinyin, Chang, Cheng, Zheng and Zeng are all different names). In certain dialects, different surnames could be homonyms so it is common for family names to appear ambiguous when transliterated. Translating Chinese surnames from foreign transliteration often presents ambiguity. For example, the surname "Li" are all Mandarin-based pinyin transliteration for the surnames Lí (黎); Lí (李, 理 and 里); and Lì (郦/酈, 栗, 厉/厲, and 利) depending on the tone which are often omitted in foreign transliterations.[21]
Due to the different pronunciation and romanizations, it is sometimes easy to tell whether a Chinese person has origins in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, or Taiwan. In general people who are of Mainland descent will have both their surnames and names in pinyin. Those who are Taiwanese descent use Wade-Giles romanization. People from Southeast Asia (mainly Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines) and Hong Kong usually base their romanization of surnames and names on the Min, Hakka and Cantonese languages. The younger generation from Singapore often have their surname in dialect and given name in English.
There are also people who use non-standard romanizations, e.g. the Hong Kong media mogul 邵逸夫 Run Run Shaw's surname 邵 is spelt as Shaw (Shao in pinyin).
The use of different systems of romanization based on different Chinese language variants from 1900~1970 also contributed to the variations.
Some examples:
Written form | Pinyin (Mainland China) | Wade-Giles (Taiwan) | Hokkien / Teochew (Indonesia/Malaysia/Singapore) | Cantonese (Hong Kong/Macau) | Current meaning (the original meanings of the surnames may differ greatly) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
陈 / 陳 | Chen | Ch'en | Tan/Tang/Tung/Chin/Tjhin | Chan | State of Chen |
关 / 關 | Guan | Kuan | Kwang/Kuang | Kwan | gate, gateway, mountain pass; to close; to shut; to turn off; to concern; to involve |
何 | He | Ho | Ho/Hoe | Ho | carry; what; how; why; which |
黄 / 黃 | Huang | Huang | Uy/Ooi/Oei/Wee/Ng/Wong/Bong | Wong | State of Huang |
简 / 簡 | Jian | Chien | Kan/Kean | Kan/Gan | simple |
金 | Jin | Chin | Kim | Kam | gold/golden |
林 | Lin | Lin | Lim/Liem | Lam | woods; forest |
王 | Wang | Wang | Ong/Heng/Vang | Wong | king |
吴 / 吳 | Wu | Wu | Goh | Ng | State of Wu |
许 / 許 | Xu | Hsü | Koh/Kho/Khoh/Khor/Khaw/Ko(Malaysia)/Hee | Hui/Hua | State of Xu |
张 / 張 | Zhang | Chang | Teo/Chong/Tear | Cheung/Cheong | a measure word for flat objects like paper or tables; open up |
赵 / 趙 | Zhao | Chao | Chew/Teo | Chiu/Chiew | State of Zhao[28] |
Malaysia/Singapore/Indonesia/Philippines: various spellings are used depending on name origin.
See List of common Chinese surnames for the different spellings and more examples.
Uso sociológico de los apellidos
Throughout most of Chinese history, surnames have served sociological functions. Because of their association with the aristocratic elite in their early developments, surnames were often used as symbols of nobility. Thus nobles would use their surnames to be able to trace their ancestry and compete for seniority in terms of hereditary rank. Examples of early genealogies among the royalty can be found in Sima Qian's Historical Records, which contain tables recording the descent lines of noble houses called shibiao (Chinese: 世表; pinyin: shìbiǎo).
Later, during the Han dynasty, these tables were used by prominent families to glorify themselves and sometimes even to legitimize their political power. For example, Cao Pi, who forced the abdication of the last Han emperor in his favor, claimed descent from the Yellow Emperor. Chinese emperors sometimes passed their own surnames to subjects as honors. Unlike European practice in which some surnames are obviously noble, Chinese emperors and members of the royal family had regular surnames except in cases where they came from non-Han ethnic groups. This was a result of Chinese imperial theory in which a commoner could receive the Mandate of Heaven and become emperor. Upon becoming emperor, the emperor would retain his original surname. Also as a consequence, many people also had the same surname as the emperor, but had no direct relation to the royal family.
The Tang dynasty was the last period when the great aristocratic families, mostly descended from the nobility of pre-Qin states, held significant centralized and regional power. The surname was used as a source of prestige and common allegiance. During the period many genealogical records called pudie (simplified Chinese: 谱牒; traditional Chinese: 譜牒; pinyin: pǔdié) were compiled to trace the complex descent lines of families or clans and their marriage ties to other families or clans. Many of these were collected by Ouyang Xiu in his New History of Tang. To differentiate between different surnames, the Tang also choronyms before stating beforehand, for example Lǒngxī Lǐshì 隴西李氏, meaning Li of Longxi. These were generally the names of commanderies used prior to the reorganization during the Tang, so that they became exclusively associated to clans as their common use had died out. Cadet branches were also listed for further differentiation, such as Gūzāng Fáng 姑臧房, meaning Clan Li of Guzang.
During the Song dynasty, ordinary clans began to organize themselves into corporate units and produce genealogies. This trend was led by the poet Su Shi and his father. As competition for resources and positions in the bureaucracy intensified, individuals used their common ancestry and surname to promote solidarity. They established schools to educate their sons and held common lands to aid disadvantaged families. Ancestral temples were also erected to promote surname identity. Clan cohesion was usually encouraged by successive imperial governments since it aided in social stability. During the Qing dynasty surname associations often undertook extrajudicial roles, providing primitive legal and social security functions. They played important roles in the Chinese diaspora to South-East Asia and elsewhere, providing the infrastructure for the establishment of trading networks. In southern China, however, clans sometimes engaged in armed conflict in competition for land. Clans continued the tradition of tracing their ancestry to the distant past as a matter of prestige. Most of these origin myths, though well established, are spurious.
As a result of the importance of surnames, rules and traditions regarding family and marriage grew increasingly complex. For example, in Taiwan, there is a clan with the so-called "double Liao" surname. The story is that "Chang Yuan-zih of Liao's in Siluo married the only daughter of Liao San-Jiou-Lang who had no son, and he took the oath that he should be in the name of Liao when alive and should be in the name of Chang after death."[29] In some places, there are additional taboos against marriage between people of the same surname, considered to be closely related. Conversely, in some areas, there are different clans with the same surname which are not considered to be related, but even in these cases surname exogamy is generally practiced.
Surname identity and solidarity has declined markedly since the 1930s with the decline of Confucianism and later, the rise of Communism in Mainland China. During the Cultural Revolution, surname culture was actively persecuted by the government with the destruction of ancestral temples and genealogies. Moreover, the influx of Western culture and forces of globalization have also contributed to erode the previous sociological uses of the Chinese surnames.
Apellidos chinos comunes
Mainland China
According to a comprehensive survey of residential permits released by the Chinese Ministry of Public Security on 24 April 2007,[30][31] the ten most common surnames in mainland China are Wang (王), Li (李), Zhang (张), Liu (刘), Chen (陈), Yang (杨), Huang (黄), Zhao (赵), Wu (吴), and Zhou (周). The same names were also found (in slightly different orders) by a fairly comprehensive survey of 296 million people in 2006,[32] and by the 1982 census.[33][34] The top 100 surnames cover 84.77% of China's population.[31] The top 10 surnames each have populations greater than 20 million. The MPS survey revealed that the top 3 surnames in China have a combined population larger than Indonesia,[35] the world's fourth-most-populous country.
The 2019 report by Chinese Ministry of Public Security gives the surnames Wang and Li as the most common ones, with each shared by over 100 million people in China. Each of the most common 23 surnames in China has more than 10 million users.[3]
A commonly cited fact from the 1990 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records estimated that Zhang was the most common surname in the world,[36] but no comprehensive information from China was available at the time and more recent editions have omitted the claim.
Taiwan
Names in Taiwan – both among the immigrant ethnic Chinese and Aboriginal Taiwanese people – are similar to those in southeast China but differ somewhat from the distribution of names among all Han Chinese. According to a comprehensive survey of residential permits released by the Taiwanese Ministry of the Interior's Department of Population in February 2005,[37] the ten most common surnames in Taiwan are Chen (陳), Lin (林), Huang (黃), Chang (張), Li (李), Wang (王), Wu (吳), Liu (劉), Tsai (蔡), and Yang (楊).
Taiwanese surnames include some local variants like Tu (塗), which do not even appear among the Hundred Family Surnames, as well as a number of relatively recently created names like Changchien (張簡) and Chiangfan (姜范). However, names in Taiwan show less diversity than China as a whole: the top ten comprise 52.63% of the Taiwanese population and the top hundred 96.11%.[37] There were also only 1,989 surnames recorded by the Ministry's survey,[37] against China's four or five thousand.
As is typical of China as a whole, these surnames conflate many different lineages and origins, although tradition may bind them to the same ancestral temples and rituals or ban intermarriage. For example, some Taiwanese converts to Presbyterianism adopted the name Kai (偕, pinyin Xié) in honor of the Canadian missionary George Leslie Mackay (馬偕, Pe̍h-ōe-jī Má-kai).[citation needed]
Ver también
- Art name
- Chinese clan
- Chinese compound surname
- Chinese given name
- Chinese name
- Courtesy name
- Exogamy
- Generation name
- Hundred Family Surnames
- Japanese name
- Korean name
- List of common Chinese surnames
- Naming laws in the People's Republic of China
- Onomastics
- Vietnamese name
Referencias
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g Du Ruofu (杜若甫) (June 1986). "Surnames in China / 中国的姓氏". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 14 (2): 315–328. JSTOR 23767123.
- ^ Emma Woo Louie (2008). Chinese American Names: Tradition and Transition. McFarland & Co. p. 35. ISBN 978-0786438778.
- ^ a b c d Butcher, Asa (31 January 2019). "Wang is the most common surname in China". GBTimes.
- ^ Ebrey, Patricia (1996). "Surnames and Han Chinese Identity". In Melissa Brown (ed.). Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan (PDF). pp. 11–36.
- ^ Chinese Society in Singapore, The Study of Chinese Society: Essays, Maurice Freedman, George William Skinner, Stanford University Press, 1979, pp. 133
- ^ The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art, Volume 38; Volume 101, Harry Houdini Collection, John Davis Batchelder Collection, Leavitt, Trow, & Company, 1883 p. 852
- ^ Chao, Sheau-yueh J. (2009). 尋根溯源中國人的姓氏: Genealogical Research on Chinese Surnames. Clearfield. p. 3. ISBN 978-0806349466.
- ^ a b Emma Woo Louie (2008). Chinese American Names: Tradition and Transition. McFarland & Co. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0786438778.
- ^ Wee Kek Koon (18 November 2016). "The complex origins of Chinese names demystified". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Lee, Keekok (2008). Warp and Weft, Chinese Language and Culture. =Strategic Book Publishing & Rights Agency, LLC. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-1606932476.
- ^ a b Edwin G. Pulleyblank (2000). "Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity" (PDF). Early China. 25: 1–27. doi:10.1017/S0362502800004259. S2CID 162159081.
- ^ Kiang Kang-Hu (1934). On Chinese Studies. pp. 127–8.
- ^ Sheau-yueh J. Chao (2009). In Search of Your Asian Roots : Genealogical Research on Chinese Surnames. Clearfield. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-0806349466.
- ^ Russell Jones (1997). Chinese names. Pelanduk Publications. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-9679786194.
- ^ Chao, Sheau-yueh J. 尋根溯源中國人的姓氏: Genealogical Research on Chinese Surnames. p. ix.
- ^ Leif Manger (18 October 2013). Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. Routledge. p. 132. ISBN 9781136818578.
- ^ Sheau-yueh J. Chao (2009). In Search of Your Asian Roots : Genealogical Research on Chinese Surnames. Clearfield. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0806349466.
- ^ Wei, Shao (24 September 2018). "A basic guide to Chinese names". Asia Media Centre.
- ^ a b "A guide to names and naming practices" (PDF). FBIIC. March 2006. pp. 58–62.
- ^ Emma Woo Louie (2008). Chinese American Names: Tradition and Transition. McFarland & Co. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-0786438778.
- ^ a b Patrick Hanks; Richard Coates; Peter McClure, eds. (2016). The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland. OUP Oxford. pp. 470, 484, 1583, 1591, 2991. ISBN 978-0199677764.
- ^ Liu, Y.; Chen, L.; Yuan, Y.; Chen, J. (2012). "A study of surnames in China through isonymy". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 148 (3): 341–50. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22055. PMID 22460442.
- ^ (Economist 1995)
- ^ a b "电脑打不出来 山东200村民被迫改姓". Retrieved 1 September 2010.
- ^ (Du et al. 1992)
- ^ Sun Bin (19 December 2005). "Sun Bin: Chinese and Korean Family Names". Archived from the original on 2 March 2006.
- ^ "Cultural Diversity" (PDF). HM Land Registry. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2006.
- ^ "ㄓㄠˋ [zhao4] ". Humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
- ^ "Siluo Liao's Family Temple (3rd grade relic)". Yunlin County Government.
- ^ Xinhua News. 24 April 2007. "中国姓氏排行". "天下第一大姓——王." 14 November 2007. Accessed 26 March 2012.
- ^ a b "公安部统计:'王'成中国第一大姓 有9288万人." 24 April 2007. Accessed 27 March 2012.(in Chinese)
- ^ "人口数据统计". Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. It was conducted by Yuan Yida of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology. The authoritative results of this survey were previously published on the National Citizen Identity Information Center
- ^ People's Daily Online. "China issues first set of stamps of Chinese family names". 19 November 2004. Accessed 28 March 2012.
- ^ 挑灯看剑 踏雪寻梅. "新'百家姓'图腾,快来看看您的尊姓啥模样 [The New Hundred Family Surnames's Totems: Quick, Come Look at Your Honorable Surname's Picture]". 12 December 2011. Accessed 28 March 2012. (in Chinese)
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik. "Population of Indonesia by Province 1971, 1980, 1990, 1995 , 2000 and 2010 Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine". 2009. Accessed 29 March 2012.
- ^ McFarlan, Donald. 1990 Guinness Book of World Records. Sterling Pub. Co., 2001. ISBN 189205101X.
- ^ a b c 中华百家姓-千字文-国学经典-文化经典. "中国台湾姓氏排行 Archived 16 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine [China (Taiwanese) Surname Ranking]." 8 June 2010. Accessed 31 March 2012. (in Chinese)
Sources
- Du, Ruofu; Yida, Yuan; Hwang, Juliana; Mountain, Joanna L.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca (1992), Chinese Surnames and the Genetic Differences between North and South China (PDF), Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, pp. 18–22 (History of Chinese surnames and sources of data for the present research), archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2012, also part of Morrison Institute for Population and Resource Studies Working papersCS1 maint: postscript (link)
- "O rare John Smith", The Economist (US ed.): 32, 3 June 1995,
Only 3,100 surnames are now in use in China [...] compared with nearly 12,000 in the past. An 'evolutionary dwindling' of surnames is common to all societies. [...] [B]ut in China, [Du] says, where surnames have been in use far longer than in most other places, the paucity has become acute.
- Cook, Steven (6 March 1997), "China's Identity Crisis: Many People, Few Names", The Christian Science Monitor,
Why the lack of surnames, then? The reason, according to Du Ruofu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is that all societies experience an 'evolutionary dwindling' of family names as less-common ones die out. Because the Chinese have used surnames for thousands of years (compared to just a few centuries in many parts of Europe), this effect has become particularly significant.
enlaces externos
- Chinese Surnames (Simplified), with sound
- Chinese-sounding surnames in the 1990 US census
- Chinese family name information from the US National Archives
- Meaning Behind 19 Most Common Chinese Surnames
- The Ten-Thousand Families of Surnames from Netor (NETOR纪念:万家姓氏) (in simplified Chinese only)
- Top 10 Chinese Surnames in 2019