El racismo en Israel abarca todas las formas y manifestaciones de racismo experimentado en Israel , independientemente del color o credo del perpetrador y la víctima, o su ciudadanía , residencia o estado de visitante .
Más específicamente en el contexto israelí, sin embargo, el racismo en Israel se refiere al racismo dirigido contra los árabes israelíes por judíos israelíes , [1] racismo intra-judío entre las diversas divisiones étnicas judías (en particular contra los judíos etíopes ), [2] histórico y actual racismo hacia los judíos de Mizrahi , y racismo de parte de los árabes israelíes contra los judíos israelíes.
El racismo por parte de los judíos israelíes contra los árabes musulmanes en Israel existe en las políticas institucionales, las actitudes personales, los medios de comunicación, la educación, los derechos de inmigración, la vivienda, [3] la vida social y las políticas legales. También se ha descrito que algunos elementos de la población judía israelí asquenazí mantienen actitudes discriminatorias hacia otros judíos de otros orígenes, incluidos judíos etíopes , judíos indios , judíos mizrahi , judíos sefardíes , etc. Aunque los matrimonios mixtos entre asquenazíes y sefardíes / mizrahim son cada vez más comunes en Israel, y la integración social mejora constantemente, las disparidades continúan. Los judíos etíopes en particular se han enfrentado a la discriminación de los judíos no negros. Se ha sugerido que la situación de los judíos etíopes como "blancos" es similar a la de algunos inmigrantes europeos como polacos e italianos que llegaron a los Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX. [4]
Israel tiene amplias leyes contra la discriminación que prohíben la discriminación tanto por parte de entidades gubernamentales como no gubernamentales por motivos de raza, religión y creencias políticas, y prohíbe la incitación al racismo . [5] El gobierno israelí y muchos grupos dentro de Israel han realizado esfuerzos para combatir el racismo. Israel es Estado parte de la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial y es signatario de la Convención contra la Discriminación en la Educación . El presidente de Israel, Reuven Rivlin, anunció en una reunión de académicos en octubre de 2014 que finalmente es hora de que Israel cumpla su promesa como una tierra de igualdad, hora de curar la epidemia de racismo. "La sociedad israelí está enferma y es nuestro deber tratar esta enfermedad", afirmó Rivlin. [6]
Incidencia
Según Sammy Smooha , profesor de sociología en la Universidad de Haifa , la respuesta a la pregunta de si el racismo existe en Israel depende de la definición de racismo adoptada. Si se adopta el punto de vista de Pierre L. van den Berghe , de que el término racismo debe restringirse a las creencias de que una determinada raza biológica es superior, entonces se puede encontrar etnocentrismo en Israel, pero no racismo. Según otras definiciones, el racismo es la creencia de que la pertenencia a un determinado grupo, no necesariamente genético o biológico, determina las cualidades de los individuos. Según esta definición, las opiniones racistas están presentes en porciones de la población israelí. [7] Smooha agrega que algunos escritores árabes y judíos hacen acusaciones de racismo, pero usan el término de una manera muy laxa. [7]
Un informe escrito por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Israel describe a Israel como una sociedad multiétnica , multicultural , multirreligiosa y multilingüe , que tiene un alto nivel de patrones de segregación informal. El informe afirma que los grupos no están separados por la política oficial, pero que Israel tiene varios sectores diferentes dentro de la sociedad que están algo segregados y mantienen su fuerte identidad cultural, religiosa, ideológica y / o étnica. El informe sostiene que a pesar de las divisiones sociales y las disparidades económicas existentes, los sistemas políticos y los tribunales representan una estricta igualdad jurídica y cívica. El Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Israel describe al país como "no una sociedad crisol, sino más bien un mosaico formado por diferentes grupos de población que conviven en el marco de un estado democrático". [8]
Grupos sometidos al racismo
Racismo contra ciudadanos árabes por judíos israelíes
El racismo contra los ciudadanos árabes de Israel por parte del estado israelí y algunos judíos israelíes ha sido identificado por los críticos en las actitudes personales, los medios de comunicación, la educación, los derechos de inmigración, la segregación en la vivienda y la vida social. Casi todas estas caracterizaciones han sido negadas por el estado de Israel. La Comisión Or , creada para explicar los disturbios de octubre de 2000 en muchas comunidades árabes israelíes, encontró:
"El estado y las generaciones de su gobierno fracasaron debido a la falta de un manejo integral y profundo de los serios problemas creados por la existencia de una gran minoría árabe dentro del estado judío. El manejo del sector árabe por parte del gobierno ha sido principalmente negligente y discriminatorio. El establecimiento no mostró suficiente sensibilidad a las necesidades de la población árabe, y no tomó suficientes medidas para asignar los recursos estatales de manera equitativa. El estado no hizo lo suficiente ni se esforzó lo suficiente para crear igualdad para sus ciudadanos árabes o para desarraigar Fenómeno discriminatorio o injusto ". [9]
Según los informes nacionales del Departamento de Estado de EE. UU. De 2004 sobre prácticas de derechos humanos para Israel y los territorios ocupados, el gobierno israelí había hecho "poco para reducir la discriminación institucional, legal y social contra los ciudadanos árabes del país". [10] El informe del Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos de 2005 sobre Israel escribió: "[E] l gobierno en general respetó los derechos humanos de sus ciudadanos; sin embargo, había problemas en algunas áreas, incluida ... la discriminación institucional, legal y social contra los ciudadanos árabes del país ". [11] El Informe de País del Departamento de Estado de los EE. UU. De 2010 declaró que la ley israelí prohíbe la discriminación por motivos de raza y que el gobierno hizo cumplir efectivamente estas prohibiciones. [12] El ex diputado del Likud y ministro de Defensa Moshe Arens ha criticado el trato de las minorías en Israel, diciendo que no tenían la obligación total de la ciudadanía israelí, ni se les extendieron los privilegios completos de la ciudadanía. [13]
Israel es un Estado parte de la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial . Según el Informe de 1998 del Comité de la ONU para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial, se concluyó que la Convención "está lejos de ser completamente implementada en Israel y el Territorio Palestino Ocupado, y que el déficit contribuye de manera muy significativa a la peligrosa escalada de tensión en la región". . El informe tomó nota positivamente de las medidas adoptadas por Israel para prohibir las actividades de los partidos políticos racistas, la enmienda de la Ley de Igualdad de Oportunidades en el Empleo, que prohíbe la discriminación en el ámbito laboral por motivos de origen étnico nacional, país de origen, creencias, opiniones políticas. , partido político, afiliación o edad, y los esfuerzos israelíes para reducir y eventualmente erradicar la brecha económica y educativa entre la mayoría judía y la minoría árabe. [14]
Centro
La Asociación por los Derechos Civiles en Israel (ACRI) publicó informes que documentan el racismo en Israel, y el informe de 2007 sugirió que el racismo antiárabe en el país estaba aumentando. Un análisis del informe lo resumió así: "Más de dos tercios de los adolescentes israelíes creen que los árabes son menos inteligentes, incultos y violentos. Más de un tercio de los adolescentes israelíes temen a los árabes en conjunto ... El informe se vuelve aún más sombrío, citando el racismo de la ACRI". encuesta, realizada en marzo de 2007, en la que el 50% de los israelíes que participaron dijeron que no vivirían en el mismo edificio que los árabes, no se harían amigos o dejarían que sus hijos se hicieran amigos de los árabes y no dejarían que los árabes entren en sus hogares ". [15] El informe de 2008 de ACRI dice que la tendencia al aumento del racismo continúa. [16] Un ministro israelí acusó a la encuesta de parcial y poco creíble. [17] El portavoz del gobierno israelí respondió que el gobierno israelí estaba "comprometido con la lucha contra el racismo cada vez que se le levanta la cabeza y está comprometido con la plena igualdad para todos los ciudadanos israelíes, independientemente de su origen étnico, credo o origen, tal como se define en nuestra declaración de independencia". ". [17] Isi Leibler del Centro de Asuntos Públicos de Jerusalén argumenta que los judíos israelíes están preocupados por "estallidos cada vez más hostiles, incluso traidores, de los árabes israelíes contra el estado" mientras está en guerra con los países vecinos. [18]
Otro informe de 2007, del Centro contra el Racismo, también encontró que la hostilidad contra los árabes estaba en aumento. Entre sus hallazgos, informó que el 75% de los judíos israelíes no aprueba que árabes y judíos compartan edificios de apartamentos; que más de la mitad de los judíos no querrían tener un jefe árabe y que casarse con un árabe equivale a "traición nacional"; y que el 55% de la muestra pensaba que los árabes deberían mantenerse separados de los judíos en los sitios de entretenimiento. La mitad quería que el gobierno israelí animara a los árabes israelíes a emigrar. Alrededor del 40% creía que los ciudadanos árabes deberían eliminar sus derechos de voto. [19]
Una encuesta de marzo de 2010 de la Universidad de Tel Aviv encontró que el 49,5% de los estudiantes de secundaria judíos israelíes creen que los árabes israelíes no deberían tener los mismos derechos que los judíos en Israel. El 56% cree que los árabes no deberían ser elegibles para la Knesset, el parlamento israelí. [20]
Una encuesta de octubre de 2010 realizada por la agencia de encuestas Dahaf encontró que el 36% de los judíos israelíes están a favor de eliminar los derechos de voto para los no judíos. [21] En una encuesta reciente (2003-2009) entre el 42% y el 56% de los israelíes estuvieron de acuerdo en que "los árabes israelíes sufren discriminación en comparación con los ciudadanos judíos"; El 80% de los árabes israelíes estuvo de acuerdo con esa declaración en 2009 [22].
Una encuesta de 2012 reveló un amplio apoyo entre los judíos israelíes a la discriminación contra los árabes israelíes. [23]
En noviembre de 2014, después de que dos árabes de Jerusalén Este perpetraron una masacre en una sinagoga de Jerusalén utilizando hachas, cuchillos y una pistola, el alcalde de Ashkelon , Itamar Shimoni , anunció que planeaba despedir a los trabajadores de la construcción de la ciudad que eran árabes. Su acción provocó una tormenta de protestas de los políticos, así como del primer ministro y el presidente. La policía de Ashkelon dijo que ignoraría la directiva de Shimoni y "obedecería la ley". [24] Nir Barkat , alcalde de Jerusalén, dijo: "No podemos discriminar a los árabes", y añadió: "No puedo evitar pensar en dónde estábamos hace 70 años en Europa. No podemos generalizar como lo hicieron con los judíos. Aquí en Jerusalén , tenemos decenas de miles de trabajadores árabes. Debemos hacer una distinción clara ". [25] El primer ministro israelí, Benjamin Netanyahu, dijo: "No debemos discriminar a todo un público debido a una pequeña minoría que es violenta y militante". El ministro de Inteligencia, Yuval Steinitz, dijo que es "triste que las relaciones entre judíos y árabes sufran debido a algunos terroristas fanáticos yihadistas". Dijo que por un lado "se puede entender el miedo de los padres de los niños del jardín de infancia por miedo a que algún día alguien tome un cuchillo, como sucedió en la sinagoga de Jerusalén, grite 'Allah Akhbar' y comience a atacar". Por otro lado, dijo, "esto es algo que debe manejarse manteniendo las relaciones generalmente buenas entre judíos y árabes". [26] A pesar de la condena casi universal del plan de Shimoni por parte de los políticos israelíes, una encuesta del Canal 10 mostró que el 58% de los israelíes apoya la práctica discriminatoria, el 32% no la aprueba y el 10% no lo sabe. [27] Al final, el alcalde cambió de opinión. Yehiel Lasri , alcalde de la cercana Ashdod , presuntamente apuntó a los trabajadores árabes para realizar controles de seguridad adicionales. [28]
En los medios
Algunos autores, como David Hirsi y Ayala Emmet, han criticado a los medios israelíes por retratar negativamente a los árabes. [29] [30] Los medios israelíes han sido descritos como "racistas" en sus representaciones de árabes israelíes y palestinos por la Nabilia Espanioly árabe-israelí [31]
Sistema educativo
Israel es signatario de la Convención contra la Discriminación en la Educación y la ratificó en 1961. La convención tiene rango de ley en los tribunales israelíes. [32] La Ley de derechos de los alumnos israelíes de 2000 prohíbe la discriminación de los estudiantes por motivos sectarios en la admisión o expulsión de instituciones educativas, en el establecimiento de planes de estudio educativos separados o en la celebración de clases separadas en la misma institución educativa. [33]
Según un informe de 2001 de Human Rights Watch , los sistemas escolares de Israel para niños árabes y judíos están separados y tienen condiciones desiguales en desventaja para los niños árabes, que constituyen una cuarta parte de todos los estudiantes. La ley israelí no prohíbe que los padres árabes palestinos matriculen a sus hijos en escuelas judías, pero en la práctica, muy pocos padres árabes palestinos lo hacen. [32] [34] El informe declaró que "las escuelas árabes administradas por el gobierno son un mundo aparte de las escuelas judías administradas por el gobierno. En prácticamente todos los aspectos, los niños árabes palestinos reciben una educación inferior a la de los niños judíos, y su rendimiento relativamente bajo en la escuela refleja esto ". [35] [36] [37] En 1999, en un intento de cerrar la brecha entre los sectores de educación árabe y judío, el Ministro de Educación de Israel anunció una política de acción afirmativa que prometía que a los árabes se les otorgaría el 25% del presupuesto de educación, proporcionalmente más fondos que su 18% de la población, y apoyó la creación de una universidad académica árabe. [38]
Un estudio de 2009 de la Escuela de Educación de la Universidad Hebrea demostró que el presupuesto del Ministerio de Educación de Israel para asistencia especial a estudiantes de bajos niveles socioeconómicos discriminaba "severamente" a los árabes. El estudio encontró que debido a que había más estudiantes árabes necesitados, pero menos estudiantes árabes en general, los estudiantes judíos con necesidades educativas reciben entre 3,8 y 6,9 veces más fondos que los estudiantes árabes igualmente necesitados. El Ministerio de Educación dijo en respuesta al informe que ya se tomó la decisión de abandonar este método de asignación. [39] El Comité de Seguimiento para la Educación Árabe señala que el gobierno israelí gasta un promedio de $ 192 por año en cada estudiante árabe en comparación con $ 1.100 por estudiante judío. La tasa de abandono de los ciudadanos árabes de Israel es dos veces mayor que la de sus homólogos judíos (12 por ciento contra 6 por ciento). El mismo grupo también señala que hay una escasez de 5.000 aulas en el sector árabe. [40] [ verificación necesaria ]
Un informe de 2007 del Comité de la ONU para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial señaló que se mantienen sectores separados para la educación judía y árabe. Recomendó que Israel evaluara hasta qué punto el mantenimiento de sectores árabes y judíos separados "puede equivaler a segregación racial", y que se promuevan las comunidades y escuelas mixtas de árabes y judíos, y la educación intercultural. [41] En un informe de 2008, Israel respondió que los padres tienen derecho a inscribir a sus hijos en la institución educativa de su elección, ya sea que el idioma hablado sea hebreo, árabe o bilingüe. También señaló que Israel promueve una variedad de programas que promueven la cooperación, la tolerancia y la comprensión interculturales [34] [42]
En Palestina en los libros escolares israelíes: ideología y propaganda en la educación , Nurit Peled-Elhanan , profesora de lengua y educación en la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén , describe la descripción de los árabes en los libros escolares israelíes como racista. Afirma que su única representación es como "refugiados, agricultores primitivos y terroristas", afirmando que en "cientos y cientos" de libros, ni una sola fotografía muestra a un árabe como una "persona normal". [43] Arnon Groiss del Centro para el Monitoreo del Impacto de la Paz criticó estos hallazgos. Después de revisar los mismos libros examinados por Peled-Ehanan, Groiss concluyó que "la afirmación de Peled-Ehanan con respecto a este punto es claramente falsa ... Este enfoque fuertemente politizado y por lo tanto sesgado distorsiona el material para producir una imagen de su agrado". Groiss criticó además el trabajo de Peled-Elhanan por extender la definición de racismo para incluir casos que los investigadores normalmente categorizarían como etnocentrismo . [44]
Propiedad de la tierra
El Fondo Nacional Judío es una organización privada establecida en 1901 para comprar y desarrollar tierras en la Tierra de Israel para el asentamiento judío; Las compras de tierras fueron financiadas por donaciones de los judíos del mundo exclusivamente para ese propósito. [45]
Se ha denunciado discriminación con respecto a la propiedad y el arrendamiento de tierras en Israel, porque aproximadamente el 13% de la tierra de Israel, propiedad del Fondo Nacional Judío , está restringida a la propiedad y tenencia judía, y los árabes no pueden comprar o arrendar esa tierra. [46]
A principios de la década de 2000, varios asentamientos comunitarios en el Negev y Galilea fueron acusados de impedir que los solicitantes árabes se mudaran. En 2010, la Knesset aprobó una legislación que permitía que los comités de admisión funcionaran en comunidades más pequeñas de Galilea y el Negev, mientras que prohibía explícitamente comités para prohibir a los solicitantes según su raza, religión, sexo, etnia, discapacidad, estado personal, edad, paternidad, orientación sexual, país de origen, opiniones políticas o afiliación política. [47] [48] Los críticos, sin embargo, dicen que la ley le da a los comités de admisiones administrados de forma privada una amplia libertad sobre las tierras públicas, y creen que empeorará la discriminación contra la minoría árabe. [49]
sionismo
Algunos críticos de Israel equiparan el sionismo con el racismo, o describen al sionismo en sí mismo como racista o discriminatorio. [51] En 1975, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas aprobó la Resolución 3379 , que concluyó que "el sionismo es una forma de racismo y discriminación racial". [52] [53] Durante el debate sobre la resolución, el embajador estadounidense Daniel Patrick Moynihan argumentó que el sionismo "claramente no es una forma de racismo", definiendo el racismo como "una ideología ... que favorece la discriminación por motivos de supuestas diferencias biológicas". . [54] La resolución se basó en la propia definición de discriminación racial de la ONU, adoptada en 1965. Según la Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial, la discriminación racial es "cualquier distinción, exclusión, restricción o preferencia basada en la raza , color, ascendencia u origen nacional o étnico que tenga el propósito o efecto de anular o menoscabar el reconocimiento, goce o ejercicio, en pie de igualdad, de los derechos humanos y libertades fundamentales en el ámbito político, económico, social, cultural o de cualquier otra índole. campo de la vida pública ". [55]
La resolución fue revocada por la Resolución 46/86 el 16 de diciembre de 1991. En declaraciones a la Asamblea General, George HW Bush dijo que "equiparar el sionismo con el pecado intolerable del racismo es torcer la historia y olvidar la terrible situación de los judíos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial y de hecho a lo largo de la historia ".
Los partidarios del sionismo, como Chaim Herzog , argumentan que el movimiento no es discriminatorio y no contiene aspectos racistas. [50]
Controversia de la ley del retorno
Algunos críticos han descrito la Ley de Retorno , que permite que todos los judíos y personas de alguna ascendencia judía emigren a Israel como racistas, ya que los refugiados palestinos no son elegibles para la ciudadanía. [56] Los palestinos y los defensores de los derechos de los refugiados palestinos critican la Ley de Retorno, que comparan con la reivindicación palestina de un derecho de retorno . [57] Estos críticos consideran la Ley, en contraste con la negación del derecho de los refugiados palestinos a regresar, como ofensiva y como discriminación étnica institucionalizada . [58]
Los partidarios de la ley argumentan que es compatible con el artículo I (3) de la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial, que permite el trato preferencial de algunos grupos con fines de inmigración, siempre que no haya discriminación contra una nacionalidad específica. [59] [60] [61]
Además, los defensores de la ley señalan que, además de Israel, varios otros países brindan privilegios de inmigración a personas con vínculos étnicos con estos países. Los ejemplos incluyen Alemania , [62] Serbia , Grecia , Japón , Turquía , Irlanda , Rusia , Italia , España , Chile , Polonia y Finlandia [61] (Ver derecho de retorno y leyes de repatriación ). Algunos partidarios señalaron que la decisión de Venecia La Comisión reconoció la relación entre las minorías étnicas y sus parientes-estados como legítima e incluso deseable, y la preferencia en inmigración y naturalización se menciona como un ejemplo de preferencia legítima. [61]
En respuesta a las críticas árabes a la Ley de Retorno de Israel como discriminatoria en un debate de resolución de las Naciones Unidas de 1975, los israelíes argumentaron que los israelíes palestinos no estaban sujetos a ninguna discriminación legal. [54]
Juramento de lealtad propuesto
En 2010, el gabinete israelí propuso una enmienda a la Ley de Ciudadanía que requiere que todos los futuros no judíos que soliciten la ciudadanía israelí juren lealtad a Israel como estado judío y democrático . La propuesta recibió duras críticas, incluidas acusaciones de racismo, y posteriormente fue enmendada para hacer que el juramento de lealtad sea universal para ciudadanos naturalizados judíos y no judíos . Incluso en esta nueva forma, el proyecto de ley no fue aprobado debido a la falta de apoyo mayoritario en el parlamento israelí. [63] [64] [65] [66] [67]
Matrimonio
La Ley de Ciudadanía e Entrada en Israel de Israel prohíbe la inmigración por reunificación familiar a las parejas de un ciudadano israelí y un residente palestino de los territorios ocupados por Israel . Amnistía Internacional dice que esto afecta principalmente a los árabes. [68] [69] Amnistía Internacional ha condenado la ley como "discriminación racial". [70] El gobierno dice que la ley dice que tiene como objetivo prevenir ataques terroristas. Algunos líderes del partido Kadima apoyan la ley para preservar el carácter judío del estado. Mishael Cheshin , uno de los jueces de la corte suprema que defendió la ley, escribió que "en tiempos de guerra, el estado podía impedir la entrada de súbditos enemigos a su territorio incluso si estaban casados con ciudadanos del estado". [71]
Racismo religioso
El rabino David Batzri y su hijo Yitzhak fueron investigados por la policía después de que hicieron comentarios racistas contra los árabes y protestaron contra una escuela mixta árabe-judía en Jerusalén . [72] [73] Como parte de un acuerdo con la fiscalía de 2008, Yitzhak fue sentenciado a servicio comunitario, y David emitió una declaración diciendo que se oponía a cualquier incitación racista y dijo que pide amor, hermandad y amistad. [74]
Dov Lior , Gran Rabino de Hebrón y Kiryat Arba en el sur de Cisjordania y jefe del "Consejo de Rabinos de Judea y Samaria " emitió un edicto religioso que decía que "mil vidas no judías no valen la uña de un judío" [75] [76] [77] y declaró que los terroristas árabes capturados podrían utilizarse para realizar experimentos médicos, [78] y también dictaminó que la ley judía prohíbe emplear árabes o alquilarles casas. [79] [80] Lior negó tener opiniones racistas. [81] En junio de 2011, el rabino fue arrestado por la policía israelí e interrogado bajo sospecha de incitar a la violencia. [82] [83] Tanto la líder de la oposición Tzipi Livni como el primer ministro Benjamin Netanyahu pidieron una investigación judicial completa de los comentarios de Lior y dijeron que los rabinos no estaban por encima de la ley. [84]
In October 2010, Ovadia Yosef, a former Sephardi chief rabbi, stated that the sole purpose of non-Jews "is to serve Jews".[85] His statement was harshly condemned by several Jewish organizations.[86][87]
On 7 Dec 2010, a group of 50 state-paid rabbis signed a letter instructing Orthodox Jews not to rent or sell houses to non-Jews. The letter was later endorsed by some 250 other Jewish religious figures. A hotline was opened for denouncing those Jews who did intend to rent out to Arabs.[88][89]
On 19 Dec 2010, a rally attended by 200 people was held in Bat Yam against the "assimilation" of young Jewish women with Arabs. One of the organizers, "Bentzi" Ben-Zion Gopstein, said that the motives are not racist: "It is important to explain that the problem is religious, not racist. If my son were to decide to marry an Arab woman who converted, I wouldn't have a problem with that. My problem is the assimilation that the phenomenon causes." One of the protestors called out, "Any Jewish woman who goes with an Arab should be killed; any Jew who sells his home to an Arab should be killed." Bat Yam Mayor Shlomo Lahyani condemned the event, saying "The city of Bat Yam denounces any racist phenomenon. This is a democratic country,". Nearby, about 200 residents of Bat Yam held a counter protest, waving signs reading, "We're fed up with racists" and "Jews and Arabs refuse to be enemies". Later that month, the wives of 27 rabbis signed a letter calling on Jewish girls to stay away from Arab men. The document stated: "Don't date them, don't work where they work and don't perform National Service with them."[90][91][92]
A senior Catholic spokesman, Fr Pierbattista Pizzaballa, the Custodian of the Holy Land, has claimed that a lack of police action, and an educational culture in which Jewish pupils are encouraged to act with "contempt" towards Christians, has resulted in life becoming increasingly "intolerable" for many Christians. In 2012, pro-settler extremists attacked a Trappist monastery in the town of Latroun covering walls with anti-Christian graffiti denouncing Christ as a "monkey", and the 11th century Monastery of the Cross was daubed with offensive slogans such as "Death to Christians". According to an article in the Telegraph, Christian leaders feel that the most important issue that Israel has failed to address is the practice of some ultra-Orthodox Jewish schools to teach children that it is a religious obligation to abuse anyone in Holy Orders they encounter in public, "such that Ultra-Orthodox Jews, including children as young as eight, spit at members of the clergy on a daily basis."[93] Incidents of spitting on Christian clergymen in Jerusalem have been common since the 1990s.[94][95] Ruling on the case of a Greek Orthodox priest who had struck a yeshiva student who spat near him in 2011, a Jerusalem magistrate wrote, "Day after day, clergymen endure spitting by members of those fringe groups — a phenomenon intended to treat other religions with contempt. ... The authorities are not able to eradicate this phenomenon and they don't catch the spitters, even though this phenomenon has been going on for years."[96]
Incidents
In 1994, a Jewish settler in the West Bank and follower of the Kach party, Baruch Goldstein, massacred 29 Palestinian Muslim worshipers at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.[97][98] During his funeral, a rabbi declared that even one million Arabs are "not worth a Jewish fingernail".[99][100][101] Goldstein was immediately "denounced with shocked horror even by the mainstream Orthodox",[102] and many in Israel classified Goldstein as insane.[103] The Israeli government condemned the massacre and made Kach illegal.[104] The Israeli army killed a further nine Palestinians during riots following the massacre,[105] and the Israeli government severely restricted Palestinian freedom of movement in Hebron,[106] while letting settlers and foreign tourists roam free,[107] although Israel also forbade certain Israeli settlers from entering Palestinian towns and demanded that those settlers turn in their army-issued rifles.[108] Goldstein's grave has become a pilgrimage site for Jewish extremists.[109]
In 2006, a stabbing incident took place when a gang of Russian immigrants chanting racist slogans stabbed and lightly injured Arab Knesset member Abbas Zakour, which was part of a "stabbing rampage" and was described as a "hate crime".[114]
The Mossawa Advocacy Center for Arab Citizens in Israel reported a tenfold increase in racist incidents against Arabs in 2008.[115] Jerusalem reported the highest number of racist incidents against Arabs.[115] The report blamed Israeli leaders for the violence, saying "These attacks are not the hand of fate, but a direct result of incitement against the Arab citizens of this country by religious, public, and elected officials."[115] The Bedouin claim they face systemic discrimination and have submitted a counter-report to the United Nations that disputes the Israeli government's official state report.[116] They claim they are not treated as equal citizens in Israel and that Bedouin towns are not provided the same level of services or land that Jewish towns of the same size are, and that they are not given fair access to water.[116] The city of Beersheba refused to recognize a Bedouin holy site, despite a High Court recommendation.[116]
In late 2010, the number of racist incidents against Arabs increased. The events were described by the Defense Minister of Israel, Ehud Barak, as a "wave of racism".[117] The most notable ones took place on 20 December 2010, when a group of five Arabs were driven from an apartment in Tel Aviv after their landlady was threatened with the torching of her home if she continued to rent out to Arabs,[118] and on 21 December 2010, when a gang of Jewish youths was arrested in Jerusalem after carrying out a large number of attacks on Arabs. A girl aged 14 would lure Arab men to the Independence Park, where they were attacked with stones and bottles and severely beaten. The teens confessed to nationalistic motives.[119] On 31 Oct 2010, a Jewish mob gathered outside of an Arab students' residence in Safed, chanted "death to the Arabs", hurled rocks and bottles at the building, shattering glass, and fired a shot at the building before dissassembling.[120]
In May 2011, two Israeli border patrolmen were charged with physical abuse against an Arab minor who was carrying firecrackers. The incident took place in March 2010. The youth was punched, knocked to the floor, kicked, and had death threats thrown against him by the officers. At a police station, the 17-year-old male was tricked by a female police officer into believing he was going to die. After making the prisoner go down on his knees, she allegedly pointed her pistol at him at point-blank range. It was not loaded, but the minor did not know this because his eyes were covered. According to the charges, she counted to 10, with the teen begging her not to kill him. She allegedly pulled the trigger, saying "Death to Arabs". [121] She was later sentenced to 3 months in prison. [122]
In March 2012, two Arab males of Beit Zarzir confessed, after being arrested, to damaging a local school for Arab and Jewish students. They admitted responsibility for having sprayed on the wall of the school, "Death to Arabs". The school was sprayed twice in February with the slogans "price tag", "Death to Arabs", and "Holocaust to the Arabs".[123][124][125][126]
On November 18, 2013, Jewish settlers torched trucks and spray-painted walls in a Palestinian village. Two perpetrators, Yehuda Landsberg and Yehuda Sabir, admitted their guilt and received the minimum sentence. Binyamin Richter, a third defendant, claimed innocence. They are from Havat Gilad.[127] This was the first time that any indictments were issued against the 52 Jewish Israelis who had committed anti-Arab attacks that were completely unprovoked, which the Israeli security forces differentiate from "price tag" attacks.[128]
After the murder of 3 Israeli teenagers were found on June 30, 2014, a Facebook Page created by an unknown group of Israelis called "The People of Israel Demand Vengeance!" or "The people of Israel demand revenge!" The page features a myriad of photos of people holding up signs demanding revenge for the killing of the teens, and urging Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to order widespread military action in the West Bank and Gaza. Further racist incitement within the Facebook campaign depicted a photograph that was posted to the page with two teenage girls smiling, hugging each other and holding a piece of paper saying, "Hating Arabs is not racism, it's values." Another post showed an armed IDF soldier with "Revenge!" in Hebrew inscribed on his chest. The Facebook Campaign received more than 30,000 likes by the evening of July 3, 2014. The campaign has been condemned by a number of Israeli MK's including Justice Minister Tzipi Livni and Minister of Agriculture and Yisrael Beiteinu MK Yair Shamir. The Israeli Defense Forces also vowed to severely punish any soldier involved with the exchange of racist photographs depicting revenge for the murdered teens or retributive incitement of Anti-Arabism across Facebook and other social media sites.[129][130]
Also in November 2014 a Druze soldier, veteran of Operation Protective Edge, was refused entry to a pub where his Jewish friends were. A security guard told him that he was not allowed to let non-Jews enter. While the owner claimed it was a private club, Jewish patron denied this claim, noting they were allowed to enter without membership. A friend of the Druse IDF soldier said "Apparently, they are good enough to fight in Gaza but not to enter a pub."[131]
On November 21, 2014 during a Tel Aviv soccer match, hundreds of Bnei Yehuda fans rose and chanted, "Death to Arabs!" The fans threw trash at an Arab player who was injured and was being taken off the field.[132]
On November 29, 2014, an apparent hate crime including arson and racist graffiti was perpetrated in Jerusalem on a dual Hebrew and Arabic language school. Graffiti spray painted at the school included, "Death to Arabs!", "Kahane was right!", "Down with assimilation!" and "There is no co-existence with cancer!" Police say the fire was set on purpose. Education Minister Shai Piron spoke out against the vandalism, saying it represented a "violent, criminal and despicable act done to undermine the foundations of Israeli democracy."[133] Mohamad Marzouk, head of communications for the Hand in Hand school in Kfar Qara, noted that the attack brought out a show of community support for the school. In the minds of many people the arson, he said, "crossed a red line."[134] The Israeli police arrested a number of suspects in connection with this arson attack.[135] Following the arrest, the mother of one of the suspects said she would have burned the school as well, if it were not illegal to do so, and she expressed disgust and revulsion that Jews and Arabs studied together at the school.[136] In courtroom photos the three members of the radical group are shown smiling and smirking as they faced charges.[137] On 30 November, a synagogue in Tel Aviv had several books burned and was vandalized with graffiti against the Jewish nation-state bill,[138] which most recently, had been submitted the previous week.
The Times of Israel reported on January 1, 2015 that three Jewish men who had admitted to committing racist hate crimes against an Arab taxi driver in early 2014 were each sentenced to approximately one year in prison. The criminals admitted they had hailed the cab, then began beating and insulting the cab driver. When the driver escaped the car and ran for help, the perpetrators smashed the taxi sunroof.[139]
Racism in sports
Racism in soccer stadiums is a worldwide problem, and Israeli stadiums are not free from racism.[141] The first racist incidents took place in the 1970s, when the Arab player Rifaat Turk joined Hapoel Tel Aviv. Turk was subjected to anti-Arab abuse during nearly every game he played.[140] Arab soccer player Abbas Suan was confronted once with a sign reading "Abbas Suan, you don't represent us".[142] Under Israeli law, soccer fans can be prosecuted for incitement of racial hatred. The "New Voices from the Stadium" program, run by the New Israel Fund (NIF) amasses a "racism index" that is reported to the media on a weekly basis, and teams have been fined and punished for the conduct of their fans. According to Steve Rothman, the NIF San Francisco director, "Things have definitely improved, particularly in sensitizing people to the existence of racism in Israeli society."[141] In 2006, Israel joined Football Against Racism in Europe (FARE), network set up to counter racism in soccer.[143]
After a soccer game in March 2012, in which Beitar Jerusalem defeated a rival team at Jerusalem's Teddy Stadium,[144] a group of at least a hundred Beitar fans[145][146][147] entered the nearby Malha Mall chanting racist slogans and allegedly attacked Arab cleaning workers, whom some reports described as Palestinians. The police were criticized for initially failing to make arrests;[148] it later investigated the incident, issuing restraining orders against 20 soccer fans and questioning several suspects among the cleaning crew seen waving sticks at the fans.[149]
Intra-Jewish racism: Racism between Jews
Ashkenazi Jews in Israel have been described as viewing themselves as superior to non-Ashkenazi Jews. They are accused of maintaining an elite position in Israeli society,[150][151] with some describing the attitudes of Ashkenazim as racist or of being a manifestation of racism.[152]
Other authorities describe the discrimination by Ashkenazi as class-based, not race-based.[153][154] For example, the differences between Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as Adatiyut[155][156][157][158] community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).[159]
Some sources claim that reports of intra-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.[160][161]
Sephardim and Mizrahim (Middle Eastern and North African Jews)
Israeli society in general – and Ashkenazi Jews in particular – have been described as holding discriminatory attitudes towards Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent, known as Mizrahi Jews, Sephardic Jews, and Oriental Jews.[162] A variety of Mizrahi critics of Israeli policy have cited "past ill-treatment, including the maabarot, the squalid tent cities into which Mizrahim were placed upon arrival in Israel; the humiliation of Moroccan and other Mizrahi Jews when Israeli immigration authorities shaved their heads and sprayed their bodies with the pesticide DDT; the socialist elite's enforced secularization; the destruction of traditional family structure, and the reduced status of the patriarch by years of poverty and sporadic unemployment" as examples of mistreatment.[163] In September 1997, Israeli Labor Party leader Ehud Barak made a high-profile apology to Oriental Jews in Netivot stating:
- We must admit to ourselves [that] the inner fabric of communal life was torn. Indeed, sometimes the intimate fabric of family life was torn. Much suffering was inflicted on the immigrants and that suffering was etched in their hearts, as well as in the hearts of their children and grandchildren. There was no malice on the part of those bringing the immigrants here—on the contrary, there was much goodwill—but pain was inflicted nevertheless. In acknowledgement of this suffering and pain, and out of identification with the sufferers and their descendants, I hereby ask forgiveness in my own name and in the name of the historical Labor movement. [164]
Barak's address also said that during the 1950s, Mizrahi immigrants were "made to feel that their own traditions were inferior to those of the dominant Ashkenazi [European-origin] Israelis [Alex Weingrod's paraphrase]".[165] Several prominent Labor party figures, including Teddy Kollek and Shimon Peres, distanced themselves from the apology while agreeing that mistakes were made during the immigration period.[165]
The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years.[166] Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel, and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s).[167] A 1983 research found that children of inter-ethnic marriages in Israel enjoyed improved socio-economic status.[168]
Although social integration is constantly improving, disparities persist. A study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. Israeli-born Ashkenazi are up to twice more likely to study in a university than Israeli-born Mizrahim.[169] Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians.[170] According to a survey by the Adva Center,[171] the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.[172]
Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice against Mizrahi Jews is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".[173]
There was a case in 2010, when a Haredi school system, where Sephardi and Mizrahi students were sometimes excluded or segregated.[174][175] In 2010, the Israeli supreme court sent a strong message against discrimination in a case involving the Slonim Hassidic sect of the Ashkenazi, ruling that segregation between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in a school is illegal.[176] They argue that they seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity, not from racism".[177] Responding to the charges, the Slonim Haredim invited Sephardi girls to school, and added in a statement: "All along, we said it's not about race, but the High Court went out against our rabbis, and therefore we went to prison."[178]
Teimani children (Yemenite Jews)
In the 1950s, 1,033[179] children of Yemenite immigrant families disappeared. In most instances, the parents claim that they were told their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented or graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents. Those who believe the theory contend that the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel kidnapped the children and gave them for adoption. Secular Israeli Jews of European descent were accused of collaborating in the disappearance of babies of Yemeni Jews and anti-religious motives and anti-religious coercion were alleged.[180][181][182][183][184][185][186] Some went further to accuse the Israeli authorities of conspiring to kidnap the Yemeni children due to "racist" motives.[187]
In 2001 a seven-year public inquiry commission concluded that the accusations that Yemenite children were kidnapped are not true. The commission has unequivocally rejected claims of a plot to take children away from Yemenite immigrants. The report determined that documentation exists for 972 of the 1,033 missing children. Five additional missing babies were found to be alive. The commission was unable to discover what happened in another 56 cases. With regard to these unresolved 56 cases, the commission deemed it "possible" that the children were handed over for adoption following decisions made by individual local social workers, but not as part of an official policy.[179]
Bene Israel (Indian Jews)
In 1962, authorities in Israel were accused by articles in the Indian press of racism in relation to Jews of Indian ancestry (called Bene Israel).[188][189] In the case that caused the controversy, the Chief Rabbi of Israel ruled that before registering a marriage between Indian Jews and Jews not belonging to that community, the registering rabbi should investigate the lineage of the Indian applicant for possible non-Jewish descent, and in case of doubt, require the applicant to perform conversion or immersion.[188][189] The alleged discrimination may actually be related to the fact that some religious authorities believe that the Bene Israel are not fully Jewish because of inter-marriage during their long separation.[190]
In 1964 the government of Israel led by Levi Eshkol declared that it regards Bene Israel of India as Jews without exception, who are equal to other Jews in respect of all matters.[188]
Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews)
Nearly all of the Ethiopian Beta Israel community, a community of Black Jews, resides in Israel. The Israeli government has mounted rescue operations, most notably during Operation Moses (1984) and Operation Solomon (1991), for their migration when civil war and famine threatened populations within Ethiopia.[191][192] Today 81,000 Israelis were born in Ethiopia, while 38,500 or 32% of the community are native born Israelis.[193]
According to the sociologist Prof. Uzi Rebhun, it represents an ambitious attempt to deny the significance of race.[194] Israeli authorities, aware of the situation of most African diaspora communities in other Western countries, hosted programs to avoid setting in patterns of discrimination.[194] The Ethiopian Jewish community's internal challenges have been complicated by racist attitudes on the part of some elements of Israeli society and the official establishment.[195] Racism has commonly been cited as explanation for policies and programs that failed to meet expectations. Racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting Ethiopian Jews to Israel under the Law of return.[194] The delays in admitting Ethiopians may be attributed to religious motivations rather than racism, since there was debate whether or not Falasha Jews' (Beta Israel) were Jewish.[196][197]
Racism was also alleged in 2009, in a case where school children of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into three semi-private religious schools in the town of Petah Tikva. An Israeli government official criticised the Petah Tikva Municipality and the semi-private Haredi schools, saying "This concerns not only the three schools that have, for a long time, been deceiving the entire educational system. For years, racism has developed here undeterred". Shas spiritual leader Ovadia Yosef threatened to fire any school principal from Shas's school system who refused to receive Ethiopian students. The Israeli Education Ministry decided to pull the funding from the Lamerhav, Da'at Mevinim and Darkhei Noam schools, the three semi-private institutions that refused to accept the students. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu spoke out against the rejection of Ethiopian children, calling it "a moral terror attack."[198][199]
When Ethiopians protested that blood donations from their community were thrown out, Harry Wall, the Israeli Director of the Anti-Defamation League stated that it was the result of the high incidence of HIV in Africans, not racism: "Whatever Israel's mistakes towards its Ethiopian Jewish community, the cause is not racism." It explains that "what causes the distress is bureaucratic ineptitude and a cultural gap between a traditional community and a modern, technologically-advanced, highly-competitive nation."[200]
In 2012, Israel appointed the country's first Ethiopian-born ambassador, Belaynesh Zevadia. According to the foreign minister of Israel, this represented an important milestone in fighting racism and prejudice.[201]
Depo Provera prescription controversy
In 2010, Israel was accused of a "sterilization policy" aimed towards Ethiopian Jews, for allowing the prescription of contraceptive drugs like Depo-Provera to the community.[202] They stated that the Israeli government deliberately gives female Ethiopian Jews long-lasting contraceptive drugs like Depo-Provera.[citation needed] Jewish agencies involved in immigration said that Ethiopian women were offered different types of contraceptives and that "all of them participated voluntarily in family planning".[citation needed] Dr. Yifat Bitton, a member of the Israeli Anti-Discrimination Legal Center "Tmura" said that 60 percent of the women receiving this contraceptive are Ethiopian Jews, while Ethiopians made up only 1 percent of population and "the gap here is just impossible to reconcile in any logical manner that would somehow resist the claims of racism".[citation needed] Professor Zvi Bentwich, an immunologist and human rights activist from Tel-Aviv, rejected the claim and said there's no ground to suspect a negative official policy towards Ethiopian Jews.[citation needed]
Israel initially denied the claim of imposing a sterilization policy on the Ethiopian women,[citation needed] but later admitted to it, and ordered gynaecologists to stop administering the drugs for women of Ethiopian origin if there is concern that they might not understand the ramifications of the treatment.[203] Action on the issue finally took place after a documentary aired in December 2012 on public television. In it, 35 Ethiopian women who had immigrated to Israel said they had been told they would not be allowed into Israel unless they agreed to the shots. While Ethiopians have been admitted to Israel, they are often discriminated against in education and in employment. The Times of Israel notes details of a nurse, unaware of a hidden camera, saying Depo-Provera is given to Ethiopian women because "they forget, they don’t understand, and it’s hard to explain to them, so it’s best that they receive a shot once every three months … basically they don’t understand anything."[204]
Thereafter, the Israeli government began an investigation into the policy, and instructed gynecologists not to administer the shots if there is suspicion that the recipient does not fully understand the effects.[205]
Police brutality
In April 2015 an Ethiopian soldier in the IDF was the victim of an unprovoked and allegedly racist attack by an Israeli policeman and the attack was caught on video. The soldier, Damas Pakedeh, was arrested and accused of attacking the policeman. He believes the incident was racially motivated and that if the video had not been taken, he would have been punished. Likud MK Avraham Neguise called on National Police Chief Yohanan Danino to prosecute the police officer and volunteer, saying they engaged in "a gross violation of the basic law of respecting others and their liberty by those who are supposed to protect us". The Jerusalem Post notes that in 2015 "there have been a series of reports in the Israeli press about alleged acts of police brutality against Ethiopian Israelis, with many in the community saying they are unfairly targeted and treated more harshly than other citizens".[206][207] The incident of police brutality with Pakedeh and alleged brutality of officials from Israel's Administration of Border Crossings, Population and Immigration with Walla Bayach, an Israeli of Ethiopian descent, brought the Ethiopian community to protest. Hundreds of Ethiopians participated in protests the streets of Jerusalem on April 20, 2015, to decry what they view as "rampant racism" and violence in Israel directed at their community. Israel Police Commissioner Yohanan Danino met with representatives of the Israeli Ethiopian community that day following the recent violent incidents involving police officers and members of the community.[208] When over a thousand people protested police brutality against Ethiopians and dark skinned Israelis, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced:“I strongly condemn the beating of the Ethiopian IDF soldier, and those responsible will be held accountable.” [209] Following protests and demonstrations in Tel Aviv that resulted in violence, Netanyahu planned to meet with representatives of the Ethiopian community, including Pakedeh. Netanyahu said the meeting would include Danino and representatives of several ministries, including Immigrant Absorption. Danino already announced that the officer who beat Pakedeh had been fired.[210]
Racism against Israeli Jews by Israeli Arabs
Polls
A 2009 PEW poll, which included 527 Israeli Arab respondents, showed that 35% of Israeli Arabs said their opinion of Jews was unfavorable, while 56% said their opinion was favorable (the figures amongst Israeli Jews on their attitude of themselves were 94% favorable; 6% unfavorable).[211]
The 2008 Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel by the Jewish-Arab Center found that 40.5% of the Arab citizens of Israel denied the Holocaust, up from 28% in 2006.[212][213] This report also states that "In Arab eyes disbelief in the very happening of the Shoah is not hate of Jews (embedded in the denial of the Shoah in the West) but rather a form of protest. Arabs not believing in the event of Shoah intend to express strong objection to the portrayal of the Jews as the ultimate victim and to the underrating of the Palestinians as a victim. They deny Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state that the Shoah gives legitimacy to."[213]
Incidents
Numerous racist attacks against Jews have taken place throughout Arab localities in the Galilee and in Arab areas of Jerusalem, including murders. Among the people killed in such attacks was Kristine Luken, an American tourist stabbed in a forest near Jerusalem after being seen wearing a Star of David necklace.[214] In Jerusalem, Jews driving through Al-Issawiya have been subjected to ambushes by crowds, as was a repairman who had been hired by a resident.[215] Emergency services vehicles have also been attacked while passing through the neighborhood. Jews who travel to the Mount of Olives also risk violence.[216] Jews who enter or buy property in Arab areas face harassment, and Arabs who have sold property to Jews have been murdered. In 2010, an Israeli-Jewish security guard, Kochav Segal Halevi, was forced from his home in the Arab town of I'billin after a racist crowd gathered at his house, and he received death threats.[217]
In 2008, the slogan "Death to the Jews" was found spray-painted in Arabic on the cargo hold of an El Al plane.[218]
In 2010, the wall of a synagogue and a Jewish residence in the mixed Jewish-Arab Ajami neighborhood of Jaffa were spray-painted with swastikas and Palestinian flags.[219]
In 2014, Arabs from Shfaram murdered Shelly Dadon.
Leaders
Journalist Ben-Meir described Arab Knesset members who "talk incessantly about the Palestinian people's rights, including their own state" but who "refuse to acknowledge Israel as the state of the Jewish people and deny the very existence of a Jewish people as a nation with national rights" as racist.[220] Ariel Natan Pasko, a policy analyst, suggested that prominent Arab leaders such as Arab member of Knesset Ahmad Tibi is racist because he "turned away from integration" and "wants to build an Arab university in Nazareth, as well as an Arab hospital in the Galilee."[221] Tibi had been previously accused of racism: in 1997, he said "whoever sells his house to the Jews has sold his soul to Satan and done a despicable act".[222]
The head of the Islamic movement in Israel's Northern Branch, was charged with incitement to racism and to violence. During legal proceedings, the prosecution said that Sheikh Raed Salah made his inflammatory remarks "with the objective of inciting racism."[223][224] he also accused Jews of using children's blood to bake bread.[225]
Other groups
Black Hebrew Israelite non-Jews
Black Hebrew Israelites are groups of people mostly of African American ancestry who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites. They are generally not accepted as Jews by the greater Jewish community. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.[226][227][228][229]
When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return, which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.[230] The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of racist discrimination.[231][232]
In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.[233] In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent resident status.[234][235][236]
In his 1992 essay "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", historian Taylor Branch wrote that Black Hebrews were initially denied citizenship due to anti-black sentiment among Israeli Jews (according to mainstream Jewish religious authorities, members of the Black Hebrew Israelite group are not Jewish).[237][238] According to historian Dr. Seth Forman the claims that the Black Hebrew Israelites were denied citizenship because they were black seem baseless, particularly in light of Israel's airlift of thousands of black Ethiopian Jews in the early 1990s.[239]
Racism against Black African non-Jews
In April 2012, the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet reported[240] that tens of thousands of refugees and African migrant workers who have come to Israel in dangerous smuggling routes, live in southern Tel Aviv's Levinsky Park. SvD reported that some Africans in the park sleep on cardboard boxes under the stars, others crowd in dark hovels. Also was noted a situation with African refugees, such as Sudanese from Darfur, Eritreans, Ethiopians and other African nationalities, who stand in queue to the soup kitchen, organized by Israeli volunteers. The interior minister reportedly "wants everyone to be deported".
In May 2012, disgruntlement toward Africans and calls for deportation and "blacks out" in Tel Aviv boiled over into death threats, fire bombings, rioting, and property destruction. Protesters blamed immigrants for worsening crime and the local economy, some of protesters were seen throwing eggs at African immigrants[241][242]
In March 2018, chief Sephardic Rabbi of Israel, Yitzhak Yosef, used the term Kushi to refer to black people, which has Talmudic origins but is a derogatory word for people of African descent in modern Hebrew. He also reportedly likened black people to monkeys.[243][244][245]
Relaciones interétnicas
Arab-Jewish riots
In what became known as the October 2000 events, Arab-Israelis rioted while protesting Israeli actions in the early stages of the Second Intifada, attacking Jewish civilians and Israeli police with live gunfire, molotov cocktails, stones, and vandalism of Jewish property. One Egged bus was torched on the first day. Arab rioting took place in Umm al-Fahm, Baqa al-Gharbiyye, Sakhnin, Nazareth, Lod, Kafar Kanna, Mashhad, Arraba, Ramla, Or Akiva and Nazareth Illit. A Jewish citizen was killed when his car was stoned, and a synagogue was torched. Hundreds of Arab residents of Jaffa burned tires, threw rocks, and beat reporters.[246] Throughout the course of the riots, Israeli Police repeatedly opened fire at Arab riots and demonstrations, killing 13 people, including 12 Arab-Israelis and one Palestinian from Gaza.
Thousands of Jews counter-rioted against Arabs in Nazareth, Bat Yam, Petah Tikva, Tiberias, Tel Aviv, Acre, Nazareth Illit, Lod, Rosh HaAyin, Or Akiva and Jerusalem, throwing stones at and beating Arabs, vandalizing and torching Arab homes and property, attacking Arab traffic, and chanting "Death to the Arabs!".[247] An Arab worker was stabbed on his way to work in Rosh HaAyin. In Jaffa, a mosque was vandalized, and another was torched in Tiberias. In Tel Aviv, Arab restaurant workers were chased from a restaurant, and their cars set alight.
Sam Lehman-Wilzig, Political Communications Professor at Bar-Ilan University, said that rioting is rare and alien to Jewish political society. "The numbers (of riots) are so low because of our Jewish political culture which encourages protesting, but seriously discourages violent protest," he said. He argues that the riots were caused since Israelis felt threatened by the "pressure cooker syndrome" of fighting not just the Palestinians and Lebanon's Hezbollah guerrillas, but also the Israeli Arab population.[248]
In 2008, a series of riots broke out in Acre, after an Arab motorist and his teenage son drove into a predominantly Jewish neighborhood during Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish religion, to visit relatives. According to police, their car's windows were down and music was blaring. Police spokesperson Eran Shaked said that "this was a provocation... we believe he was intoxicated. This was a deliberate act".[249] Their vehicle was pelted with stones, and they sought refuge in a relative's home. A Jewish mob chased them, then gathered around the building chanting "Death to the Arabs!", and attacked police who tried to intervene.[250] An incorrect rumor spread among the Arab residents that the driver had been killed, prompting calls from local mosques to avenge his death.[251] Arabs rioted in the city center, smashing shop windows, vandalizing vehicles, and throwing rocks at people going to or from Yom Kippur prayers,[252][253] chanting Death to the Jews" and "If you come out of your homes, you will die". Israeli Police forcibly dispersed the rioters with tear gas and stun grenades. As soon as the Yom Kippur fast ended, about 200 Jewish residents rioted in Acre's Arab neighborhoods, torching homes, vandalizing property, and forcing dozens of families to flee. Riots and retaliations by both sides continued for four days.[251] Haaretz editorialized that that year's "Yom Kippur will be infamous for the violent, racist outburst by Jews against Arabs within Israel".
During the course of monitoring elections in 2009, a Member of the Knesset (MK) replaced another Jewish election monitor at the Israeli-Arab town of Umm al-Fahm, who was prevented by police from entering the city because of threats by local Arabs on his life. As soon as the MK began to perform his duties, an Israeli-Arab mob rioted outside attacking the guards and shouts of “Death to the Jews” could be heard. Israeli Police arrested five rioters.[254]
Esfuerzos contra el racismo y la discriminación
Israel has a law that prohibits incitement to racism.[5]
According to the State Department, Israel's anti-discrimination law "prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, or sexual orientation. The law also prohibits discrimination by both government and nongovernment entities on the basis of race, religion, political beliefs, and age."
Israel is a signatory of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination treaty since 1966, and has ratified the treaty in 1979.[255] The treaty forbids any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.
The Anti Defamation League states: "There is no Israeli ideology, policy or plan to segregate, persecute or mistreat its Israeli Arab citizens, nor Palestinian Arabs," it goes on in saying that "Israel is a democracy which encourages vibrant debate, which has a flourishing free press and which shares with other liberal democracies a core value: the equality of all its citizens before the law."[256]
The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that "Arab Israelis are citizens of Israel with equal rights" and states that "The only legal distinction between Arab and Jewish citizens is not one of rights, but rather of civic duty. Since Israel's establishment, Arab citizens have been exempted from compulsory service in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF)."[257]
Affirmative action
In response to inequality between the Jewish and Arab populations, the Israeli government established a committee to consider, among other issues, policies of affirmative action for housing Arab citizens.[258] According to Israel advocacy group, Stand With Us, the city of Jerusalem gives Arab residents free professional advice to assist with the housing permit process and structural regulations, advice which is not available to Jewish residents on the same terms.[259][260]
Informes que abordan el racismo en Israel
- Amnesty International annual reports on Israel – 2013 report, 2012 report, 2011 report, 2010 report, 2009 report, 2008 report, 2007 report
- Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) annual reports – 2014 report, 2013 report, 2012 report, 2011 report, 2009 report, 2008 report, 2007 report
- United States Department of State annual Human Rights reports on Israel – 2014 report, 2013 report, 2012 report, 2011 report, 2010 report, 2009 report, 2008 report, 2007 report, 2006 report, 2005 report, 2004 report
- United Nations CERD – 2007 CERD report, unedited version of 2007 report
- Or Commission – The Official Summation of the Or Commission Report"
Ver también
- Timeline of attacks against synagogues in Israel
- Criticism of Israel
- Human rights in Israel
- Israel and the apartheid analogy
- Israeli settler violence
- Neo-Nazism in Israel
- Racism in the Palestinian territories
- Secularism in Israel
- Zion Square assault
- List of Jewish hate groups
Referencias
- ^ IRIN; Andreas Hackl (7 September 2012). "ISRAEL-OPT: Upping sticks and heading for Ramallah". IRIN humanitarian news and analysis. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- ^ Rosenberg, Oz (18 January 2012). "Thousands in Jerusalem protest racism against Ethiopian Israelis". Haaretz.
- ^ "World Report 2012: Israel/Occupied Palestinian Territories". Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ Steven Kaplan, "Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin? The Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) and Racial Discourse", African Affairs, Vol. 98, No. 393 (Oct., 1999), p. 548
- ^ Sales, Ben. "New president seeks to cure 'epidemic' of racism". (October 24, 2014). The Times of Israel.
- ^ a b Israel: pluralism and conflict. By Sammy Smooha. p. 400.
- ^ SOCIETY: Minority Communities, Israeli Foreign Ministry Website, [1]. October 1, 2006. Retrieved December 19, 2007.
- ^ Or Commission, "The Official Summation of the Or Commission Report Archived 2010-10-05 at the Wayback Machine"
- ^ "Israel and the occupied territories". State.gov. 2005-02-28. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
- ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (March 8, 2006). "Israel and the occupied territories". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2005. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2006-08-01.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ "2010 Human Rights Report: Israel and the occupied territories". State.gov. 2011-04-08. Archived from the original on 2011-04-13. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ Quoted in Rebhun, Uzi; Chaim Isaac Waxman (2004). Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns. UPNE. p. 472. ISBN 978-1-58465-327-1.
- ^ CONSIDERATION OF REPORTS SUBMITTED BY STATES PARTIES UNDER ARTICLE 9 OF THE CONVENTION. Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Israel. CERD/C/304/Add.45; 30 March 1998.
- ^ Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html
- ^ "Reflections on October 2000 – Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" – news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b "Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm
- ^ 2003 Terrorism Review. Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ ‘Marriage to an Arab is national treason’ ynetnews.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-06
- ^ Poll: Half of Israeli high schoolers oppose equal rights for Arabs, Haaretz, March 11, 2010
- ^ "Poll: 36% of Jews want to revoke Arabs' voting rights", Ynet News, October 10, 2010.
- ^
- Arian Asher, Michael Philippov, and Anna Knafelman, Auditing Israeli Democracy 2009, Israeli Democracy Institute, 2009, p. 66-67
- PDF file
- ^ Catrina Stewart (23 October 2012). "The new Israeli apartheid: Poll reveals widespread Jewish support for". The Independent. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Newman, Marissa. The Times of Israel. 'Nipped in the bud' (Nov 21, 2014)"http://www.timesofisrael.com/nipped-in-the-bud/
- ^ Jerusalem mayor: We cannot discriminate against Arabs, Jerusalem Post November 22, 2014
- ^ Netanyahu on discrimination of Israeli-Arabs: An entire community should not be stigmatized, Jerusalem Post November 20, 2014
- ^ "The Times of Israel Staff and Spencer Ho: Ashkelon warned over Arab worker ban, as poll shows public support (Nov 20, 2014)"http://www.timesofisrael.com/ashkelon-mayor-warned-over-arab-worker-ban-but-public-backs-move/
- ^ "Ho, Spencer 'Ashkelon reportedly to let Arab workers finish kindergarten shelters' Times of Israel (Nov 23, 2014)"http://www.timesofisrael.com/ashkelon-reportedly-to-let-arab-workers-finish-kindergarten-shelters/
- ^ Hirst, David, The gun and the olive branch: the roots of violence in the Middle East, Nation Books, 2003, p. 91
- ^ Emmet, Ayala H., Our sisters' promised land: women, politics, and Israeli-Palestinian coexistence, University of Michigan Press, 2003, p 68
- ^ Espanioly, Nabilia, "Nightmare", in Women and the politics of military confrontation: Palestinian and Israeli gendered narratives of dislocation, Nahla Abdo-Zubi, Ronit Lenṭin (Eds), Berghahn Books, 2002, p. 5
- ^ a b Human Rights Watch, Second class: Discrimination against Palestinian Arab children in Israel's schools, pp 13–16
- ^ "חוק זכויות התלמיד באנגלית – Pupils' Rights Law". Cms.education.gov.il. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ a b Bar-Tal, Daniel, "The Arab Image in Hebrew School Textbooks", in Islamophobia and anti-Semitism, Hillel Schenker, Abu Zayyad Ziad, Ziad Abu Zayyad (Eds), Markus Wiener Publishers, 2006, pp 135–152
- ^ "Israeli Schools Separate, Not Equal". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Human Rights Watch: Second Class: Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools - Summary". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Second Class – Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools, Human Rights Watch.
- ^ Middle East Contemporary Survey, Volume 23; By Bruce Maddy-Weitzman. p. 329
- ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1106955.html Haaretz. Israel aids its needy Jewish students more than Arab counterparts by Or Kashti. Last accessed: 12 August 2009.
- ^ "Arab Sector: NIF Grantees Fight Discrimination in Arab Education". New Israel Fund. 2005-09-13. Archived from the original on 2007-08-07.
- ^ ODS Team. "Consideration of reports submitted by states parties under Article 9 of the Convention". United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 2007
- ^ [2], [Academic claims Israeli school textbooks contain bias: 07/08/2011: Harriet Sherwood
- ^ Arnon Groiss. Comments on Nurit Peled-Elhanan’s paper: “The Presentation of Palestinians in Israeli Schoolbooks of History and Geography 1998-2003” . Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace (CMIP-RA)
- ^ Kenneth W. Stein."The Jewish National Fund: Land Purchase Methods and Priorities, 1924 – 1939" Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine; Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 20 Number 2, pp. 190–205, April 1984
- ^
- Adalah report on JNF lands Archived 2012-05-12 at the Wayback Machine
- Pfeffer, Anshel; Stern, Yoav (2007-09-24). "High Court delays ruling on JNF land sales to non-Jews". Haaretz. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
- U.S. State Dept. report : "Approximately 93 percent of land in the country was public domain, including that owned by the state and some 12.5 percent owned by the Jewish National Fund (JNF). All public land by law may only be leased, not sold. The JNF's statutes prohibit the sale or lease of land to non-Jews. In October, civil rights groups petitioned the High Court of Justice claiming that a bid announcement by the Israel Land Administration (ILA) involving JNF land was discriminatory in that it banned Arabs from bidding. The ILA halted marketing JNF land in the North and the Galilee. In December, Adalah petitioned the High Court to annul definitively the ILA policy. At year's end [2004], there had been no court action."
- ^ [3]
- ^ Israel's High Court orders Jewish Galilee town to accept Arab couple. Haaretz. Sep.14, 2011
- ^ New Israeli laws will increase discrimination against Arabs, critics say. March 24, 2011. Edmund Sanders, Los Angeles Times.
- ^ a b
- Israeli Ambassador Chaim Herzog's Response To Zionism Is Racism Resolution. November 10, 1975. "You dare talk of racism when I can point with pride to the Arab ministers who have served in my government; to the Arab deputy speaker of my Parliament; to Arab officers and men serving of their own volition in our border and police defense forces, frequently commanding Jewish troops; to the hundreds of thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East crowding the cities of Israel every year; to the thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East coming for medical treatment to Israel; to the peaceful coexistence which has developed; to the fact that Arabic is an official language in Israel on a par with Hebrew; to the fact that it is as natural for an Arab to serve in public office in Israel as it is incongruous to think of a Jew serving in any public office in an Arab country, indeed being admitted to many of them. Is that racism? It is not! That, Mr. President, is Zionism."
- ^
- Zionism, imperialism, and race, Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979
- Gerson, Allan, "The United Nations and Racism: the Case of Zionism and Racism", in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, Yoram Dinstein, Mala Tabory (Eds), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988, p 68
- Hadawi, Sami, Bitter harvest: a modern history of Palestine, Interlink Books, 1991, p 183
- Beker, Avi, Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession, Macmillan, 2008, p 131, 139, 151
- Dinstein, Yoram, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, p 31, 136ge
- Harkabi, Yehoshafat, Arab attitudes to Israel, pp 247–8
- ^ "Zionism". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "UN General Assembly Resolution 3379 -1975 "Zionism Is Racism"". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ a b UNITED NATIONS: Zionism Vote: Rage & Discord. Time Magazine, Nov. 24, 1975
- ^ Bill Christison - Kathleen Christison (5 November 2003). "Zionism as Racist Ideology". www.counterpunch.org. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Matas, David, Aftershock: anti-zionism and anti-semitism,Dundurn Press Ltd., 2005, p 56-59
- ^ "2BackToHomePage3". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "return.PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2001.
- ^ Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Volume 15; Volume 1985 By Yoram Dinstein, p. 102-103
- ^ "From 'Ethnic Cleansing' to Casualty Count, Prof. Qumsiyeh Errs" Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America, August 20, 2004.
- ^ a b c Alexander Yakobson; Amnon Rubinstein. "Democratic Norms, Diasporas, and Israel's Law of Return" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-26.
- ^ Joppke, Christian; Rosenhek, Zeev (2003). "Contesting Ethnic Immigration: Germany and Israel Compared". European Journal of Sociology. 43 (3): 301–335. doi:10.1017/s0003975602001121. S2CID 144760411.
- ^ Chaim Levinson & Jonathan Lis (2010-10-18). "Netanyahu wants loyalty oath bill to include Jews as well". Ha'aretz.
- ^ "Government approves loyalty oath bill – Israel News, Ynetnews". www.ynetnews.com. 2010-10-10. Retrieved 2010-11-25.
- ^ "No Knesset majority for loyalty oath for Jews and non-Jews". Haaretz Daily Newspaper. www.haaretz.com. 2010-10-20. Retrieved 2010-11-25.
- ^ No Knesset majority for loyalty oath for Jews and non-Jews. Haaretz.
- ^ "Loyalty oath splits Israeli press". BBC News. 2010-10-08. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Amnesty International, The Amnesty International report, Amnesty International Publications, 2005, p. 142
- ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2008, Seven Stories Press, 2008, p. 487
- ^ "Israel/Occupied Territories: High Court decision institutionalizes racial discrimination", Amnesty International news release, 16 May 2006, http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGMDE150422006 Archived 2011-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ben Lynfield (2006-05-15). "Arab spouses face Israeli legal purge". Edinburgh: The Scotsman.
- ^ "Religious fundamentalism in Israel" Archived 2010-10-10 at the Wayback Machine by Stephen Lendman, Research associate of the Centre for Research on Globalisation.
- ^ "Rabbi Batzri to be probed for incitement". ynet. 2006-03-21. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Anti-Arab Incitement Plea Bargain. 7.11.2008. Israel National News.
- ^ Khalid Amayreh (20 May 2004). "Rabbi supports killings in Rafah". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
- ^ "The List: The World’s Worst Religious Leaders". foreignpolicy.com. April 2008 (original article no longer available online). Copies are cached at Google.com and reproduced on richarddawkins.net. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
- ^ Stephen Lendman (20–26 August 2009). "Religious fundamentalism in Israel". Al Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
- ^ Gershom Gorenberg, The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount, Free Press, New York 2000 p. 164
- ^ "Top Yesha Rabbi Says Jewish Law Forbids Renting Houses to Arabs". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Rabbi Lior Speaks Out Against Hiring of Arabs Yedioth Ahronoth
- ^ Wanted Kiryat Arba rabbi tells supporters: I'm not racist. Haaretz
- ^ Manel, Jonah (27 June 2011). "Rabbi Lior joins marchers in J'lem protesting his arrest". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
Kiryat Arba Chief Rabbi Dov Lior was detained by police Monday afternoon over his endorsement of a book that purportedly incites violence entitled, Torat Hamelekh (King’s Torah).
- ^ Yair Altman; Kobi Nahshoni; Omri Efraim; Oran Azulay (28 June 2011). "Rightists threaten further violence over rabbi's arrest". Ynetnews. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
Earlier, Israel's chief rabbis Yona Metzger and Shlomo Amar issued a joint statement Monday condemning the arrest of Kiryat Arba Rabbi Dov Lior.
- ^ Ravid, Barak (2011-06-28). "Netanyahu responds to Rabbi Dov Lior's arrest: Israeli law applies to all citizens - Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ Mandel, Jonah (18 October 2010). "Yosef: Gentiles exist only to serve Jews". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 18 October 2010.
- ^ "Sephardi leader Yosef: Non-Jews exist to serve Jews". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 2010-10-19. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Mozgovaya, Natasha; Service, Haaretz (2010-10-20). "ADL Slams Shas Spiritual Leader for Saying non-Jews 'Were Born to Serve Jews'". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Dozens of top Israeli rabbis sign ruling to forbid rental of homes to Arabs". Haaretz. 2010-12-07.
- ^ "Public invited to inform on those renting to Arabs". Ynet. 2010-12-12.
- ^ "Bat Yam rally: 'Arabs dating our sisters'". Ynet. 2010-12-12.
- ^ "Bat Yam rally: Death to Jewish women who date Arabs". Ynet. 2010-12-21.
- ^ "Rabbis' wives: Don't date Arabs". Ynet. 2010-12-28.
- ^ Blomfield, Adrian (2012-09-07). "Vatican official says Israel fostering intolerance of Christianity". The Daily Telegraph. London.
- ^ Amiram Barkat (December 10, 2004). "Christians in Jerusalem want Jews to stop spitting on them". Haaretz.; Raphael Ahren (March 5, 2010). "Capital Anglos mobilize against practice of spitting at Christians". Haaretz.; Oz Rosenberg (November 4, 2011). "Ultra-Orthodox spitting attacks on Old City clergymen becoming daily". Haaretz.; Raphael Ahren (December 16, 2011). "ADL: Rabbinate needs wake-up call on anti-Christian spitting attacks". Haaretz.; Nir Hasson (September 7, 2012). "Senior Catholic cleric: 'If Jews want respect, they must respect others'". Haaretz.
- ^ Daphne Tsimhoni (2005). "Christians in Jerusalem: A Minority at Risk". Journal of Human Rights. 4 (3): 391–417. doi:10.1080/14754830500257695. S2CID 143226435.
- ^ Alexander Yakobson (November 3, 2011). "A pertinent priest". Haaretz.
- ^ Gurvitz, Yossi (2012-04-08). "Jewish soldiers refuse to share Seder table with Druze comrades". 972mag. Retrieved 2012-09-10.
- ^ Israel Shahak. "The Real Significant of Baruch Goldstein". The Unjust Media. Archived from the original on 2015-03-26.
- ^ Kraft, Scott (1994-02-28). "Extremists Pay Tribute to Killer of 48 at Funeral". Los Angeles Times. p. A1.
- ^ Brownfeld, Allan C. (March 1999). "Growing Intolerance Threatens the Humane Jewish Tradition". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs: 84–89. Retrieved 2011-04-11.
- ^ Emran Qureshi; Michael Anthony Sells (2003). The new crusades: constructing the Muslim enemy. Columbia University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-231-12667-0.
- ^ The ethics of war in Asian civilizations: a comparative perspective By Torkel Brekke, Routledge, 2006, p.44
- ^ Wilson, Rodney. 2007. Review Article: Islam and Terrorism. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 34(2):203-213. [4]. (accessed 29 August 2010).
- ^ Haberman, Clyde (March 14, 1994). "Israel votes ban on Jewish groups linked to Kahane". The New York Times.
- ^ Surkes, Sue (2014-02-28). "The Goldstein massacre and the danger of escalation". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 2016-01-07.
- ^ AYELET WALDMAN (2014). "The Shame of Shuhada Street". The Atlantic.
- ^ Aditi, Bhaduri (May 21, 2006). "Fabled town, divided and bruised". The Hindu. Archived from the original on October 29, 2007. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
Still fresh in the memory of almost all the inhabitants was the Goldstein case of 1994, when a two-week curfew was imposed on the 1,20,000 [sic] Palestinian residents of the city, but not on the 400 Jewish settlers of H2.
- ^ Haberman, Clyde (March 3, 1994). "West Bank Massacre; Israel Eases Curfew in Territories; Ensuing Riots Deepen Pessimism". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
Faced with rage in the territories and its own revulsion over the Hebron massacre, the P.L.O. has dug in on its demands that all settlers be disarmed and that an international force be created to protect Palestinians. Mr. Rabin has said no to both demands. But he [Rabin] has imposed tougher measures against a relatively small number of the most militant settlers, which, while far from what the Palestinians want, represents a significant shift for the Government. Several days after ordering the arrest of five people faithful to the anti-Arab preaching of the late Rabbi Meir Kahane, the army began today to carry out other measures, telling 18 settlers to stay out of Arab towns and to turn in their army-issued rifles.
- ^ "Graveside party celebrates Hebron massacre". BBC News. March 21, 2000. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
- ^ "NTM Pictures8 - NewTrendMag.org". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ 'Gas the Arabs' – Settlers Vandalize Girls School in Hebron Archived 2013-04-15 at archive.today right2edu April 28, 2006
- ^ Antony Loewenstein (2007). My Israel Question. Melbourne University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0522854183.
The Christian Peacemaker Teams released a series of photographs taken in Hebron in recent years that showed the attitudes of many settlers to the Palestinians. Some of the graffiti in English included: 'Die Arab Sand Niggers'; 'Exterminate the Muslims'; 'Watch out Fatima, we will rape all Arab Women'; 'Kill All Arabs' 'White Power: Kill Niggers'; 'Gas the Arabs' and 'Arabs to the Gas Chambers'
- ^ Marciniak, Katarzyna (2009). Streets of Crocodiles: Photography, Media, and Postsocialist Landscapes in Poland. Intellect Ltd., University of Chicago Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-1-84150-365-3.
slogans sprayed by Jewish settlers in Hebron
- ^ "Acre gang stabs, lightly wounds MK Abbas Zakur in hate crime". Haaretz. 2006-07-30.
- ^ a b c "Racist attacks against Arabs increase tenfold – report". Y-Net News. 2009-03-21.
- ^ a b c "Bedouin ask UN to help fight systemic discrimination in Israel". Haaretz. 2006-07-03.
- ^ "Barak slams 'wave of racism' in rabbi, rebbetzin letters". The Jerusalem Post. 2010-12-29.
- ^ "Arabs flee home due to racist threats". Ynet. 2010-12-23.
- ^ "Teens suspected of attacking Arabs". Ynet. 2010-12-21.
- ^ "Two Jewish youths charged with shooting at Arabs during Safed clashes". Haaretz. 2010-10-31.
- ^ "Border policemen charged for assaulting, abusing Palestinian teen". Haaretz. 2011-05-01.
- ^ "Court rejects appeal of policewoman convicted of abusing Palestinian". Times of Israel.
- ^ ראב"ד, אחיה. "חשד: נערים ריססו על קיר בית ספר בצפון "מוות לערבים"". Ynet News. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
- ^ אלקלעי, אורלי. "נערים ערבים הודו בריסוס "מוות לערבים"". Reshet Bet. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
- ^ "Arab Youths Confessed to Spraying 'Death to Arabs'". Jewish Press. Retrieved March 13, 2012.
- ^ YWN – Israel Desk (2012-03-15). "Arabs Arrested for 'Death to Arabs' Graffiti". Yeshiva World News. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
- ^ "Cohen-Friedman, Naama 'Settlers get 30 months in prison for arson in Palestinian village' (Dec 1, 2014) YNET"http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4598004,00.html
- ^ "Levinson, Chaim 'Three settlers first to be charged in 'unprovoked' anti-Arab attack' (Feb 5, 2014) Haaretz" http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/.premium-1.572623
- ^ Ruth Perl Baharir (Jul 2, 2014). "Israelis launch Facebook campaign calling for 'revenge' of teens' murders". Haaretz. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
- ^ Raphael Ahren (3 July 2014). "IDF vows to punish soldiers' racist online incitement". Times of Israel. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
- ^ "Goel Benno 'Druze IDF soldier denied entry to northern Israeli pub' YNETNews (Nov 24, 2014)"http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4595177,00.html
- ^ "Yossi Nachemi "Just say 'no'" Times of Israel (Nov 23, 2014)http://www.timesofisrael.com/just-say-no-2/
- ^ "Berman, Lazar 'Politicians roundly condemn attack on bilingual school' (Nov 30, 2014) The Times of Israel"http://www.timesofisrael.com/politicians-from-across-spectrum-condemn-school-attack/
- ^ "Steinberg, Jessica 'Hundreds march for coexistence after Jewish-Arab school arson: Following attack on Hand in Hand bilingual school in Jerusalem, rally-goers say hatred has crossed red lines' (Dec 5, 2014) The Times of Israel" http://www.timesofisrael.com/hundreds-march-for-coexistence-after-jewish-arab-school-arson/
- ^ "Police: Arrests made in arson of bilingual Hebrew-Arabic school in Jerusalem". Jerusalem Post. 7 December 2014.
- ^ "Dvir, Noam 'Mother of suspect in arson at bilingual school: I would have done the same; Woman expresses disgust that school teaches both Jews and Arabs, calls suspects 'good kids' with Haredi education.' (Dec 8, 2014) YNET"http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4600969,00.html
- ^ "'Smirking Right-Wing Extremists Confess To Torching Jerusalem School' (Dec. 12, 2014) The Jewish Daily Forward" http://forward.com/articles/210817/smirking-right-wing-extremists-confess-to-torching/
- ^ "Vandalism at Tel Aviv synagogue: Burned books and graffiti". Ynet News. 1 December 2014.
- ^ "'3 men jailed for assaulting Arab cab driver: Jewish suspects confess to racist attack early last year; receive 11, 12, 13 months' imprisonment, respectively' (1 Jan 2015) The Times of Israel" http://www.timesofisrael.com/3-men-jailed-for-assaulting-arab-cab-driver/
- ^ a b "England and Israel join for anti-racism football campaign". European Jewish Press. 2006-03-07. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ a b A noble goal: Can Israel give soccer racism the boot?, by Joe Eskenazi, JWeekly
- ^ Sophie McNeill. "Off Side in Israel". SBS Dateline. SBS. Retrieved 13 October 2012.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Israel joins fight against soccer racism, by MATT ZALEN, Jerusalem Post
- ^ Rosenberg, Or (4 April 2012). "Police release Malha mall video, downplaying anti-Arab fan violence". Haaretz. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ "Police probe Beitar anti-Arab riot". The Jewish Chronicle. 29 March 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Prince-Gibson, Eetta (9 April 2012). "Jerusalem mall violence shines light on dark side of Israeli soccer". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Abergil, Ziv (4 April 2012). "צפו בסרטון שחשף: אוהדי בית"ר י-ם לא תקפו". Mako (in Hebrew). Retrieved 14 June 2012.
הגילוי החדש: עשרות האוהדים, שקראו קריאות גזעניות, נסו בבהלה מהמקום כאשר ראו את עובדי הנקיון הערבים רצים לעברם עם מקלות
- ^ Greenwood, Phoebe (23 March 2012). "Israeli football fans in racist attack against shoppers in Jerusalem". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Altman, Yair; Schubert, Gilad; Ben Shimol, David (3 April 2012). המשטרה: "לא היה לינץ' בקניון מלחה". צפו [Police: 'No lynch at Malha Mall.' Watch]. Ynet (in Hebrew). Retrieved 14 June 2012.
עד כה נחקרו כמה עשרות מאוהדי בית"ר שהיו מעורבים באירוע, כאשר כעשרים מהם הורחקו מהמגרשים לתקופות שונות. בנוסף, כמה מהם וכמה מעובדי הניקיון שהיו מעורבים גם כן נחקרו באזהרה.
- ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L., The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel, University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32
- ^ Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009, p 54-56
- ^ Ruttenberg, Danya, Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism, p 178
- ^ Question 13.11: Who are the Edot Mizraxi?. Faqs.org (2010-06-29). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ JBD | Prayer Books Edot Hamizrach. Jewishbookdistributors.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Jews, Oriental Books – Page 4 Archived 2012-03-19 at the Wayback Machine. Allbookstores.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf
- ^ http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf
- ^ Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews – Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Israel's Vibrant Jewish Ethnic Mix. My Jewish Learning. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Jewish spectator School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24
- ^ American Jewish Congress 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53–54, p. 34
- ^
- Shohat, Ella, "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the standpoint of its Jewish victims", in Dangerous liaisons: gender, nation, and postcolonial perspectives, Anne McClintock, Aamir Mufti, Ella Shohat (Eds), U of Minnesota Press, 1997, p 42-44. Originally published as "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims" in Social Text, No. 19/20 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 1–35
- Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987 (Yoram Dinstein) p 249
- Medding, Peter, Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews, p 128-129
- Smooha, Sammy, "Jewish Ethnicity in Israel: Symbolic or Real?", in Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns, Uzi Rebhun (Ed.), UPNE, 2004, p 60-74
- Khazzoom, Loolwa, The flying camel: essays on identity by women of North African and Middle Eastern Jewish heritage, Seal Press, 2003, p 69
- Sharoni, Simona, "Feminist Reflections on the Interplay of Sexism and Racism in Israel", in Challenging racism and sexism: alternatives to genetic explanations, Ethel Tobach, Betty Rosoff (Eds), Feminist Press, 1994, p 309-331
- Hanieh, Adam, "The Reality Behind Israeli Socialism", in The Palestinian Struggle, Zionism and Anti-Semitism, Sean Malloy, Doug Lorimer, Doug Lorimer (Eds), Resistance Books, 2002, pp 21–22
- Lefkowitz, Daniel, Words and stones: the politics of language and identity in Israel, p 15
- Thomas, Amelia, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, p 43
- Zohar, Zion, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: from the Golden Age of Spain to modern times, p 324
- Medding, Peter Y. Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews, p 81
- ^ Meyrav Wurmser refers to all of these issues as well-known complaints of Mizrahim, which new Post-Zionist critics are now going beyond. Wurmser, Meyrav (Spring 2005). "Post-Zionism and the Sephardi Question". Middle East Quarterly. XII (2): 21–35. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ Zohar, Zion (2005). Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to modern times. NYU Press. pp. 300–301.
- ^ a b Weingrod, Alex (Fall 1998). "Ehud Barak's Apology: Letters From the Israeli Press". Israel Studies. 3 (2): 238–252. doi:10.1353/is.2005.0087.
- ^ Yiftachel, Oren (2000). "Social Control, Urban Planning and Ethno-class Relations: Mizrahi Jews in Israel's 'Development Towns'". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 24 (2): 418–438. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00255. S2CID 53354691.
- ^ Barbara S. Okun, Orna Khait-Marelly. 2006. Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Behavior of Adult Multiethnics: Jews in Israel.
- ^ Yogev, Abraham; Jamshy, Haia (1983). "Children of Ethnic Intermarriage in Israeli Schools: Are They Marginal?". Journal of Marriage and Family. 45 (4): 965–974. doi:10.2307/351810. JSTOR 351810.
- ^ "Oops, Something is wrong" (PDF).
- ^ "Oops, Something is wrong" (PDF). www.cbs.gov.il.
- ^ "מרכז אדוה". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "מרכז אדוה" (PDF). Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576–590, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584
- ^ Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough".
- ^ "Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel". The Huffington Post. 2010-06-21. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "The Jewish Religious Conflict Tearing at Israel". Time. 2010-06-17.
- ^ Discrimination claimed in Modiin Illit haredi schools – Israel News, Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Hassidim invite Sephardi girls to school. Jpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ a b "Home - The Jewish Agency". The Jewish Agency. Archived from the original on 4 September 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Yated Neeman, 26 8, 1988
- ^ Microsoft Word – ...... 23 7.doc Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ The melting pot in Israel: the commission of inquiry concerning education in the immigrant camps during the early years of the state SUNY series in Israeli studies Israeli Studies Suny Series, Theory, Research, and Practice in Social Education by Tsevi Tsameret, SUNY Press, 2002 [5]
- ^ Hatzofe, Y. Cohen Coercion anti – religious education of immigrant children, 11.4.93
- ^ Solving the Mystery of Missing Yemeni Babies, ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Forrest Sawyer and Linda Patillo Reporting, August 25, 1997
- ^ Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009
- ^ See also, regarding media and Yemeni Jews: Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009
- ^ *Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race, Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice, Christine Ward Gailey University of Texas Press, 2010
- "In Israel, ethno-racial divides have created a widespread belief, upheld by some birth mother-adult child reunions, that hundreds of Yemeni infants had been kidnapped for adoption by Israeli couples. Many Yemeni refugee children had been declared dead or disappeared in the refugee camps after the migration of some 50,000 Yemeni Jews to Israel in 1948–1949. It appears from a national inquiry in the late 1990s that a network of doctors and clinics were involved in the adoptions." (page 154)
- Grenberg, Joel, The Babies from Yemen: An Enduring Mystery, The New York Times, Sept 2, 1997.
- "Those who believe the theory contend that hundreds, perhaps thousands, of Yemenite babies who were reported to have died or to have disappeared after their parents came to Israel were actually kidnapped and given or sold for adoption to European-born Israelis and American Jews. The controversy over the Israeli establishment's treatment of the 50,000 Yemenite Jewish immigrants, most of whom were airlifted to Israel in 1949 and 1950, has festered for years. It has stoked deep-seated feelings of resentment among the country's Sephardic Jews of Middle Eastern and North African origin. ... Other Yemenite Jewish advocates put the numbers at between 1,000 and more than 2,000. They assert that the European-born Ashkenazic Israeli establishment looked down at the new immigrants and their traditional ways and felt free to take their children for adoption by childless European Jewish couples ... Mr. Levitan agreed that there was a patronizing attitude toward the immigrants. In some cases the Yemenites' religious studies were restricted and their traditional side-curls were cut to remake them into modern, secular Israelis. ... The concept was absorption through modernization, by inculcating the values of Western society", Mr. Levitan said. "The parents were treated like primitive people who didn't know what was good for them, who aren't capable of taking care of their own kids. There was disregard for the parents, an unwillingness to make the effort to investigate, but not a conspiracy."
- Shoha, Ella, Taboo memories, diasporic voices, Duke University Press, 2006,
- "..Yemenis .. fell prey to doctors, nurses, and social workers, most of them on the state payroll. ... The act of kidnapping was not simply a result of financial interests to increase the state's revenues, it was also a result of a deeply ingrained belief in the inferiority of Jews from Arab and Muslim countries, seen as careless breeders with little sense of responsibility ... In this intersection of race, gender, and class, the displaced Jews from Muslim countries became victims of the logic of progress.." page 349.
- Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009 –
- This book is about racism against Yemenite and Mizrahi jews in Israel, focusing on the kidnappings.
- Gordon, Linda, The great Arizona orphan abduction, Harvard University Press, 1999, p 310:
- "In Israel, Ashkenazi (European) Jewish women, with the help of doctors, stole babies born to Sephardic Yemeni Jewish mothers from the hospitals; the mothers were told that the babies had died. Here is a phenomenon that is racist yet lacks even the kind of racial justification evident in [the kidnappings in] 1904 Arizona." (page 310)
- Yuval-Davis, Nira, Gender & nation, SAGE, 1997,
- "Public investigations are taking place in Israel at the moment concerning accusations that hundreds of Yemeni Jewish babies were abducted from their mothers who were told they were dead and they were given for adoption to Ashkenzi middle class families. Breaking up communities and families and separating children from their parents would often be central to practices of forced assimilationism. Such policies disempower the minorities and can reinforce their location in subjugated positionings." (p 54)
- Kanaaneh, Rhoda Ann, Birthing the nation: strategies of Palestinian women in Israel, University of California Press, 2002,
- "[regarding the] disappearance of Yemenite Jewish babies in the 1950s, whom many Yemenites believe were kidnapped and given to childless European Jewish parents to adopt, the author suggests that something similar may have happened to Palestinian children who went missing during the 1948 war. Here Palestinians and Yemenite Jews are united in their subjugation to the Ashkenazi Jewish establishment through their lost children". (page 164).
- ^ a b c Abramov, S. Zalman, Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277-278
- ^ a b Smooha, Sammy, Israel: pluralism and conflict, University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401
- ^ How Do the Issues in the Conversion Controversy Relate to Israel?. Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Lipman, Jennifer (May 2011). "On this day: Operation Solomon May 24 1991: Dramatic airlift to Israel". The Jewish Chronicle.
- ^ Weil, Shalva (May 2011). "Operation Solomon 20 Years On". Center for Security Studies.
- ^ [6] Ha'aretz.
- ^ a b c Rebhun, Uzi, Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns, UPNE, 2004, p. 139-140
- ^ Onolemhemhen Durrenda Nash, The Black Jews of Ethiopia, Scarecrow Press; Reprint edition 2002, page 40
- ^ Ribner, David S.; Schindler, Ruben (1996). "The Crisis of Religious Identity Among Ethiopian Immigrants in Israel". Journal of Black Studies. 27 (1): 104–117. doi:10.1177/002193479602700107. JSTOR 2784774. S2CID 143495176.
- ^ Kemp, Adriana, Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges, Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155
- ^ "Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim", Jerusalem Post, 31 Aug 2009. http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392
- ^ "Olmert: Ethiopian Jews Are Right to Feel Discriminated Against". Haaretz.com. 2007-12-09. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Ethiopian Controversy In Israel: It's Not Racism Archived 2010-08-04 at the Wayback Machine. Adl.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ J’lem appoints first Ethiopian-born ambassador Archived 2012-09-15 at the Wayback Machine. Jerusalem Post, 02/28/2012
- ^ "Israel's Treatment of Ethiopians Called 'Racist'". headlinesafrica.com. 2010-01-15. Archived from the original on 9 November 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ Dawber, Alistair (28 January 2013). "Israel gave birth control to Ethiopian Jews without their consent". Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Gordts, Eline (28 January 2013). "Reports: Israel Forced Ethiopian Women To Undergo Birth Control Shots". HuffPost.
- ^ "Israeli Minister Appointing Team to Probe Ethiopian Birth Control Shot Controversy". Haaretz.com. 28 February 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Video: Police suspended after assaulting IDF soldier in incident caught on tape The Jerusalem Post, 29 April 2015
- ^ Cops beat Ethiopian IDF soldier in alleged racist attack The Times of Israel, 27 April 2015
- ^ Ethiopians protest racist attack: 'Israel will be like Baltimore' YNET, 30 April 2015
- ^ Netanyahu condemns police beating of Ethiopian soldier, but calls for calm amid protests Jerusalem Post, 30 April 2015
- ^ Anti-Police Protest in Israel Turns Violent The New York Times, 3 May 2015
- ^ "Chapter 3. Views of Religious Groups". Pew Research Center. February 2010.
- ^ "Poll: 40% of Israeli Arabs Believe Holocaust Never Happened". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ a b Smooha, Sammy. "The 2008 Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel: Main Findings and Trends of Change" (PDF). Jewish-Arab Center, University of Haifa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
- ^ "Murder survivor: I still have flashbacks - Israel News, Ynetnews". Ynetnews.com. 1995-06-20. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "Issawiya Mob Attack: 17 Nabbed - Defense/Security - News". Israel National News. 2011-07-31. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "Israel's red lines - Israel Opinion, Ynetnews". Ynetnews.com. 1995-06-20. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ The Daily Telegraph. London http://my.telegraph.co.uk/actuality/realdeal/15813342/true-face-of-israeli-arab-racism/. Missing or empty
|title=
(help)[permanent dead link] - ^ "'Death to Jews' scrawled on El Al plane". Ynet. 2008-03-11. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ Swastikas, Palestinian flag sprayed on Jaffa buildings – Israel News, Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Ben, Yehuda. (2010-02-09) Yehuda Ben-Meir / Lieberman is no racist – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News Archived 2010-03-29 at the Wayback Machine. Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Has Israeli Arab MK Ahmed Tibi Become a Racist? – Op-Eds. Israel National News. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ The Catholic World Report; Volume 7, p. 13, Ignatius Press, 1997
- ^ Stern, Yoav. (2010-02-09) Islamic Movement head charged with incitement to racism, violence – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News. Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Islamic Movement leader charged with inciting violence – Israel News, Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ "Islamic Movement Head Charged With Incitement to Racism, Violence". Haaretz. Jan 29, 2008. Retrieved August 1, 2018.
- ^ Ben Levy, Sholomo. "The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
- ^ Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.
- ^ Johannes P. Schade, ed. (2006). "Black Hebrews". Encyclopedia of World Religions. Franklin Park, N.J.: Foreign Media Group. ISBN 978-1-60136-000-7.
- ^ Bahrampour, Tara (June 26, 2000). "They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ Michaeli, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Michaeli, p. 74.
- ^ For additional examples of charges of racism in this incident, see:
- Black Zion: African American religious encounters with Judaism, Yvonne Patricia Chireau, p 74
- Jet magazine [7]
- In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, Volume 2, David A. Harris, page 171
- Culture and customs of Israel, Rebecca L. Torstrick, page 41
- ^ Shipler, David K. (January 30, 1981). "Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
- ^ "The Hebrew Israelite Community". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. September 29, 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- ^ Kaufman, David (April 16, 2006). "Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
- ^ In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship. Alush, Zvi (February 2, 2009). "First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship". Ynetnews. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
- ^ Forman, Seth, Blacks in the Jewish Mind: A Crisis of Liberalism, p. 14-15
- ^ Branch, Taylor "Blacks and Jews: The Uncivil War", in Bridges and Boundaries: African Americans and American Jews (Salzman, Ed), 1992
- ^ Blacks in the Jewish mind: a crisis of liberalism, Seth Forman, NYU Press, 1998: p. 15
- ^ Bitte Hammargren (28 April 2012). "Israel vill utvisa afrikanska immigranter" (in Northern Sami). Svenska Dagbladet. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
- ^ Sheera Frenkel (24 May 2012). "Violent Riots Target African Nationals Living In Israel". NPR.
- ^ Gilad Morag (28 May 2012). "Video: Israeli hurls egg at African migrant". Ynet.
- ^ Surkes, Sue (20 March 2018). "Chief rabbi calls black people 'monkeys'". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Kra-Oz, Tal (14 May 2018). "Israeli Chief Rabbi Calls African Americans 'Monkeys'". The Tablet. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ Cohen, Hayley (21 March 2018). "ADL Slams Chief Rabbi of Israel for Calling Black People 'Monkeys'". Haaretz. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ "The Or Inquiry – Summary of Events". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2007-10-01.
- ^ "The Or Inquiry – Summary of Events". Haaretz. 2000-09-12. Archived from the original on December 16, 2001. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
- ^ "Anti-Arab riots spark Israeli soulsearching". BBC News. 2000-10-11. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
- ^ "The Akko (Acre) Pogrom - Fundamentally Freund - Michael Freund - Blogs". Israel National News. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "The Acre Riots » Counterpunch: Tells the Facts, Names the Names". Counterpunch. 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ a b "Israel rumor riots subside after 4 days". CNN. 2008-10-12.
- ^ Arabs and Jews Clash on Yom Kippur in Akko – Inside Israel – Israel News. Israel National News. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Yom Kippur on Israel's Northern Border — Israel News Portal Archived 2011-07-13 at the Wayback Machine. Kadmiel.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ Arabs Riot in Umm El-Fahm. MK Eldad Leaves Polling Station – Inside Israel – Israel News. Israel National News. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, United Nations, New York, 7 March 1966
- ^ The Anti-Israel Divestment Campaign: Introduction Archived 2010-08-11 at the Wayback Machine. Adl.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
- ^ "2BackToHomePage3". Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000-02-23). "Israel Government Action in the Arab Sector – February 2000". www.mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
The Director Generals' Committee was assigned the responsibility of devising a program of action for the development and advancement of the Arab sector, and drawing up a cooperation framework involving the various government ministries. This program will include the raising of resources and promotion of investment, while applying an affirmative action policy in the areas of housing, employment, industry, transport, infrastructures, agriculture, and education in the non-Jewish sector.
- ^ "Jerusalem Houses" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 30, 2007.
- ^ "Israel Government Action in the Arab Sector – Febr". Mfa.gov.il. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-05-16.