Deutschland era el barco líder de su clase de cruceros pesados (a menudo denominados acorazados de bolsillo) que sirvieron con la Kriegsmarine de la Alemania nazi durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Encargado por el gobierno de Weimar para el Reichsmarine , fue depositado en elastillero Deutsche Werke en Kiel en febrero de 1929 y terminado en abril de 1933. Originalmente clasificado como un barco blindado ( Panzerschiff ) por el Reichsmarine, en febrero de 1940 los alemanes reclasificaron el resto dos barcos de esta clase como cruceros pesados. [a]En 1940, pasó a llamarse Lützow , después de que el crucero pesado inconcluso de la clase Almirante Hipper Lützow fuera entregado a la Unión Soviética.
Deutschland en 1935. | |
Historia | |
---|---|
Alemania | |
Nombre: | Deutschland |
Constructor: | Deutsche Werke , Kiel |
Acostado: | 5 de febrero de 1929 |
Lanzado: | 19 de mayo de 1931 |
Oficial: | 1 de abril de 1933 |
Renombrado: | Enero de 1940, Lützow |
Destino: | Hundido como objetivo el 22 de julio de 1947 |
Características generales | |
Clase y tipo: | Crucero clase Deutschland |
Desplazamiento: |
|
Largo: | 186 m (610 pies 3 pulgadas) |
Haz: | 20,69 m (67 pies 11 pulgadas) |
Sequía: | 7,25 m (23 pies 9 pulgadas) |
Potencia instalada: | 54,000 PS (53,260 shp; 39,720 kW) |
Propulsión: |
|
Velocidad: | 28 nudos (52 km / h; 32 mph) |
Distancia: | 10,000 millas náuticas (19,000 km; 12,000 mi) a 20 nudos (37 km / h; 23 mph) |
Complemento: |
|
Sensores y sistemas de procesamiento: |
|
Armamento: |
|
Armadura: | |
Aeronaves transportadas: | Dos Arado Ar 196 hidroaviones |
Instalaciones de aviación: | Una catapulta |
El barco vio una acción significativa con la Kriegsmarine, incluidas varias patrullas de no intervención en la Guerra Civil Española , durante la cual fue atacado por bombarderos republicanos . Al estallar la Segunda Guerra Mundial, estaba navegando por el Atlántico Norte, preparada para atacar el tráfico mercante aliado . El mal tiempo obstaculizó sus esfuerzos, y hundió o capturó solo un puñado de barcos antes de regresar a Alemania. Luego participó en la Operación Weserübung , la invasión de Noruega. Dañada en la batalla de Drøbak Sound , fue llamada a Alemania para reparaciones. Mientras estaba en ruta, fue torpedeada y gravemente dañada por un submarino británico.
Las reparaciones se completaron en marzo de 1941, y Lützow regresó a Noruega para unirse a las fuerzas desplegadas contra el envío aliado a la Unión Soviética. Ella encalló durante un ataque planeado contra el convoy PQ 17 , que requirió otro regreso a Alemania para reparaciones. Luego vio acción en la Batalla del Mar de Barents con el crucero pesado Admiral Hipper , que terminó sin destruir el convoy JW 51B . Los problemas del motor obligaron a una serie de reparaciones que culminaron en una revisión completa a finales de 1943, tras lo cual el barco permaneció en el Báltico . Hundido en aguas poco profundas en el Kaiserfahrt en abril de 1945 por bombarderos de la Royal Air Force (RAF), Lützow fue utilizado como batería de cañones para apoyar a las tropas alemanas que luchaban contra el ejército soviético hasta el 4 de mayo de 1945, cuando fue incapacitada por su tripulación. Criado por la Armada soviética en 1947, posteriormente fue hundido como objetivo en el Báltico.
Diseño
Deutschland fue de 186 metros (610 pies) de largo total y tenía un haz de 20,69 m (67 pies 11 in) y un máximo proyecto de 7,25 m (23 pies 9 in). El barco tenía un desplazamiento de diseño de 12.630 t (12.430 toneladas largas; 13.920 toneladas cortas) y un desplazamiento a plena carga de 14.290 toneladas largas (14.520 t), [1] aunque se declaró oficialmente que el barco estaba dentro de las 10.000 toneladas largas. (10.160 t) límite del Tratado de Versalles . [2] El Deutschland estaba propulsado por cuatro juegos de motores diésel MAN de 9 cilindros y doble efecto y dos tiempos . La velocidad máxima del barco era de 28 nudos (52 km / h; 32 mph), a 54.000 PS (53.260 shp; 39.720 kW). A una velocidad de crucero de 20 nudos (37 km / h; 23 mph), el barco podría navegar durante 10,000 millas náuticas (19,000 km; 12,000 mi). Según lo diseñado, su complemento estándar consistía en 33 oficiales y 586 hombres alistados, aunque después de 1935 esto se incrementó significativamente a 30 oficiales y 921-1,040 marineros. [1]
Deutschland ' s armamento principal era seis 28 cm (11 in) SK C / 28 armas de fuego montado en dos triples torretas , uno hacia adelante y una popa de la superestructura . El barco llevaba una batería secundaria de ocho cañones SK C / 28 de 15 cm (5,9 pulgadas) en torretas individuales agrupadas en medio del barco . Su batería antiaérea consistía originalmente en tres cañones L / 45 de 8,8 cm (3,5 pulgadas), aunque en 1935 fueron reemplazados por seis cañones L / 78 de 8,8 cm . En 1940, se retiraron los cañones de 8,8 cm y se instalaron en su lugar seis cañones L / 65 de 10,5 cm (4,1 pulgadas), cuatro cañones de 3,7 cm (1,5 pulgadas) y diez cañones de 2 cm (0,79 pulgadas). Al final de la guerra, su batería antiaérea se había reorganizado nuevamente, que constaba de seis cañones de 4 cm (1,6 pulgadas), diez cañones de 3,7 cm y veintiocho cañones de 2 cm. [1]
El barco también lleva un par de cuádruple 53,3 cm (21 in) montado en la cubierta tubos de torpedos colocados en su popa. El barco estaba equipado con dos hidroaviones Arado Ar 196 y una catapulta . Deutschland ' s cinturón blindado era de 60 a 80 mm (2/4 a 3/1 pulgadas) de espesor; su cubierta superior tenía un grosor de 17 mm (0,67 pulgadas), mientras que la cubierta blindada principal tenía un grosor de 17 a 45 mm (0,67 a 1,77 pulgadas). Las torretas de la batería principal tenían caras de 140 mm (5,5 pulgadas) de grosor y lados de 80 mm de grosor. [1] El radar inicialmente consistía en un equipo FMG G (gO) "Seetakt" ; en 1942, también se instaló un set FuMO 26. [3] [b]
Historia
Deutschland fue encargado por el Reichsmarine del astillero Deutsche Werke en Kiel como Ersatz Preussen , un reemplazo del antiguo acorazado pre-dreadnought Preussen . [1] Su quilla fue colocada el 5 de febrero de 1929, [4] en construcción número 219. [1] El barco fue botado el 19 de mayo de 1931; en su lanzamiento, fue bautizada por el canciller alemán Heinrich Brüning . El barco comenzó a deslizarse accidentalmente por la grada mientras Brüning estaba dando su discurso de bautizo. [5] Una vez finalizados los trabajos de acondicionamiento , las pruebas iniciales en el mar comenzaron en noviembre de 1932. [6] El barco fue enviado a la Reichsmarine el 1 de abril de 1933. [3]
Deutschland pasó la mayor parte de 1933 y 1934 realizando maniobras de entrenamiento; [7] Las primeras pruebas de velocidad en mayo de 1933 indicaron que era preferible una velocidad máxima de 25 nudos (46 km / h; 29 mph), pero el barco alcanzó cómodamente los 28 nudos (52 km / h; 32 mph) en las pruebas de velocidad de junio. . Las pruebas se completaron en diciembre de 1933 y el barco estaba listo para el servicio activo con la flota. [6] El barco también realizó una serie de visitas de buena voluntad a puertos extranjeros, incluidas visitas a Gotemburgo , Suecia, y en octubre de 1934, una visita oficial de estado a Edimburgo , Escocia. En abril de 1934, Adolf Hitler visitó el barco; Según los informes, recorrió el barco solo, hablando informalmente con los tripulantes. [7]
El barco realizó una serie de viajes de entrenamiento de larga distancia en el Atlántico en 1935. En marzo de 1935, navegó hasta las aguas del Caribe y América del Sur. Después de regresar a Alemania, fue al muelle para trabajos de mantenimiento de rutina, así como para la instalación de equipo adicional. Ella instaló su catapulta para aviones en este período y se le proporcionaron dos hidroaviones Heinkel He 60 . [7] El Deutschland participó en maniobras de la flota en aguas alemanas a principios de 1936. Se le unió su barco gemelo recién comisionado , el Almirante Scheer, para un crucero por el Atlántico medio, que incluyó una escala en Madeira . [8]
guerra civil Española
Tras el estallido de la Guerra Civil española en 1936, Deutschland y el almirante Scheer fueron enviados a la costa española el 23 de julio de 1936 para realizar patrullas de no intervención frente a las costas de España controladas por los republicanos . Durante el despliegue, sus torretas de armas fueron pintadas con grandes bandas negras, blancas y rojas para ayudar en la identificación desde el aire e indicar su estado neutral. Sus funciones durante el despliegue incluyen la evacuación de refugiados que huyen de los combates, la protección de barcos alemanes que transportaban suministros para Francisco Franco 's nacionalistas , y la recolección de inteligencia para los nacionalistas. [8]
In May 1937, the ship was docked in the port of Palma on the island of Majorca, along with several other neutral warships, including vessels from the British and Italian navies. The port was attacked by Republican aircraft, though anti-aircraft fire from the warships drove them off. The torpedo boats Seeadler and Albatross escorted Deutschland to the island of Ibiza on 24 May. While moored in port there, she was again attacked by Republican bombers;[8] a pair of Soviet-built SB-2 bombers, secretly flown by Soviet Air Force pilots, bombed the ship.[9] Two bombs struck the ship; the first penetrated the upper deck near the bridge and exploded above the main armored deck while the second hit near the third starboard 15 cm gun, causing serious fires below decks.[8] The attack killed 31 German sailors and wounded 74.[9]
Deutschland quickly weighed anchor and left port. She rendezvoused with Admiral Scheer to take on additional doctors before proceeding to Gibraltar where the dead were buried with full military honors. Ten days later, however, Hitler ordered the men be exhumed and returned for burial in Germany. The ship's wounded men were also evacuated in Gibraltar for treatment. Hitler, furious over the attack, ordered Admiral Scheer to bombard the port of Almería in retaliation for the so-called "Deutschland incident".[8] Stalin subsequently issued orders that further attacks on German and Italian warships were strictly prohibited.[9]
Deutschland spent the majority of 1938 and 1939 conducting training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet and making goodwill visits to various foreign ports. She made an official visit to Spain following the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War 1939. The ship participated in a major fleet exercise into the Atlantic with her sister Admiral Graf Spee, the light cruisers Köln, Leipzig, and Nürnberg, and several destroyers, U-boats, and support vessels.[10]
World War II
On 24 August 1939, a week before the German invasion of Poland, Deutschland set sail from Wilhelmshaven, bound for a position south of Greenland. Here, she would be ready to attack Allied merchant traffic in the event of a general war following the attack on Poland. The supply ship Westerwald was assigned to support Deutschland during the operation.[11] Deutschland was ordered to strictly observe prize rules, which required raiders to stop and search ships for contraband before sinking them, and to ensure that their crews are safely evacuated. The ship was also ordered to avoid combat with even inferior naval forces, as commerce disruption was the primary objective.[12] Hitler hoped to secure a negotiated peace with Britain and France after he overran Poland, and he therefore did not authorize Deutschland to begin her raiding mission against British and French shipping until 26 September.[13] By this time, Deutschland had moved south to hunt in the Bermuda-Azores sea lane.[11]
On 5 October, she found and sank the British transport ship Stonegate, though not before the freighter was able to send a distress signal informing vessels in the area of Deutschland's presence. She then turned north to the Halifax route, where on 9 October, she encountered the American ship City of Flint.[10] The 4,963 gross register tons (GRT) freighter was found to be carrying contraband, and so was seized.[14] A prize crew was dispatched to the ship; they took the ship with the original crew held prisoner to Germany via Murmansk. The ship was seized by Norway when she anchored in Haugesund, however, and control of the ship was returned to the original crew. Meanwhile, on 14 October, Deutschland encountered and sank the Norwegian transport Lorentz W Hansen,[10] of some 1,918 GRT.[14] The same day, she stopped the neutral Danish steamer Kongsdal, though when it became apparent that she was headed for a neutral port, the prisoners from Lorentz W Hansen were placed aboard her and she was allowed to proceed. Kongsdal later reported the encounter to the British Royal Navy and confirmed Deutschland as the raider operating in the North Atlantic.[10]
Severe weather in the North Atlantic hampered Deutschland's raiding mission, though she did tie down several British warships assigned to track her down.[10] The French Force de Raid, centered on the battleship Dunkerque, was occupied with protecting convoys around Britain to prevent them from being attacked by Deutschland.[15] In early November, the Naval High Command recalled Deutschland; she passed through the Denmark Strait on 15 November and anchored in Gotenhafen on the 17th.[16] In the course of her raiding mission, she sank only two vessels and captured a third.[17] In 1940, the ship underwent a major overhaul, during which a raked clipper bow was installed to improve the sea-keeping qualities of the ship.[18] At this time, she was re-rated as a heavy cruiser and renamed Lützow.[17] Hitler himself made the decision to rename the ship, recognizing that the sinking of a warship, always possible, was a propaganda disaster if it bore the name of its country.[19] Admiral Erich Raeder, the commander in chief of the Kriegsmarine, also hoped that renaming the ship would confuse Allied intelligence; the Admiral Hipper-class cruiser Lützow was designated for sale to the Soviet Navy, and it was hoped that the use of her name for Deutschland would hide the transaction.[20] The refit took until March 1940,[17] after which it was intended to send the ship on another commerce-raiding operation into the South Atlantic.[20] In April, however, she was assigned to forces participating in the invasion of Norway.[17]
Operation Weserübung
Lützow was assigned to Group 5, alongside the new heavy cruiser Blücher and the light cruiser Emden under the command of Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz. Kummetz flew his flag in Blücher. Group 5 was tasked with capturing Oslo, the capital of Norway, and transported a force of 2,000 mountain troops from the Wehrmacht.[21] Lützow embarked over 400 of the soldiers for the voyage to Norway. The force left Germany on 8 April and passed through the Kattegat. While en route, the British submarine HMS Triton attacked the flotilla; her torpedoes missed, and German torpedo boats drove the submarine off.[22]
Shortly before midnight on the night of 8 April, Group 5, with Blücher in the lead, passed the outer ring of Norwegian coastal batteries. Lützow followed directly behind the flagship, with Emden astern. Heavy fog and neutrality requirements, which required the Norwegians to fire warning shots, permitted the Germans to avoid damage. The Norwegians, including those manning the guns at the Oscarsborg Fortress were on alert, however. Steaming into the Oslofjord at a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), the Germans came into range of the Norwegian guns; the 28 cm, 15 cm and 57 mm guns opened fire on the invaders. During the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound, Blücher was hit by many shells and two torpedoes. She quickly capsized and sank with the loss of approximately 1,000 sailors and soldiers.[23][24] Lützow was hit three times by 15 cm shells from Oscarsborg's Kopås battery, causing significant damage.[25]
Lützow's forward gun turret was hit by one of the 15 cm rounds, which disabled the center gun and damaged the right barrel. Four men were wounded. A second shell struck the ship's deck and penetrated the upper and main armored decks; starting a fire in the cruiser's hospital and operating theater, killing two soldiers and severely wounding six others. A third struck her superstructure behind the port-side aircraft crane. One of the aircraft on board was damaged, and four gunners were killed by the third shell.[25] The ship was only able to fire her secondary battery in return. The heavy damage forced Lützow and the rest of the squadron to reverse course and exit the fjord. She eventually landed her troop complement in Verle Bay, after which she used her operational 28 cm guns to provide fire support. By the afternoon of 9 April, most of the Norwegian fortresses had been captured and the commander of the remaining Norwegian forces opened negotiations for surrender.[22] The delay had, however, allowed enough time for the Norwegian government and royal family to flee Oslo.[24]
The damage Lützow sustained prompted the Kriegsmarine to order her to return to Germany for repairs.[26] The rest of Group 5 remained in Norway,[27] so Lützow cruised at top speed to avoid submarines. Nevertheless, the British submarine HMS Spearfish attacked the ship on 11 April and scored a serious hit. The torpedo destroyed Lützow's stern, causing it to collapse and nearly fall off, and blew off her steering gear. Unable to steer, she was towed back to port and decommissioned for repairs, which lasted for nearly a year. During the attack on Norway, the ship suffered nineteen dead, and another fifteen were killed by the torpedo strike.[26] Despite the setback, KzS August Thiele, Lützow's commander, was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his actions during the Battle of Drøbak Sound, during which he took command of the task force after the loss of Blücher.[28]
Lützow was recommissioned for service on 31 March 1941, after which the Kriegsmarine initially planned to send the ship on the commerce raiding operation planned the previous year. Her sister Admiral Scheer was to join Lützow for the operation, and on 12 June she departed for Norway with an escort of destroyers. British torpedo bombers attacked the ship off Egersund and scored a single hit that disabled her electrical system and rendered the ship motionless. She took on a severe list to port and the port shaft was damaged. The crew effected emergency repairs that allowed her to return to Germany; repair work in Kiel took six months. By 10 May 1942, the ship was finally pronounced ready for action.[29][30]
Deployment to Norway
Lützow left Germany on 15 May 1942 for Norway; by 25 May she had joined Admiral Scheer in Bogen Bay. She was made the flagship of the now Vizeadmiral Kummetz, the commander of Kampfgruppe 2. Fuel shortages restricted operations, although Lützow and Admiral Scheer were able to conduct limited battle training exercises. Kampfgruppe 2 was assigned to Operation Rösselsprung, a planned attack on the Allied convoy PQ 17, which was headed to the Soviet Union. On 3 July, the force left their anchorages, and in heavy fog Lützow and three destroyers ran aground and suffered significant damage.[31] The British detected the German departure and ordered the convoy to scatter. Aware that surprise had been lost, the Germans broke off the surface attack and turned the destruction of PQ 17 over to the U-boats and Luftwaffe. Twenty-four of the convoy's thirty-five transports were sunk.[32] Lützow returned to Germany for repairs, which took until the end of October. She began a brief set of trials starting on 30 October. She returned to Norway in early November with a destroyer escort, arriving in Narvik on the 12th.[31]
On 30 December, Lützow, the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper, and six destroyers left Narvik for Operation Regenbogen, an attack on convoy JW 51B, which was reported by German intelligence to be lightly escorted.[31] Kummetz's plan was to divide his force in half; he would take Admiral Hipper and three destroyers north of the convoy to attack it and draw away the escorts. Lützow and the remaining three destroyers would then attack the undefended convoy from the south. At 09:15 on the 31st, the British destroyer Obdurate spotted the three destroyers screening for Admiral Hipper; the Germans opened fire first. Four of the other five destroyers escorting the convoy rushed to join the fight, while Achates laid a smoke screen to cover the convoy. Kummetz then turned back north to draw the destroyers away. Captain Robert Sherbrooke, the British escort commander, left two destroyers to cover the convoy while he took the remaining four to pursue Admiral Hipper.[33]
Lützow meanwhile steamed toward the convoy from the south, and at 11:42 she opened fire. The harsh conditions made accurate fire difficult; she ceased shooting by 12:03 without any hits.[34] Rear Admiral Robert Burnett's Force R, centered on the cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica, standing by in distant support of the Allied convoy,[35] raced to the scene. The cruisers engaged Admiral Hipper, which had been firing to port at the destroyer Obedient. Burnett's ships approached from Admiral Hipper's starboard side and achieved complete surprise.[36] Lützow was then ordered to break off the attack on the convoy and reinforce Admiral Hipper.[34] Lützow inadvertently came alongside Sheffield and Jamaica, and after identifying them as hostile, engaged them, though her fire remained inaccurate. The British cruisers turned toward Lützow and came under fire from both German cruisers. Burnett quickly decided to withdraw in the face of superior German firepower; his ships were armed with 6 in (150 mm) guns, while Admiral Hipper carried 20.3 cm (8.0 in) guns, and Lützow had 28 cm (11 in) guns.[37]
Operations in the Baltic
Hitler was furious over the failure to destroy the convoy, and ordered that all remaining German major warships be broken up for scrap. In protest, Raeder resigned; Hitler replaced him with Admiral Karl Dönitz, who persuaded Hitler to rescind the order to dismantle the surface ships of the Kriegsmarine. In March, Lützow moved to Altafjord, where she experienced problems with her diesel engines. The propulsion system proved to be so unreliable that repairs in Germany were necessary. She briefly returned to Norway but by the end of September 1943, a thorough overhaul was required. The work was completed in Kiel by January 1944, after which she remained in the Baltic Sea to conduct training cruises for new naval personnel.[34]
On 13 April 1945, twenty-four RAF Avro Lancaster bombers attacked Lützow and Prinz Eugen, without success due to cloud cover. The RAF failed again two days later, but on 16 April eighteen Lancasters from 617 ("Dambusters") squadron scored a hit and several near misses on Lützow with Tallboy bombs in the Kaiserfahrt.[38] Despite sinking, the water was shallow enough that her main deck was still 2 m (6 ft 7 in) above water, permitting her use as a stationary gun battery against advancing Soviet forces under control of Task Force Thiele. She continued in this role until 4 May, by which time she had expended her main battery ammunition.[3] Her crew rigged scuttling charges to destroy the hull but a fire caused the explosives to detonate prematurely.[39] The fate of Lützow was long unclear, as with most of the ships seized by the Soviet Navy. According to the historians Erich Gröner and M. J. Whitley, the Soviet Navy raised the ship in September 1947 and broke her up for scrap in 1948–1949.[3][40] The historians Hildebrand, Röhr and Steinmetz, in their book Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe, state that she instead sank off Kolberg, claiming that the Lützow broken up in the late 1940s was instead the Admiral Hipper-class Lützow that had been sold to the Soviet Union in 1940.[41] The historian Hans Georg Prager examined the Soviet archives in the early 2000s and discovered that Lützow had been sunk in weapons tests, in the Baltic Sea off Świnoujście in Poland (under German control and named Swinemünde during the war), on 22 July 1947.[42][43]
In October 2020 an unexploded Tallboy bomb from the attack on Lützow was found in the Piast Canal (Kaiserfahrt during the war). After evacuating approximately 750 people who lived nearby, an attempt was undertaken to deflagrate it with a remote-controlled device, but it exploded, without casualties.[44]
Notas al pie
Notes
- ^ The third ship, Admiral Graf Spee, had been scuttled following the Battle of the River Plate. See Gardiner & Chesneau, p. 220.
- ^ FMG stands for Funkmess Gerät (radar equipment). "G" denoted that the equipment was manufactured by GEMA, "g" indicated that it operated between 335 and 440 MHz, while "O" indicated the positioning of the set atop of the forward rangefinder. FuMO stands for Funkmess-Ortung (detection radar). See Williamson, p. 7.
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f Gröner, p. 60.
- ^ Pope, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d Gröner, p. 61.
- ^ Gardiner & Chesneau, p. 227.
- ^ Hildebrand, Röhr, & Steinmetz (Vol 2), p. 255.
- ^ a b Williamson, p. 10.
- ^ a b c Williamson, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d e Williamson, p. 14.
- ^ a b c Murphy, p. 10.
- ^ a b c d e Williamson, p. 15.
- ^ a b Jackson, p. 59.
- ^ Bidlingmaier, p. 76.
- ^ Bidlingmaier, p. 77.
- ^ a b Rohwer, p. 7.
- ^ Rohwer, p. 8.
- ^ Rohwer, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d Whitley, p. 68.
- ^ Williamson, p. 11.
- ^ Creswell, p. 21.
- ^ a b Williamson, p. 16.
- ^ Lunde, p. 76.
- ^ a b Williamson, p. 17.
- ^ Haar, pp. 133–135.
- ^ a b Lunde, p. 220.
- ^ a b Haar, pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b Williamson, p. 18.
- ^ Lunde, p. 221.
- ^ Dörr, p. 282.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Brown, pp. 31–32.
- ^ a b c Williamson, p. 19.
- ^ Rohwer, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Miller, p. 332.
- ^ a b c Williamson, p. 20.
- ^ Miller, p. 331.
- ^ Pope, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Pope, pp. 228–229.
- ^ Rohwer, p. 409.
- ^ Williamson, p. 21.
- ^ Whitley, p. 69.
- ^ Hildebrand, Röhr, & Steinmetz (Vol 6), p. 25.
- ^ Prager, pp. 317–320.
- ^ Shirokorad, Alexander (2004). Флот, который уничтожил Хрущёв (Flot, kotoryi unichtozhil Khruschev (in Russian). Moscow: AST publishers. ISBN 5-9602-0027-9., pp. 108-112.
- ^ "WW2 'earthquake' bomb explodes in Poland during attempt to defuse it". BBC News. 13 October 2020.
Referencias
- Bidlingmaier, Gerhard (1971). "KM Admiral Graf Spee". Warship Profile 4. Windsor: Profile Publications. pp. 73–96. OCLC 20229321.
- Barker, Ralph (2009). Ship-Busters: British Torpedo-Bombers in WWII. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0644-5.
- Creswell, John (1967). Sea Warfare, 1939–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08056-9.
- Dörr, Manfred (1996). Die Ritterkreuzträger der Überwasserstreitkräfte der Kriegsmarine—Band 2:L–Z (in German). Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7648-2497-6.
- Gardiner, Robert & Chesneau, Roger, eds. (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-913-9.
- Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships: 1815–1945. I: Major Surface Vessels. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-790-6.
- Haar, Geir H. (2009). The German invasion of Norway – April 1940. Barnsley: Seaforth. ISBN 978-1-84832-032-1.
- Hildebrand, Hans H.; Röhr, Albert & Steinmetz, Hans-Otto (1993). Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe. 2. Ratingen: Mundus Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8364-9743-5.
- Hildebrand, Hans H.; Röhr, Albert & Steinmetz, Hans-Otto (1993). Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe. 6. Ratingen: Mundus Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8364-9743-5.
- Jackson, Robert, ed. (2001). Kriegsmarine: The Illustrated History of the German Navy in WWII. Osceola: MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7603-1026-7.
- Lunde, Henrik O. (2010). Hitler's Pre-Emptive War: The Battle for Norway, 1940. Havertown: Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-935149-33-0.
- Miller, Nathan (1997). War at Sea: A Naval History of World War II. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511038-8.
- Murphy, David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11981-7.
- Pope, Dudley (2005). 73 North: The Battle of the Barents Sea. Ithaca: McBooks Press. ISBN 978-1-59013-102-2.
- Prager, Hans Georg (2002). Panzerschiff Deutschland, Schwerer Kreuzer Lützow: ein Schiffs-Schicksal vor den Hintergründen seiner Zeit [Armored Ship Deutschland, Heavy Cruiser Lützow: A Ship's Fate in the Circumstances of its Time] (in German). Hamburg: Koehler. ISBN 978-3-7822-0798-0.
- Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two. Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-119-8.
- Whitley, M. J. (1998). Battleships of World War II. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-184-4.
- Williamson, Gordon (2003). German Pocket Battleships 1939–1945. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-501-3.