Estambul ( / ˌ ɪ s t æ n b ʊ l / IST -an- Buul , [7] [8] de Estados Unidos también / ɪ s t æ n b ʊ l / IST -an-buul ; turco : İstanbul [isˈtanbuɫ] ( escuchar ) ) es la ciudad más grande de Turquía y el centro económico, cultural e histórico del país. La ciudad se extiende a ambos lados delestrechodel Bósforo y se encuentra tanto en Europa como en Asia , con una población de más de 15 millones de habitantes, que comprenden el 19% de la población de Turquía. [4] Estambul es la ciudad más poblada de Europa, [b] y la decimoquinta ciudad más grande del mundo .
Estanbul Estanbul | ||||||||||||||||||
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En el sentido de las agujas del reloj desde arriba: el Puente del Bósforo que conecta Europa y Asia; Torre de la Doncella ; un tranvía nostálgico en la avenida İstiklal ; Distrito de negocios de Levent ; Torre de Gálata ; Mezquita de Ortaköy frente al Puente del Bósforo ; y Hagia Sophia . | ||||||||||||||||||
Emblema de la Municipalidad Metropolitana de Estambul | ||||||||||||||||||
Coordenadas: 41 ° 00′49 ″ N 28 ° 57′18 ″ E / 41.01361 ° N 28.95500 ° ECoordenadas : 41 ° 00′49 ″ N 28 ° 57′18 ″ E / 41.01361 ° N 28.95500 ° E | ||||||||||||||||||
País | pavo | |||||||||||||||||
Región | Marmara | |||||||||||||||||
Provincia | Estanbul | |||||||||||||||||
Sede provincial [a] | Cağaloğlu, Fatih | |||||||||||||||||
Distritos | 39 | |||||||||||||||||
Gobierno | ||||||||||||||||||
• Tipo | Gobierno de alcalde-concejo | |||||||||||||||||
• Cuerpo | Ayuntamiento de Estambul | |||||||||||||||||
• Alcalde | Ekrem İmamoğlu ( CHP ) | |||||||||||||||||
• Gobernador | Ali Yerlikaya | |||||||||||||||||
Área [1] [2] | ||||||||||||||||||
• Urbano | 2,576.85 km 2 (994.93 millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||||||
• Metro | 5.343,22 km 2 (2.063,03 millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||||||
Elevación más alta [3] | 537 m (1762 pies) | |||||||||||||||||
Población (31 de diciembre de 2020) [4] | ||||||||||||||||||
• Municipio Metropolitano Megaciudad | 15,462,452 | |||||||||||||||||
• Rango | 1 ° en Turquía | |||||||||||||||||
• Urbano | 15,149,358 | |||||||||||||||||
• Densidad urbana | 5,879 / km 2 (15,230 / millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||||||
• Densidad del metro | 2.894 / km 2 (7.500 / millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||||||
Demonym (s) | Istanbulite ( turco : İstanbullu ) | |||||||||||||||||
Zona horaria | UTC + 3 ( TRT ) | |||||||||||||||||
Código Postal | 34000 al 34990 | |||||||||||||||||
Código (s) de área | +90212 (lado europeo) +90216 (lado asiático) | |||||||||||||||||
Registro de Vehículo | 34 | |||||||||||||||||
PIB (nominal) | 2019 [5] | |||||||||||||||||
- total | US $ 237 mil millones | |||||||||||||||||
- Per cápita | US $ 15.285 | |||||||||||||||||
IDH (2018) | 0,828 [6] ( muy alto ) · 3er | |||||||||||||||||
GeoTLD | .ist , .istanbul | |||||||||||||||||
Sitio web | ibb .istanbul www .istanbul .gov .tr | |||||||||||||||||
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Fundada como Bizancio por colonos megaros en 657 a. C., [9] y rebautizada primero como Nova Roma [9] y poco después como Constantinopolis en 330 d. C., [9] [10] la ciudad creció en tamaño e influencia, convirtiéndose en un faro de la Silk Road y una de las ciudades más importantes de la historia. Sirvió como capital imperial durante casi dieciséis siglos, durante los imperios romano / bizantino (330–1204), latino (1204–1261), bizantino (1261–1453) y otomano (1453–1922). [11] Fue fundamental en el avance del cristianismo durante la época romana y bizantina, antes de su transformación en un bastión islámico tras la caída de Constantinopla en 1453 EC. [12] En 1923, después de la Guerra de Independencia de Turquía , Ankara reemplazó a la ciudad como capital de la recién formada República de Turquía . En 1930, el nombre de la ciudad se cambió oficialmente a Estambul, una denominación que los hablantes de griego usaban desde el siglo XI para referirse coloquialmente a la ciudad. [13]
Más de 13,4 millones de visitantes extranjeros llegaron a Estambul en 2018, ocho años después de que fuera nombrada Capital Europea de la Cultura , lo que la convirtió en el quinto destino turístico más popular del mundo. [14] Estambul es el hogar de varios sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO y alberga las sedes de numerosas empresas turcas, que representan más del treinta por ciento de la economía del país. [15] [16]
Toponimia
El primer nombre conocido de la ciudad es Bizancio (en griego : Βυζάντιον , Byzántion ), el nombre que le dieron en su fundación los colonos megaros alrededor del 657 a. C. [9] [18] Los colonos de Megaran reclamaron una línea directa de regreso a los fundadores de la ciudad, Byzas, el hijo del dios Poseidón y la ninfa Ceroëssa. [18] Las excavaciones modernas han planteado la posibilidad de que el nombre Bizancio pueda reflejar los sitios de asentamientos nativos tracios que precedieron a la ciudad en toda regla. [19] Constantinopla proviene del nombre latino Constantinus, en honor a Constantino el Grande , el emperador romano que volvió a fundar la ciudad en 324 EC. [18] Constantinopla siguió siendo el nombre más común para la ciudad en Occidente hasta la década de 1930, cuando las autoridades turcas comenzaron a presionar por el uso de "Estambul" en idiomas extranjeros. Kostantiniyye ( turco otomano : قسطنطينيه ), Be Makam-e Qonstantiniyyah al-Mahmiyyah (que significa "la ubicación protegida de Constantinopla") y Estambul fueron los nombres utilizados alternativamente por los otomanos durante su gobierno. [20]
El nombre Estambul ( pronunciación turca: [isˈtanbuɫ] (escuchar ),coloquialmente [ɯsˈtambuɫ] ) se considera comúnmente que deriva de lafrase griega medieval "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν " (pronunciado[es tim ˈbolin] ), que significa "a la ciudad" [21] y es como los griegos locales se referían a Constantinopla. Esto reflejó su estatus como la única ciudad importante en los alrededores. La importancia de Constantinopla en el mundo otomano también se reflejó en su apodo otomano Der Saadet, que significa "Puerta a la prosperidad" en turco otomano. [22] Una visión alternativa es que el nombre evolucionó directamente del nombre de Constantinopla , con la primera y la tercera sílabas eliminadas. [18] Algunas fuentes otomanas del siglo XVII, como Evliya Çelebi , lo describen como el nombre turco común de la época; entre finales del siglo XVII y finales del XVIII, también fue de uso oficial. El primer uso de la palabra Islambol en la invención fue en 1730 durante el reinado del sultán Mahmud I . [23] En turco moderno, el nombre se escribe como İstanbul , con una İ punteada, ya que el alfabeto turco distingue entre una I punteada y sin puntos . En inglés, el acento está en la primera o última sílaba, pero en turco está en la segunda sílaba ( tan ). [24] Una persona de la ciudad es un İstanbullu (plural: İstanbullular ), aunquese usa Istanbulite en inglés. [25]
Historia
Los artefactos neolíticos , descubiertos por los arqueólogos a principios del siglo XXI, indican que la península histórica de Estambul se estableció en el sexto milenio antes de Cristo. [26] Ese asentamiento temprano, importante en la expansión de la Revolución Neolítica desde el Cercano Oriente a Europa, duró casi un milenio antes de ser inundado por el aumento del nivel del agua. [27] [28] [29] [30] El primer asentamiento humano en el lado asiático, el montículo Fikirtepe, es del período de la Edad del Cobre , con artefactos que datan de 5500 a 3500 a. C., [31] En el lado europeo, cerca En el punto de la península ( Sarayburnu ), hubo un asentamiento tracio a principios del primer milenio antes de Cristo. Los autores modernos lo han relacionado con el topónimo tracio Lygos , [32] mencionado por Plinio el Viejo como un nombre anterior para el sitio de Bizancio. [33]
La historia de la ciudad propiamente dicha comienza alrededor del 660 a. C., [9] [34] [c] cuando los colonos griegos de Megara establecieron Bizancio en el lado europeo del Bósforo. Los colonos construyeron una acrópolis adyacente al Cuerno de Oro en el sitio de los primeros asentamientos tracios, alimentando la economía de la naciente ciudad. [40] La ciudad experimentó un breve período de dominio persa a principios del siglo V a. C., pero los griegos la recuperaron durante las guerras greco-persas . [41] Bizancio luego continuó como parte de la Liga ateniense y su sucesora, la Segunda Liga ateniense , antes de obtener la independencia en 355 a. C. [42] Aliado durante mucho tiempo con los romanos, Bizancio se convirtió oficialmente en parte del Imperio Romano en el 73 EC. [43] La decisión de Bizancio de ponerse del lado del usurpador romano Pescennius Níger contra el emperador Septimio Severo le costó caro; para cuando se rindió a fines de 195 EC, dos años de asedio habían dejado la ciudad devastada. [44] Cinco años después, Severus comenzó a reconstruir Bizancio, y la ciudad recuperó —y, según algunos informes, superó— su prosperidad anterior. [45]
Ascenso y caída de Constantinopla y el Imperio bizantino
Constantino el Grande se convirtió efectivamente en el emperador de todo el Imperio Romano en septiembre de 324. [49] Dos meses después, presentó los planes para una nueva ciudad cristiana que reemplazara a Bizancio. Como capital oriental del imperio, la ciudad recibió el nombre de Nova Roma ; la mayoría lo llamó Constantinopla, un nombre que persistió hasta el siglo XX. [50] El 11 de mayo de 330, Constantinopla fue proclamada capital del Imperio Romano , que más tarde se dividió permanentemente entre los dos hijos de Teodosio I tras su muerte el 17 de enero de 395, cuando la ciudad se convirtió en la capital del Imperio Romano Oriental (Bizantino ) Imperio . [51]
El establecimiento de Constantinopla fue uno de los logros más duraderos de Constantino, desplazando el poder romano hacia el este cuando la ciudad se convirtió en un centro de la cultura griega y el cristianismo. [51] [52] Se construyeron numerosas iglesias en toda la ciudad, incluida Hagia Sophia, que fue construida durante el reinado de Justiniano el Grande y siguió siendo la catedral más grande del mundo durante mil años. [53] Constantino también llevó a cabo una importante renovación y expansión del Hipódromo de Constantinopla ; Con capacidad para decenas de miles de espectadores, el hipódromo se convirtió en el centro de la vida cívica y, en los siglos V y VI, el centro de episodios de disturbios, incluidos los disturbios de Nika . [54] [55] La ubicación de Constantinopla también aseguró que su existencia resistiría la prueba del tiempo; Durante muchos siglos, sus murallas y su paseo marítimo protegieron a Europa contra los invasores del este y el avance del Islam. [52] Durante la mayor parte de la Edad Media , la última parte de la era bizantina, Constantinopla fue la ciudad más grande y rica del continente europeo y, en ocasiones, la más grande del mundo. [56] [57]
Constantinopla comenzó a declinar continuamente después del final del reinado de Basilio II en 1025. La Cuarta Cruzada se desvió de su propósito en 1204, y la ciudad fue saqueada y saqueada por los cruzados. [58] Establecieron el Imperio Latino en lugar del Imperio Bizantino Ortodoxo. [59] Hagia Sophia se convirtió en una iglesia católica en 1204. El Imperio Bizantino fue restaurado, aunque debilitado, en 1261. [60] Las iglesias, defensas y servicios básicos de Constantinopla estaban en mal estado, [61] y su población se había reducido a cien mil de medio millón durante el siglo VIII. [d] Sin embargo, después de la reconquista de 1261, se restauraron algunos de los monumentos de la ciudad y se crearon algunos, como los dos mosaicos Deesis en Hagia Sofia y Kariye. [62]
Varias políticas económicas y militares instituidas por Andronikos II , como la reducción de las fuerzas militares, debilitaron al imperio y lo dejaron vulnerable a los ataques. [63] A mediados del siglo XIV, los turcos otomanos comenzaron una estrategia de tomar gradualmente pueblos y ciudades más pequeños, cortando las rutas de suministro de Constantinopla y estrangulándola lentamente. [64] El 29 de mayo de 1453, después de un asedio de ocho semanas (durante el cual fue asesinado el último emperador romano, Constantino XI ), el sultán Mehmed II "el Conquistador" capturó Constantinopla y la declaró la nueva capital del Imperio Otomano . Horas más tarde, el sultán se dirigió a Hagia Sophia y convocó a un imán para proclamar el credo islámico , convirtiendo la gran catedral en una mezquita imperial debido a la negativa de la ciudad a rendirse pacíficamente. [65] Mehmed se declaró a sí mismo como el nuevo Kayser-i Rûm (el equivalente turco otomano del César de Roma) y el estado otomano se reorganizó en un imperio. [66]
Épocas del Imperio Otomano y la República Turca
Tras la conquista de Constantinopla, [e] Mehmed II se dispuso inmediatamente a revitalizar la ciudad. Consciente de que la revitalización fracasaría sin la repoblación de la ciudad, Mehmed II dio la bienvenida a todos –extranjeros, criminales y fugitivos– mostrando una extraordinaria apertura y voluntad de incorporar a los forasteros que llegaron a definir la cultura política otomana. [68] También invitó a personas de toda Europa a su capital, creando una sociedad cosmopolita que persistió durante gran parte del período otomano. [69] La revitalización de Estambul también requirió un programa masivo de restauraciones, de todo, desde carreteras hasta acueductos . [70] Como muchos monarcas antes y después, Mehmed II transformó el paisaje urbano de Estambul con la remodelación total del centro de la ciudad. [71] Había un enorme palacio nuevo que rivalizaba, si no que eclipsaba, al antiguo , un nuevo mercado cubierto (todavía en pie como el Gran Bazar ), pórticos, pabellones, pasarelas, así como más de una docena de nuevas mezquitas. [70] Mehmed II convirtió el destartalado casco antiguo en algo que parecía una capital imperial. [71]
La jerarquía social fue ignorada por la plaga desenfrenada, que mató a ricos y pobres por igual en el siglo XVI. [72] El dinero no pudo proteger a los ricos de todas las incomodidades y aspectos más duros de Estambul. [72] Aunque el sultán vivía a un lugar seguro de las masas, y los ricos y los pobres tendían a vivir uno al lado del otro, en su mayor parte Estambul no estaba dividida en zonas como las ciudades modernas. [72] Las opulentas casas compartían las mismas calles y distritos con pequeñas chozas. [72] Aquellos lo suficientemente ricos como para tener propiedades rurales aisladas tenían la posibilidad de escapar de las periódicas epidemias de enfermedad que asolaban Estambul. [72]
La dinastía otomana reclamó el estatus de califato en 1517, siendo Constantinopla la capital de este último califato durante cuatro siglos. [12] El reinado de Solimán el Magnífico entre 1520 y 1566 fue un período de grandes logros artísticos y arquitectónicos; El arquitecto jefe Mimar Sinan diseñó varios edificios emblemáticos de la ciudad, mientras florecían las artes otomanas de la cerámica , los vitrales , la caligrafía y las miniaturas . [73] La población de Constantinopla era de 570.000 a finales del siglo XVIII. [74]
Un período de rebelión a principios del siglo XIX condujo al surgimiento del progresista Sultán Mahmud II y, finalmente, al período Tanzimat , que produjo reformas políticas y permitió la introducción de nuevas tecnologías en la ciudad. [75] Se construyeron puentes a través del Cuerno de Oro durante este período, [76] y Constantinopla se conectó al resto de la red ferroviaria europea en la década de 1880. [77] Las instalaciones modernas, como una red de suministro de agua, electricidad, teléfonos y tranvías, se introdujeron gradualmente en Constantinopla durante las décadas siguientes, aunque más tarde que en otras ciudades europeas. [78] Los esfuerzos de modernización no fueron suficientes para prevenir el declive del Imperio Otomano . [79]
El sultán Abdul Hamid II fue depuesto con la Revolución de los Jóvenes Turcos en 1908 y el Parlamento otomano , cerrado desde el 14 de febrero de 1878 , fue reabierto 30 años después, el 23 de julio de 1908, lo que marcó el inicio de la Segunda Era Constitucional . [80] Una serie de guerras a principios del siglo XX, como la guerra italo-turca (1911-1912) y las guerras balcánicas (1912-1913), asolaron la capital del imperio enfermo y resultaron en el golpe de estado otomano de 1913 , que trajo el régimen de los Tres Pashas . [81]
El Imperio Otomano se unió a la Primera Guerra Mundial (1914-1918) del lado de las Potencias Centrales y finalmente fue derrotado. La deportación de intelectuales armenios el 24 de abril de 1915 fue uno de los principales acontecimientos que marcaron el inicio del genocidio armenio durante la Primera Guerra Mundial. [82] Debido a las políticas otomanas y turcas de turquificación y limpieza étnica , la población cristiana de la ciudad se redujo de 450.000 a 240.000 entre 1914 y 1927. [83] El Armisticio de Mudros se firmó el 30 de octubre de 1918 y los aliados ocuparon Constantinopla el 13 de noviembre. 1918. El Parlamento otomano fue disuelto por los aliados el 11 de abril de 1920 y la delegación otomana encabezada por Damat Ferid Pasha se vio obligada a firmar el Tratado de Sèvres el 10 de agosto de 1920. [ cita requerida ]
Después de la Guerra de Independencia de Turquía (1919-1922), la Gran Asamblea Nacional de Turquía en Ankara abolió el Sultanato el 1 de noviembre de 1922, y el último sultán otomano , Mehmed VI , fue declarado persona non grata . Dejando a bordo del buque de guerra británico HMS Malaya el 17 de noviembre de 1922, se exilió y murió en San Remo , Italia , el 16 de mayo de 1926. El Tratado de Lausana se firmó el 24 de julio de 1923 y la ocupación de Constantinopla terminó con la salida del Las últimas fuerzas de los aliados de la ciudad el 4 de octubre de 1923. [85] Las fuerzas turcas del gobierno de Ankara, comandado por Şükrü Naili Pasha (3er Cuerpo), entraron en la ciudad con una ceremonia el 6 de octubre de 1923, que ha sido marcada como la Día de la Liberación de Estambul ( turco : İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu ) y se conmemora cada año en su aniversario. [85] El 29 de octubre de 1923, la Gran Asamblea Nacional de Turquía declaró el establecimiento de la República Turca, con Ankara como su capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk se convirtió en el primer presidente de la República . [86] [87] Según el historiador Philip Mansel:
- después de la partida de la dinastía en 1925, de ser la ciudad más internacional de Europa, Constantinopla se convirtió en una de las más nacionalistas ... A diferencia de Viena, Constantinopla dio la espalda al pasado. Incluso se cambió su nombre. Constantinopla se abandonó debido a sus asociaciones otomanas e internacionales. A partir de 1926, la oficina de correos solo aceptó Estambul; parecía más turco y fue utilizado por la mayoría de los turcos. [88] [ página necesaria ]
Un impuesto sobre el patrimonio de 1942 aplicado principalmente a los no musulmanes llevó a la transferencia o liquidación de muchas empresas propiedad de minorías religiosas. [89] Desde finales de la década de 1940 y principios de la de 1950, Estambul experimentó un gran cambio estructural, ya que se construyeron nuevas plazas públicas, bulevares y avenidas en toda la ciudad, a veces a expensas de edificios históricos. [90] La población de Estambul comenzó a aumentar rápidamente en la década de 1970, cuando la gente de Anatolia emigró a la ciudad para encontrar empleo en las muchas fábricas nuevas que se construyeron en las afueras de la metrópolis en expansión. Este repentino y brusco aumento de la población de la ciudad provocó una gran demanda de viviendas, y muchos pueblos y bosques que antes estaban en la periferia quedaron engullidos por el área metropolitana de Estambul. [91]
Geografía
Estambul se encuentra en el noroeste de Turquía y se extiende a ambos lados del estrecho del Bósforo, que proporciona el único paso del Mar Negro al Mediterráneo a través del Mar de Mármara . [15] Históricamente, la ciudad ha estado en una situación ideal para el comercio y la defensa: la confluencia del Mar de Mármara, el Bósforo y el Cuerno de Oro proporcionan una defensa ideal contra el ataque enemigo y una puerta de peaje natural. [15] Varias islas pintorescas , Büyükada , Heybeliada , Burgazada , Kınalıada y cinco islas más pequeñas, son parte de la ciudad. [15] La costa de Estambul ha crecido más allá de sus límites naturales. Grandes secciones de Caddebostan se asientan en áreas de vertedero, lo que aumenta el área total de la ciudad a 5.343 kilómetros cuadrados (2.063 millas cuadradas). [15]
A pesar del mito de que siete colinas componen la ciudad, de hecho hay más de 50 colinas dentro de los límites de la ciudad. La colina más alta de Estambul, Aydos, tiene 537 metros (1762 pies) de altura. [15]
La cercana falla del norte de Anatolia es responsable de gran parte de la actividad sísmica, aunque no atraviesa físicamente la ciudad. [92] La falla del norte de Anatolia causó los terremotos de 1766 y 1894 . [92] La amenaza de grandes terremotos juega un papel importante en el desarrollo de la infraestructura de la ciudad, con más de 500,000 [92] edificios vulnerables demolidos y reemplazados desde 2012. [93] La ciudad ha mejorado repetidamente sus códigos de construcción , más recientemente en 2018, [ 93] que requieren modernizaciones para edificios más antiguos y estándares de ingeniería más altos para nuevas construcciones.
Clima
Estambul tiene un clima mediterráneo limítrofe ( Köppen Csa, Trewartha Cs ), un clima subtropical húmedo ( Köppen Cfa, Trewartha Cf ) y un clima oceánico ( Köppen Cfb, Trewartha Do ) en ambas clasificaciones. Experimenta inviernos fríos con precipitaciones frecuentes y veranos cálidos a cálidos (la temperatura media alcanza un máximo de 20 ° C (68 ° F) a 25 ° C (77 ° F) en agosto, según la ubicación), veranos moderadamente secos. [94] La primavera y el otoño suelen ser suaves, con condiciones variables que dependen de la dirección del viento. [95] [96]
El clima de Estambul está fuertemente influenciado por el Mar de Mármara al sur y el Mar Negro al norte. Esto modera los cambios de temperatura y produce un clima templado suave con una variación de temperatura diurna baja . En consecuencia, las temperaturas de Estambul casi siempre oscilan entre -5 ° C (23 ° F) y 32 ° C (90 ° F), [97] y la mayor parte de la ciudad no experimenta temperaturas superiores a 30 ° C (86 ° F) durante más de 14 días al año. [98] Otro efecto de la posición marítima de Estambul son sus puntos de rocío persistentemente altos, humedad matutina casi saturada, [99] y niebla frecuente, [100] [97] que también limita las horas de sol de Estambul a niveles más cercanos a Europa Occidental. [101]
Como Estambul solo está ligeramente cubierta de lluvia por las tormentas mediterráneas y, por lo demás, está rodeada de agua, generalmente recibe cierta cantidad de precipitación tanto de los sistemas de Europa occidental como del Mediterráneo . Esto resulta en precipitaciones frecuentes durante los meses de invierno; Enero tiene un promedio de 20 días de precipitación cuando se cuentan las acumulaciones de trazas, [102] 17 cuando se usa un umbral de 0.1 mm y 12 cuando se usa un umbral de 1.0 mm. [103]
Debido a su topografía montañosa e influencias marítimas, Estambul exhibe una multitud de microclimas distintos . [104] Dentro de la ciudad, las precipitaciones varían ampliamente debido a la sombra de lluvia de las colinas de Estambul, desde alrededor de 600 milímetros (24 pulgadas) en la franja sur de Florya hasta 1.200 milímetros (47 pulgadas) en la franja norte de Bahçeköy. [105] Además, mientras que la ciudad se encuentra en las zonas de resistencia del USDA 9a a 9b, sus suburbios del interior se encuentran en la zona 8b con focos aislados de la zona 8a, lo que restringe el cultivo de plantas subtropicales resistentes al frío en las costas. [98] [106]
A pesar de que no tiene los inviernos fríos típicos de estas ciudades, Estambul tiene un promedio de más de 60 centímetros (24 pulgadas) de nieve al año, lo que la convierte en la ciudad principal más nevada de la cuenca mediterránea. [97] [107] Esto se debe principalmente a la nieve con efecto lago , que se forma cuando el aire frío, al entrar en contacto con el Mar Negro, se convierte en aire húmedo e inestable que asciende para formar ráfagas de nieve a lo largo de las costas de sotavento del Mar Negro. [108] Estas ráfagas de nieve son bandas de nieve intensa y ocasionalmente tormentas eléctricas, con tasas de acumulación que se acercan a los 5-8 centímetros (2.0 a 3.1 pulgadas) por hora. [109]
La temperatura más alta registrada en la estación de observación oficial del centro de Sarıyer fue de 41,5 ° C (107 ° F) y el 13 de julio de 2000. [108] La temperatura más baja registrada fue de -16,1 ° C (3 ° F) el 9 de febrero de 1929. [ 108] La capa de nieve más alta registrada en el centro de la ciudad fue de 80 centímetros (31 pulgadas) el 4 de enero de 1942 y de 104 centímetros (41 pulgadas) en los suburbios del norte el 11 de enero de 2017. [110] [108] [111]
Datos climáticos de Sarıyer , Estambul (normales 1981-2010, extremos 1929-2018, días de nieve 1996-2011) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mes | ene | feb | mar | abr | Mayo | jun | jul | ago | sep | oct | nov | dic | Año |
Registro alto ° C (° F) | 22,4 (72,3) | 24,6 (76,3) | 29,3 (84,7) | 33,6 (92,5) | 36,4 (97,5) | 40,2 (104,4) | 41,5 (106,7) | 40,5 (104,9) | 39,6 (103,3) | 34,2 (93,6) | 27,8 (82,0) | 25,5 (77,9) | 41,5 (106,7) |
Promedio alto ° C (° F) | 8,5 (47,3) | 8,7 (47,7) | 10,9 (51,6) | 15,5 (59,9) | 20,1 (68,2) | 25,0 (77,0) | 26,9 (80,4) | 27,2 (81,0) | 23,8 (74,8) | 19,2 (66,6) | 14,2 (57,6) | 10,4 (50,7) | 17,5 (63,5) |
Media diaria ° C (° F) | 5,8 (42,4) | 5,5 (41,9) | 7,3 (45,1) | 11,2 (52,2) | 15,7 (60,3) | 20,5 (68,9) | 22,9 (73,2) | 23,4 (74,1) | 19,9 (67,8) | 15,8 (60,4) | 11,0 (51,8) | 7,8 (46,0) | 13,9 (57,0) |
Promedio bajo ° C (° F) | 3,5 (38,3) | 2,9 (37,2) | 4,4 (39,9) | 7,8 (46,0) | 12,2 (54,0) | 16,7 (62,1) | 19,7 (67,5) | 20,4 (68,7) | 16,8 (62,2) | 13,2 (55,8) | 8,5 (47,3) | 5,5 (41,9) | 11,0 (51,8) |
Registro bajo ° C (° F) | −13,9 (7,0) | −16,1 (3,0) | −11,1 (12,0) | −2,0 (28,4) | 1,4 (34,5) | 7,1 (44,8) | 10,5 (50,9) | 10,2 (50,4) | 6,0 (42,8) | 0,6 (33,1) | −7,2 (19,0) | −11,5 (11,3) | −16,1 (3,0) |
Promedio de precipitación mm (pulgadas) | 99,5 (3,92) | 82,1 (3,23) | 69,2 (2,72) | 43,1 (1,70) | 31,5 (1,24) | 40,6 (1,60) | 39,6 (1,56) | 41,9 (1,65) | 64,4 (2,54) | 102,3 (4,03) | 110,3 (4,34) | 125,1 (4,93) | 849,6 (33,45) |
Media nevada cm (pulgadas) | 18,4 (7,2) | 19,1 (7,5) | 9,9 (3,9) | rastro | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | rastro | 14,1 (5,6) | 61,5 (24,2) |
Días de precipitación promedio (≥ 0.1 mm) | 16,9 | 15,2 | 13,2 | 10.0 | 7.4 | 7.0 | 4,7 | 5.1 | 8.1 | 12,3 | 13,9 | 17,5 | 131,3 |
Días de nieve promedio (≥ 0,1 cm) | 4.5 | 4,7 | 2.9 | 0,1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0,3 | 2,7 | 15,2 |
Promedio de horas de sol mensuales | 68,2 | 89,6 | 142,6 | 180,0 | 248,0 | 297,6 | 319,3 | 288,3 | 234.0 | 158,1 | 93,0 | 62,0 | 2.180,7 |
Promedio de horas de sol diarias | 2.2 | 3.2 | 4.6 | 6.0 | 8.0 | 9,6 | 10,3 | 9.3 | 7.8 | 5.1 | 3.1 | 2.0 | 5.9 |
Horas de luz diurnas medias diarias | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 12 |
Porcentaje posible de luz solar | 22 | 29 | 38 | 46 | 57 | 64 | 69 | 66 | sesenta y cinco | 46 | 31 | 22 | 46 |
Índice ultravioleta medio | 2 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 |
Fuente: [108] [112] [113] |
Datos climáticos del aeropuerto Atatürk , Estambul (normales 1981-2010, extremos 1950-2021, días de nieve 1990-2005) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mes | ene | feb | mar | abr | Mayo | jun | jul | ago | sep | oct | nov | dic | Año |
Registro alto ° C (° F) | 19,7 (67,5) | 24,0 (75,2) | 25,1 (77,2) | 29,6 (85,3) | 33,8 (92,8) | 39,2 (102,6) | 40,0 (104,0) | 39,4 (102,9) | 37,5 (99,5) | 34,0 (93,2) | 28,0 (82,4) | 22,5 (72,5) | 40,0 (104,0) |
Promedio alto ° C (° F) | 8,6 (47,5) | 8,8 (47,8) | 11,3 (52,3) | 16,5 (61,7) | 21,5 (70,7) | 26,4 (79,5) | 28,9 (84,0) | 29,1 (84,4) | 25,1 (77,2) | 19,9 (67,8) | 14,5 (58,1) | 10,5 (50,9) | 18,4 (65,2) |
Media diaria ° C (° F) | 6,0 (42,8) | 5,8 (42,4) | 7,9 (46,2) | 12,3 (54,1) | 17,2 (63,0) | 22,0 (71,6) | 24,6 (76,3) | 24,9 (76,8) | 21,0 (69,8) | 16,5 (61,7) | 11,5 (52,7) | 8,0 (46,4) | 14,8 (58,7) |
Promedio bajo ° C (° F) | 3,4 (38,1) | 2,9 (37,2) | 4,5 (40,1) | 8,1 (46,6) | 12,9 (55,2) | 17,6 (63,7) | 20,3 (68,5) | 20,7 (69,3) | 17,0 (62,6) | 13,2 (55,8) | 8,5 (47,3) | 5,5 (41,9) | 11,2 (52,2) |
Registro bajo ° C (° F) | −12,6 (9,3) | −9,0 (15,8) | −7,1 (19,2) | −2,8 (27,0) | 0,5 (32,9) | 4,7 (40,5) | 10,0 (50,0) | 9,0 (48,2) | 7,4 (45,3) | −0,6 (30,9) | −2,9 (26,8) | −6,8 (19,8) | −12,6 (9,3) |
Promedio de precipitación mm (pulgadas) | 77,8 (3,06) | 72,3 (2,85) | 59,1 (2,33) | 44,8 (1,76) | 41,9 (1,65) | 35,9 (1,41) | 30,0 (1,18) | 43,2 (1,70) | 39,3 (1,55) | 90,0 (3,54) | 85,7 (3,37) | 103,0 (4,06) | 723,1 (28,47) |
Días de precipitación promedio (≥ 0.1 mm) | 17.0 | 16,8 | 15,1 | 10,3 | 7.7 | 5.9 | 3.4 | 5.1 | 8.4 | 11,7 | 12,1 | 16,3 | 129,8 |
Días de nieve promedio (≥ 0,1 cm) | 2,7 | 3,5 | 0,6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0,2 | 1.0 | 8.0 |
Promedio de horas de sol mensuales | 78,9 | 79,1 | 117,0 | 149,2 | 196,3 | 214,9 | 247,3 | 224,3 | 167,0 | 121,8 | 90,0 | 70,3 | 1.756,1 |
Promedio de horas de sol diarias | 2.5 | 2.8 | 3.8 | 5,0 | 6.3 | 7.2 | 7,9 | 7.2 | 5.5 | 3.9 | 3,0 | 2.3 | 4.8 |
Porcentaje posible de luz solar | 25 | 26 | 32 | 42 | 45 | 48 | 52 | 51 | 46 | 35 | 30 | 25 | 38 |
Fuente: [114] [115] |
Datos climáticos del bosque de Belgrado , Estambul (normales y extremos 1981-2010, días de nieve 1990-1999) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mes | ene | feb | mar | abr | Mayo | jun | jul | ago | sep | oct | nov | dic | Año |
Registro alto ° C (° F) | 25,3 (77,5) | 27,3 (81,1) | 27,2 (81,0) | 33,6 (92,5) | 34,4 (93,9) | 36,6 (97,9) | 38,7 (101,7) | 38,0 (100,4) | 38,2 (100,8) | 35,7 (96,3) | 28,0 (82,4) | 23,8 (74,8) | 38,7 (101,7) |
Promedio alto ° C (° F) | 7,6 (45,7) | 8,3 (46,9) | 10,2 (50,4) | 16,4 (61,5) | 20,6 (69,1) | 25,0 (77,0) | 26,4 (79,5) | 26,6 (79,9) | 23,7 (74,7) | 19,0 (66,2) | 14,2 (57,6) | 9,8 (49,6) | 17,3 (63,2) |
Media diaria ° C (° F) | 4,6 (40,3) | 4,0 (39,2) | 5,9 (42,6) | 10,3 (50,5) | 15,4 (59,7) | 19,8 (67,6) | 21,5 (70,7) | 21,6 (70,9) | 18,1 (64,6) | 14,1 (57,4) | 9,5 (49,1) | 6,3 (43,3) | 12,6 (54,7) |
Promedio bajo ° C (° F) | 1,3 (34,3) | 1,1 (34,0) | 2,5 (36,5) | 6,4 (43,5) | 10,6 (51,1) | 14,7 (58,5) | 17,0 (62,6) | 17,9 (64,2) | 13,9 (57,0) | 10,7 (51,3) | 6,8 (44,2) | 3,4 (38,1) | 8,9 (47,9) |
Registro bajo ° C (° F) | −16,0 (3,2) | −15,4 (4,3) | −10,6 (12,9) | −3,1 (26,4) | 0,9 (33,6) | 5,7 (42,3) | 7,8 (46,0) | 8,0 (46,4) | 3,1 (37,6) | −1,2 (29,8) | −4,3 (24,3) | −9,8 (14,4) | −16,0 (3,2) |
Promedio de precipitación mm (pulgadas) | 163,7 (6,44) | 112,5 (4,43) | 101,3 (3,99) | 68,3 (2,69) | 55,8 (2,20) | 47,4 (1,87) | 45,3 (1,78) | 71,9 (2,83) | 79,6 (3,13) | 119,0 (4,69) | 164,3 (6,47) | 188,3 (7,41) | 1.217,4 (47,93) |
Días de precipitación promedio (≥ 0.1 mm) | 15,8 | 14,2 | 12,9 | 10.1 | 8.3 | 6,9 | 5.8 | 5.9 | 7.4 | 12,6 | 15,4 | 19,8 | 135,1 |
Días de nieve promedio (≥ 0,1 cm) | 4.6 | 5.2 | 1,7 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0,3 | 4.0 | 16,2 |
Fuente: [116] [117] |
Los datos climáticos de Estambul | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mes | ene | feb | mar | abr | Mayo | jun | jul | ago | sep | oct | nov | dic | Año |
Temperatura media del mar ° C (° F) | 8,4 (47,1) | 7,7 (45,9) | 8,3 (46,9) | 10,2 (50,4) | 15,5 (59,9) | 21,3 (70,3) | 24,6 (76,3) | 24,9 (76,8) | 22,8 (73,0) | 18,4 (65,1) | 13,8 (56,8) | 10,5 (50,9) | 15,5 (60,0) |
Fuente: Weather Atlas [118] |
Cambio climático
Como ocurre prácticamente en todas partes del mundo, el cambio climático está provocando más olas de calor, [119] sequías, [120] tormentas, [121] e inundaciones [122] [123] en Estambul. Además, como Estambul es una ciudad grande y en rápida expansión, su isla de calor urbano ha intensificado los efectos del cambio climático. [97] Teniendo en cuenta los datos anteriores, [124] es muy probable que estos dos factores sean responsables del cambio urbano de Estambul, de un clima de verano cálido a uno de verano caluroso en la clasificación climática de Köppen , y de la zona templada fría a la zona templada / subtropical cálida en la clasificación climática de Trewartha . [125] [126] [127] Si las tendencias continúan, es probable que el aumento del nivel del mar afecte la infraestructura de la ciudad, por ejemplo, la estación de metro de Kadıkoy está amenazada con inundaciones. [128] Se ha sugerido el Xeriscaping de espacios verdes, [129] y Estambul tiene un plan de acción de cambio climático. [130]
Paisaje urbano
El distrito de Fatih , que lleva el nombre del sultán Mehmed el Conquistador ( turco : Fatih Sultan Mehmed ), corresponde a lo que fue, hasta la conquista otomana en 1453, la totalidad de la ciudad de Constantinopla (hoy es el distrito capital y se llama la península histórica de Estambul) en la costa sur del Cuerno de Oro , al otro lado de la ciudadela genovesa medieval de Gálata en la costa norte. Las fortificaciones genoveses en Galata fueron demolidas en gran parte en el siglo XIX, dejando solo la Torre de Galata , para dar paso a la expansión hacia el norte de la ciudad. [131] Galata ( Karaköy ) es hoy un cuarto dentro del distrito de Beyoğlu (Pera), que forma el centro comercial y de entretenimiento de Estambul e incluye la avenida İstiklal y la plaza Taksim . [132]
El Palacio Dolmabahçe , la sede del gobierno durante el período otomano tardío, se encuentra en el distrito de Beşiktaş en la costa europea del estrecho del Bósforo , al norte de Beyoğlu. La Sublime Porte ( Bâb-ı Âli ), que se convirtió en una metonimia del gobierno otomano, se usó originalmente para describir la Puerta Imperial ( Bâb-ı Hümâyun ) en el patio exterior del Palacio de Topkapı ; pero después del siglo 18, la Sublime Puerta (o simplemente Porte ) comenzaron a referirse a la puerta de la Sadrazamlık compuesto (Primer Ministro) en el Cagaloglu trimestre cerca del palacio Topkapi, en las oficinas de la Sadrazam ( Gran Visir ) y otros visires eran , y donde fueron recibidos los diplomáticos extranjeros. El antiguo pueblo de Ortaköy se encuentra dentro de Beşiktaş y da nombre a la Mezquita de Ortaköy en el Bósforo, cerca del Puente del Bósforo . A lo largo de las costas europea y asiática del Bósforo se encuentran los históricos yalıs , lujosas mansiones tipo chalet construidas por aristócratas y élites otomanos como casas de verano. [133] Más hacia el interior, fuera de la carretera de circunvalación interior de la ciudad, se encuentran Levent y Maslak , los principales distritos comerciales de Estambul. [134]
During the Ottoman period, Üsküdar (then Scutari) and Kadıköy were outside the scope of the urban area, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens. But in the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced major urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city.[135] Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.[135] As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth in the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus (literally "built overnight"), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.[136] At present, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.[137] Moreover, large scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have been taking place,[138] such as the one in Tarlabaşı;[139] some of these projects, like the one in Sulukule, have faced criticism.[140] The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with plans for a third airport; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5 million people.[141]
Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.[142] Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu, is on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe. Along the European side, and close to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park, which was known as the Kyparades (Cypress Forest) during the Byzantine period. In the Ottoman period, it was first granted to Nişancı Feridun Ahmed Bey in the 16th century, before being granted by Sultan Murad IV to the Safavid Emir Gûne Han in the 17th century, hence the name Emirgan. The 47-hectare (120-acre) park was later owned by Khedive Ismail Pasha of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival is held there since 2005.[143] The AKP government's decision to replace Taksim Gezi Park with a replica of the Ottoman era Taksim Military Barracks (which was transformed into the Taksim Stadium in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park) sparked a series of nationwide protests in 2013 covering a wide range of issues. Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.[144][145]
Architecture
Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, and despite its development as a Turkish city since 1453, contains a vast array of ancient, Roman, Byzantine, Christian, Muslim and Jewish monuments.
The Neolithic settlement in the Yenikapı quarter on the European side, which dates back to c. 6500 BCE and predates the formation of the Bosporus strait by approximately a millennium (when the Sea of Marmara was still a lake)[147] was discovered during the construction of the Marmaray railway tunnel.[148] It is the oldest known human settlement on the European side of the city.[148] The oldest known human settlement on the Asian side is the Fikirtepe Mound near Kadıköy, with relics dating to c. 5500-3500 BCE (Chalcolithic period).
There are numerous ancient monuments in the city.[149] The most ancient is the Obelisk of Thutmose III (Obelisk of Theodosius).[149] Built of red granite, 31 m (100 ft) high, it came from the Temple of Karnak in Luxor, and was erected there by Pharaoh Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 BCE) to the south of the seventh pylon.[149] The Roman emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361 CE) had it and another obelisk transported along the River Nile to Alexandria for commemorating his ventennalia or 20 years on the throne in 357. The other obelisk was erected on the spina of the Circus Maximus in Rome in the autumn of that year, and is now known as the Lateran Obelisk. The obelisk that would become the Obelisk of Theodosius remained in Alexandria until 390 CE, when Theodosius I (r. 379–395 CE) had it transported to Constantinople and put up on the spina of the Hippodrome there.[150] When re-erected at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the obelisk was mounted on a decorative base, with reliefs that depict Theodosius I and his courtiers.[149] The lower part of the obelisk was damaged in antiquity, probably during its transport to Alexandria in 357 CE or during its re-erection at the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 390 CE. As a result, the current height of the obelisk is only 18.54 metres, or 25.6 metres if the base is included. Between the four corners of the obelisk and the pedestal are four bronze cubes, used in its transportation and re-erection.[151]
Next in age is the Serpent Column, from 479 BCE.[149] It was brought from Delphi in 324 CE, during the reign of Constantine the Great, and also erected at the spina of the Hippodrome.[149] It was originally part of an ancient Greek sacrificial tripod in Delphi that was erected to commemorate the Greeks who fought and defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea (479 BCE). The three serpent heads of the 8-metre (26 ft) high column remained intact until the end of the 17th century (one is on display at the nearby Istanbul Archaeology Museums).[152]
Built in porphyry and erected at the center of the Forum of Constantine in 330 CE to mark the founding of the new Roman capital, the Column of Constantine was originally adorned with a sculpture of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great depicted as the solar god Apollo on its top, which fell in 1106 and was later replaced by a cross during the reign of Byzantine emperor Manuel Komnenos (r. 1143–1180).[17][149]
There are traces of the Byzantine era throughout the city, from ancient churches that were built over early Christian meeting places like the Hagia Irene, the Chora Church, the Monastery of Stoudios, the Church of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus, the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos, the Monastery of the Pantocrator, the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes, the Hagia Theodosia, the Church of Theotokos Kyriotissa, the Monastery of Constantine Lips, the Church of Myrelaion, the Hagios Theodoros, etc.; to public places like the Hippodrome, the Augustaion, or the Basilica Cistern. The 4th century Harbour of Theodosius in Yenikapı, once the busiest port in Constantinople, was among the numerous archaeological discoveries that took place during the excavations of the Marmaray tunnel.[148]
It is the Hagia Sophia, however, that fully conveys the period of Constantinople as a city without parallel in Christendom. The Hagia Sophia, topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter over a square space defined by four arches, is the pinnacle of the Byzantine architecture.[154] The Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral in the world until it was converted into a mosque in the 15th century.[154] The minarets date from that period.[154]
Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans transformed of Istanbul's urban landscape with a vast building scheme building towering mosques and ornate palaces. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque), another landmark of the city, faces the Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet Square (Hippodrome of Constantinople). The Süleymaniye Mosque, built by Suleiman the Magnificent, was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects, who designed many of the city's renowned mosques and other types of public buildings and monuments.[155]
Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.[156] Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces.
Topkapı Palace, dating back to 1465, is the oldest seat of government surviving in Istanbul. Mehmed the Conqueror built the original palace as his main residence and the seat of government.[157] The present palace grew over the centuries as a series of additions enfolding four courtyards and blending neoclassical, rococo, and baroque architectural forms.[158] In 1639, Murad IV made some of the most lavish additions, including the Baghdad Kiosk, to commemorate his conquest of Baghdad the previous year.[159] Government meetings took place here until 1786, when the seat of government was moved to the Sublime Porte.[157] After several hundred years of royal residence, it was abandoned in 1853 in favor of the baroque Dolmabahçe Palace.[158] Topkapı Palace became public property following the abolition of monarchy in 1922.[158] After extensive renovation, it became one of Turkey's first national museums in 1924.[157]
The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.[160] An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.[161]
Administración
Since 2004, the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province.[162] The city, considered capital of the larger Istanbul Province, is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), which oversees the 39 districts of the city-province.
The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups (millet) across the city. Pera (now Beyoğlu) was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.[163] Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when the city was declared a province with nine constituent districts.[164][165] This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.[166]
Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities.[167][168] The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils.
The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers.[169] Since the government operates under a "powerful mayor, weak council" approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.[170] The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.[171] All representatives on the committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.[171][172]
District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.[169] All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms.[173] Representing the Republican People's Party, Ekrem İmamoğlu has been the Mayor of Istanbul since 27 June 2019.[174]
With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament.[172][175] The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.[176] Ali Yerlikaya has been the Governor of Istanbul Province since 26 October 2018.[177]
Demografía
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Sources: Jan Lahmeyer 2004,Chandler 1987, Morris 2010,Turan 2010[178] Pre-Republic figures estimated[d] |
Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for the world's largest city.[180] Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad, Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv for the position of the world's largest city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained the largest city in Europe from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London.[181]
The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 15,519,267 at the end of 2019, hosting 19 percent of the country's population.[182] 64.4% of the residents live on the European side and 35.6% on the Asian side.[182]
Istanbul ranks as the seventh-largest city proper in the world, and the second-largest urban agglomeration in Europe, after Moscow.[183][184] The city's annual population growth of 1.5 percent ranks as one of the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of Izmir and Ankara.[16]
Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.[185] This growth was fueled by internal and international migration. Istanbul's foreign population with a residence permit increased dramatically, from 43,000 in 2007[186] to 856,377 in 2019.[187][188]
Religious and ethnic groups
Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman era. Arabs form the city's on of the largest ethnic minorities, with an estimated population of more than 2 million.[189] Following Turkey's support for the Arab Spring, Istanbul emerged as a hub for dissidents from across the Arab world, including former presidential candidates from Egypt, Kuwaiti MPs, and former ministers from Jordan, Saudi Arabia (including Jamal Khashoggi), Syria, and Yemen.[190][191][192] The number of refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey residing in Istanbul is estimated to be around 1 million.[193]
With estimates ranging from 2 to 4 million, Kurds form the other largest ethnic minority in Istanbul.[194][195] According to a 2006 KONDA study, Kurds constituted 14.8% of Istanbul's total population.[196] Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,[197] the majority of Kurds in the city originate from villages in eastern and southeastern Turkey.[198]
Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox, members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines.[199] Greeks and Armenians form the largest Christian population in the city. While Istanbul's Greek population was exempted from the 1923 population exchange with Greece, changes in tax status and the 1955 anti-Greek pogrom prompted thousands to leave.[200] Following Greek migration to the city for work in the 2010s, the Greek population rose to nearly 3,000 in 2019, still greatly diminished since 1919, when it stood at 350,000.[200] There are today 123,363 Armenians in Istanbul, down from a peak of 164,000 in 1913.[201] As of 2019, an estimated 18,000 of the country's 25,000 Christian Assyrians live in Istanbul.[202]
The majority of the Catholic Levantines (Turkish: Levanten) in Istanbul and Izmir are the descendants of traders/colonists from the Italian maritime republics of the Mediterranean (especially Genoa and Venice) and France, who obtained special rights and privileges called the Capitulations from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century.[204] The community had more than 15,000 members during Atatürk's presidency in the 1920s and 1930s, but today is reduced to only a few hundreds, according to Italo-Levantine writer Giovanni Scognamillo.[205] They continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in Karaköy, Beyoğlu and Nişantaşı), and Izmir (mostly in Karşıyaka, Bornova and Buca).
Istanbul became one of the world's most important Jewish centers in the 16th and 17th century.[206] Romaniote and Ashkenazi communities existed in Istanbul before the conquest of Istanbul, but it was the arrival of Sephardic Jews that ushered a period of cultural flourishing. Sephardic Jews settled in the city after their expulsion from Spain and Portugal in 1492 and 1497.[206] Sympathetic to the plight of Sephardic Jews, Bayezid II sent out the Ottoman Navy under the command of admiral Kemal Reis to Spain in 1492 in order to evacuate them safely to Ottoman lands.[206] In marked contrast to Jews in Europe, Ottoman Jews were allowed to work in any profession.[207] Ottoman Jews in Istanbul excelled in commerce, and came to particularly dominate the medical profession.[207] By 1711, using the printing press, books came to be published in Spanish and Ladino, Yiddish, and Hebrew.[208] In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population in the city dropped from 100,000 in 1950[209] to 25,000 in 2020.
Política
Politically, Istanbul is seen as the most important administrative region in Turkey. Many politicians, including President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, are of the view that a political party's performance in Istanbul is more significant than its general performance overall. This is due to the city's role as Turkey's financial center, its large electorate and the fact that Erdoğan himself was elected Mayor of Istanbul in 1994.[citation needed] In the run-up to local elections in 2019, Erdoğan claimed 'if we fail in Istanbul, we will fail in Turkey'.[210]
The contest in Istanbul carried deep political, economic and symbolic significance for Erdoğan, whose election of mayor of Istanbul in 1994 had served as his launchpad.[211] For Ekrem İmamoğlu, winning the mayorship of Istanbul was a huge moral victory, but for Erdoğan it had practical ramifications: His party, AKP, lost control of the $4.8 billion municipal budget, which had sustained patronage at the point of delivery of many public services for 25 years.[212]
More recently, Istanbul and many of Turkey's metropolitan cities are following a trend away from the government and their right-wing ideology. In 2013 and 2014, large-scale anti-AKP government protests began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation. This trend first became evident electorally in the 2014 mayoral election where the center-left opposition candidate won an impressive 40% of the vote, despite not winning. The first government defeat in Istanbul occurred in the 2017 constitutional referendum, where Istanbul voted 'No' by 51.4% to 48.6%. The AKP government had supported a 'Yes' vote and won the vote nationally due to high support in rural parts of the country. The biggest defeat for the government came in the 2019 local elections, where their candidate for Mayor, former Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım, was defeated by a very narrow margin by the opposition candidate Ekrem İmamoğlu. İmamoğlu won the vote with 48.77% of the vote, against Yıldırım's 48.61%. Similar trends and electoral successes for the opposition were also replicated in Ankara, Izmir, Antalya, Mersin, Adana and other metropolitan areas of Turkey.[citation needed]
Administratively, Istanbul is divided into 39 districts, more than any other province in Turkey. As a province, Istanbul sends 98 Members of Parliament to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, which has a total of 600 seats. For the purpose of parliamentary elections, Istanbul is divided into three electoral districts; two on the European side and one on the Asian side, electing 28, 35 and 35 MPs respectively.[citation needed]
Economía
Istanbul had the eleventh-largest economy among the world's urban areas in 2018, and is responsible for 30 percent of Turkey's industrial output,[215] 31 percent of GDP,[215] and 47 percent of tax revenues.[215] The city's gross domestic product adjusted by PPP stood at US$537.507 billion in 2018,[216] with manufacturing and services accounting for 36 percent and 60 percent of the economic output respectively.[215] Istanbul's productivity is 110 percent higher than the national average.[215] Trade is economically important, accounting for 30 percent of the economic output in the city.[15] In 2019, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $83.66 billion and received imports totaling $128.34 billion; these figures were equivalent to 47 percent and 61 percent, respectively, of the national totals.[217]
Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait, houses international ports that link Europe and Asia. The Bosporus, providing the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, is the world's busiest and narrowest strait used for international navigation, with more than 200 million tons of oil passing through it each year.[218] International conventions guarantee passage between the Black and the Mediterranean seas,[219] even when tankers carry oil, LNG/LPG, chemicals, and other flammable or explosive materials as cargo. In 2011, as a workaround solution, the then Prime Minister Erdoğan presented Canal Istanbul, a project to open a new strait between the Black and Marmara seas.[219] While the project was still on Turkey's agenda in 2020, there has not been a clear date set for it.[15]
Shipping is a significant part of the city's economy, with 73.9 percent of exports and 92.7 percent of imports in 2018 executed by sea.[15] Istanbul has three major shipping ports – the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu – as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara.[15] Haydarpaşa, at the southeastern end of the Bosporus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s.[220] Since then operations were shifted to Ambarlı, with plans to convert Haydarpaşa into a tourism complex.[15] In 2019, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 3,104,882 TEUs, making it the third-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.[220]
Istanbul has been an international banking hub since the 1980s,[15] and is home to the only stock exchange in Turkey. Borsa Istanbul was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866.[221] In 1995, keeping up with the financial trends, Borsa Istanbul has moved its headquarters from Bankalar Caddesi – traditionally the financial center of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey,[221] – to the district of Maslak, which hosts the headquarters of the majority of Turkish banks.[222] By 2022,[223] Borsa Istanbul is scheduled to move to a new planned district in Ataşehir, which will host the headquarters of Turkish banks, including the Central Bank that is currently headquartered in Ankara.[224] Whereas 2.4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000,[citation needed] there were 13.4 million foreign tourists in 2018, making Istanbul the world's fifth most-visited city.[14] Istanbul is, after Antalya, Turkey's second-largest international gateway, receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul has more than fifty museums, with Topkapı Palace, the most visited museum in the city, bringing in more than $30 million in revenue each year.[15]
Cultura
Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.[225] The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.[226]
Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.[227]
By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.[228] When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.[229]
Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.[231] These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.[230]
The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.[232] Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue.[233] Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey's nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.[234] Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies.[235] The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with Uzak (2002) and My Father and My Son (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, the nation's movies began to see substantial international success.[236] Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including From Russia with Love (1963), Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul (2008).[237]
Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the International Istanbul Film Festival and the Istanbul International Jazz Festival in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994.[238] The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial, held every two years since 1987. Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite biennales, alongside the Venice Biennale and the São Paulo Art Biennial.[239]
Leisure and entertainment
Istanbul has numerous shopping centers, from the historic to the modern. The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.[240][241] Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Egyptian Bazaar, which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660. Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.[242] Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.[241] İstinye Park in İstinye and Zorlu Center near Levent are among the newest malls which include the stores of the world's top fashion brands. Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.[243][244]
Istanbul is known for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosphorus (particularly in neighborhoods like Ortaköy, Bebek, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy). Kumkapı along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.[245] The Princes' Islands, 15 kilometers (9 mi) from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Prince Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.[246] Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately-cooked dishes of the Ottoman cuisine. Following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey, which began in the 1960s, the foodscape of the city has drastically changed by the end of the century; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as kebab taking an important place in the food scene. Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu, Beşiktaş, Şişli, and Kadıköy districts.
Istanbul has active nightlife and historic taverns, a signature characteristic of the city for centuries if not millennia. Along İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı, now home to winehouses (known as meyhanes), pubs, and restaurants.[247] İstiklal Avenue, originally known for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs.[248][249] Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.[250] Other focal points for Istanbul's nightlife include Nişantaşı, Ortaköy, Bebek, and Kadıköy.[251]
Deportes
Istanbul is home to some of Turkey's oldest sports clubs. Beşiktaş JK, established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs. Due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions, earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo.[252] Galatasaray SK and Fenerbahçe SK have fared better in international competitions and have won more Süper Lig titles, at 22 and 19 times, respectively.[253][254][255] Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.[254] Istanbul has seven basketball teams—Anadolu Efes, Beşiktaş, Darüşşafaka, Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Büyükçekmece—that play in the premier-level Turkish Basketball Super League.[256]
Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the Summer Olympic Games. Atatürk Olympic Stadium, the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an IAAF first-class venue for track and field.[257] The stadium hosted the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final and will host the 2020 UEFA Champions League Final.[258] Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, Fenerbahçe's home field, hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final three years after its completion. Türk Telekom Arena opened in 2011 to replace Ali Sami Yen Stadium as Galatasaray's home turf,[259][260] while Vodafone Park, opened in 2016 to replace BJK İnönü Stadium as the home turf of Beşiktaş, hosted the 2019 UEFA Super Cup game. All four stadiums are elite Category 4 (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.[f]
The Sinan Erdem Dome, among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, as well as the 2011–12 Euroleague and 2016–17 EuroLeague Final Fours.[264] Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001.[265] Several other indoor arenas, including the Beşiktaş Akatlar Arena, have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.[266] Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2020—and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully.[267]
The TVF Burhan Felek Sport Hall is one of the major volleyball arenas in the city and hosts clubs such as Eczacıbaşı VitrA, Vakıfbank SK, and Fenerbahçe who have won numerous European and World Championship titles.[citation needed]
Between 2005 and 2011, Istanbul Park racing circuit hosted the annual Formula One Turkish Grand Prix.[268] Istanbul Park was also a venue of the World Touring Car Championship and the European Le Mans Series in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then.[269][270] It also hosted the Turkish Motorcycle Grand Prix between 2005 and 2007. Istanbul was occasionally a venue of the F1 Powerboat World Championship, with the last race on the Bosphorus strait on 12–13 August 2000.[271][unreliable source?] The last race of the Powerboat P1 World Championship on the Bosphorus took place on 19–21 June 2009.[272] Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.[273][274]
Medios de comunicación
Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The Cağaloğlu street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.[275]
Istanbul now has a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.[276] Hürriyet, Sabah, Posta and Sözcü, the country's top four papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 275,000 weekly sales each.[277] Hürriyet's English-language edition, Hürriyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961, but the English-language Daily Sabah, first published by Sabah in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like Cumhuriyet, Milliyet and Habertürk are also based in Istanbul.[276] Istanbul also has long-running Armenian language newspapers, notably the dailies Marmara and Jamanak and the bilingual weekly Agos in Armenian and Turkish.[citation needed]
Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.[278] Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country's population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey.[278] Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is Açık Radyo (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's Metro FM (97.2 FM). The state-run Radio 3, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, and English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).[279]
TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul.[280] Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based Star TV was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and Show TV (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.[281] Kanal D and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999.[282]
Educación
In 2015, more than 57,000 students attended 7,934 schools,[283] including the renowned Galatasaray High School, Kabataş Erkek Lisesi, and Istanbul Lisesi. Galatasaray High School was established in 1481 and is the oldest public high school in Turkey.[283]
Some of the most renowned and highly ranked universities in Turkey are in Istanbul. Istanbul University, the nation's oldest institute of higher education, dates back to 1453 and its dental, law, medical schools were founded in the nineteenth century.
Istanbul has more than 93 colleges and universities,[283] with 400,000 students[284] enrolled in 2016. The city's largest private universities include Sabancı University, with its main campus in Tuzla, Koç University in Sarıyer, Özyeğin Üniversitesi near Altunizade. Istanbul's first private university, Koç University, was founded as late as 1992, because private universities were officially outlawed in Turkey before the 1982 amendment to the constitution.[283]
Four public universities with a major presence in the city, Boğaziçi University, Galatasaray University, Istanbul Technical University (the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering), Istanbul University provide education in English (all but Galatasaray University) and French.[283][clarification needed]
Istanbul is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including Mimar Sinan Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1882.[285]
Servicios públicos
Istanbul's first water supply systems date back to the city's early history, when aqueducts (such as the Valens Aqueduct) deposited the water in the city's numerous cisterns.[286] At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day.[286] In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines.[287] Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).[288]
The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.[289] Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956.[289][290] Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983.[289] The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private electric utilities.[290]
The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.[291] Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the telegraph in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and Edirne—finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856.[292]
A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.[291][294] GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.[295] Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.[291][295] Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).[291]
In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were private.[296][needs update] Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals.[276] As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from 6 percent to 23 percent between 2005 and 2009.[276][297] Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including MRI machines, or associated with medical research centers.[298] Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U.S.-based Joint Commission than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in medical tourism to Turkey (with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008).[299] Laser eye surgery is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.[300]
Transporte
Istanbul's motorways network are the O-1, O-2, O-3, O-4 and O-7. The total length of Istanbul Province's toll motorways network (otoyollar) is 534 km (2020) and highways network (devlet yollari) is 327 km (2019), totaling 861 km of expressway roads (minimum 2x2 lanes), excluding secondary roads and urban streets.[301][302] The density of expressway network is 16.1 km/100 km2. The O-1 forms the city's inner ring road, traversing the 15 July Martyrs (First Bosphorus) Bridge, and the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Second Bosphorus) Bridge. The O-2 continues west to Edirne and the O-4 continues east to Ankara. The O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of European route E80 (the Trans-European Motorway) between Portugal and the Iran–Turkey border.[303] In 2011, the first and second bridges on the Bosphorus carried 400,000 vehicles each day.[304] The O-7[305] or Kuzey Marmara Otoyolu, is a motorway that bypass Istanbul to the north. The O-7 motorway from Kinali Gişeleri to Istanbul Park Service has 139 km, with 8 lanes (4x4). The completed section of highway crosses the Bosphorus Strait via the Yavuz Sultan Selim (Third Bosphorus) Bridge, entered service on 26 August 2016.[306] The O-7 motorway connects Istanbul Atatürk Airport with Istanbul Airport. Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul.[307][308] Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel (which entered service on 20 December 2016) under the Bosphorus strait also provides road crossings for motor vehicles between the Asian and European sides of Turkey.[309]
Istanbul's local public transportation system is a network of commuter trains, trams, funiculars, metro lines, buses, bus rapid transit, and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart, introduced in 2009, or the older Akbil electronic ticket device.[310] Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.[311] Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of a nostalgic route and a faster modern tram line, which now carries 265,000 passengers each day.[311][312] The Tünel opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line (after London's Metropolitan Railway).[311] It still carries passengers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep 573-meter (1,880 ft) track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and Kabataş began running in 2006.[313][314]
The Istanbul Metro comprises five lines (the M1, M2, M3, M6 and M7 on the European side, and the M4 and M5 on the Asian side) with several other lines M8, M9 and M11) and extensions under construction.[315][316] The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray Tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia, having 13.5 km length.[317] The Marmaray tunnel together with the suburban railways lines along the Sea of Marmara, is part of intercontinental commuter rail line in Istanbul, from Halkalı on the European side to Gebze on the Asian side. Marmaray rail line has 76.6 km, and the full line opened on 12 March 2019.[318] Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two-halves of the city, accommodating 2.2 million passenger trips each day.[319] The Metrobus, a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.[320]
İDO (Istanbul Seabuses) runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the Black Sea.[321][322] With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara, İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world.[323] The city's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.[324] Most visitors enter Istanbul by air, but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year.[325][non-primary source needed]
International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's Sirkeci Terminal, which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.[77] Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction but started running again in 2019 and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece.[327][328] After Istanbul's Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.[329][330][331] Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways, but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed line forced the station to close in 2012.[332] New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project; until then, Istanbul is without intercity rail service.[332] Private bus companies operate instead. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.[333][334]
Istanbul had three large international airports, two of which are currently in active service for commercial passenger flights. The largest is the new Istanbul Airport, opened in 2018 in the Arnavutköy district to the northwest of the city center, on the European side, near the Black Sea coast.
All scheduled commercial passenger flights were transferred from Istanbul Atatürk Airport to Istanbul Airport on 6 April 2019, following the closure of Istanbul Atatürk Airport for scheduled passenger flights.[335] The IATA airport code IST was also transferred to the new airport.[336] Once all phases are completed in 2025, the airport will have six sets of runways (eight in total), 16 taxiways, and will be able to accommodate 200 million passengers a year.[337][338] The transfer from the airport to the city is via the O-7, and it will eventually be linked by two lines of the Istanbul Metro.
Sabiha Gökçen International, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, on the Asian side, was opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009;[339] the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world's fastest-growing airport.[340][341] Atatürk had also experienced rapid growth, as its 20.6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world's top 30 airports.[342]
Istanbul Atatürk Airport, located 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center, on the European side, near the Marmara Sea coast, was formerly the city's largest airport. After its closure to commercial flights in 2019, it was briefly used by cargo aircraft and the official state aircraft owned by the Turkish government, until the demolition of its runway began in 2020. It handled 61.3 million passengers in 2015, which made it the third-busiest airport in Europe and the eighteenth-busiest in the world in that year.[342]
Air pollution from traffic
Air pollution in Turkey is acute in İstanbul with cars, buses and taxis causing frequent urban smog,[343] as it is one of the few European cities without a low-emission zone. As of 2019[update] the city's mean air quality remains of a level so as to affect the heart and lungs of healthy street bystanders during peak traffic hours,[344] and almost 200 days of pollution were measured by the air pollution sensors at Sultangazi, Mecidiyeköy, Alibeyköy and Kağıthane.[345]
Relaciones Internacionales
- List of twin towns and sister cities of Istanbul
Ver también
- Outline of Istanbul
- 1766 Istanbul earthquake
Notas
- ^ Where governor's office is located.
- ^ Istanbul straddles both Europe and Asia, with its commercial and historical centre and two-thirds of the population in Europe, the rest in Asia. Since Istanbul is a transcontinental city, Moscow is the largest city entirely within Europe.
- ^ The foundation of Byzantion (Byzantium) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BCE. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BCE historian Herodotus, which says the city was founded seventeen years after Chalcedon,[35] which came into existence around 685 BCE. Eusebius concurs with 685 BCE as the year Chalcedon was founded, but places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BCE.[36] Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BCE[37] and others have suggested even later. The foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,[38] others put it in 675 BCE[39] or even 639 BCE (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BCE).[36] Some sources refer to Byzantium's foundation as the 7th century BCE.
- ^ a b Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,Chandler 1987, pp. 463–505[74] examines different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to Morris 2010, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with Turan 2010 on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure,[179] come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the Administration section). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the History section.
- ^ In the Ottoman period the inner core of the city, inside the city walls, came to be known as "İstanbul" in Turkish and "Stamboul" in the West. The whole city was generally known as Constantinople or under other names. See Names of Istanbul for further information.[67]
- ^ UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, but regulations stipulate that only these elite stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals,[261] which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals,[262] which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009. Türk Telekom Arena is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.[263]
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Lake/Dam = 117.63 km²
Europe (25 districts) = 3,474.35 km²
Asia (14 districts) = 1,868.87 km²
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enlaces externos
- Website of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
- Website of the Istanbul Governorship
- Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: Interactive aerial photos from 1946, 1966, 1970, 1982, 2006, 2011 and 2013
- Old maps of Istanbul – Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel – Historic Cities Research Project