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Jacob L. Devers
Jacob L. Devers portrait.jpg
Devers como Comandante General, NATOUSA , en 1944
Apodo (s)"Jamie", "Jake"
Nació(1887-09-08)8 de septiembre de 1887
York, Pennsylvania , Estados Unidos
Fallecido15 de octubre de 1979 (1979-10-15)(92 años)
Washington, DC , Estados Unidos
Enterrado
Cementerio Nacional de Arlington
LealtadEstados Unidos
Servicio / sucursalArmada de Estados Unidos
Años de servicio1909-1949
RangoGeneral
Número de servicio0-2599 [1]
Comandos retenidosFuerzas de campaña del
ejército Fuerzas terrestres del
ejército Sexto Grupo de Ejércitos
Teatro de Operaciones del Norte de África, Ejército de los Estados Unidos
Teatro de Operaciones Europeo, Ejército de los Estados Unidos
Fuerza Blindada
9a División de Infantería
2o Batallón, 6o de Artillería de Campo
1er Batallón, 16o de Artillería de
Campo 1o de Artillería de Campo
Batallas / guerrasPrimera Guerra Mundial
Segunda Guerra Mundial
PremiosMedalla por Servicio Distinguido del Ejército (3)
Medalla por Servicio Distinguido de la Marina Medalla de
Estrella de Bronce
Lista completa
Otro trabajo
Presidente ejecutivo de negocios , American Battle Monuments Commission

Jacob Devers Loucks ( / d ɛ v ər z / ; 8 de septiembre de 1887/15 de octubre de 1979) fue un general en el ejército de los Estados Unidos que mandó el sexto grupo del ejército en el teatro europeo durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Estuvo involucrado en el desarrollo y adopción de numerosas armas, incluidos los tanques M4 Sherman y M26 Pershing , el camión anfibio DUKW , el helicóptero Bell H-13 Sioux y el rifle M16 .

Graduado de la Academia Militar de los Estados Unidos , Devers fue comisionado en la artillería de campaña en 1909. Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, fue instructor en la Escuela de Fuego en Fort Sill , Oklahoma, y ​​no sirvió en Francia hasta después del 11 de noviembre. armisticio puso fin a la lucha, cuando asistió a la escuela de artillería francesa en Treves . Entre las dos guerras mundiales, fue un firme defensor de la mecanización en un momento en que la idea de eliminar los caballos encontró una fuerte resistencia por parte de los artilleros conservadores.

Cuando estalló la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Europa, Devers estaba destinado en Panamá. Fue ascendido a general de división en octubre de 1940 y tomó el mando de la recién formada 9ª División de Infantería en Fort Bragg , Carolina del Norte, una base cuya construcción supervisó. Nombrado Jefe de la Fuerza Blindada en agosto de 1941, supervisó su expansión de cuatro divisiones blindadas a dieciséis. Fue un defensor elocuente de la doctrina táctica emergente de armas combinadas., y rechazó la doctrina estadounidense que sostenía que los tanques eran para la explotación, no para luchar contra otros tanques. Presionó a la industria estadounidense para que produjera motores más potentes y, a menudo en contra de la opinión de sus superiores, impulsó el desarrollo del M4 Sherman, un tanque mediano con un cañón de 75 mm . No satisfecho con el Sherman, pidió tanques aún más fuertemente armados y blindados. Quería 250 de los nuevos tanques M26 Pershing para la Operación Overlord , pero fue rechazado.

En mayo de 1943, Devers se convirtió en comandante del Teatro de Operaciones Europeo, Ejército de los Estados Unidos (ETOUSA). Sus tareas principales eran supervisar la preparación de planes detallados y la acumulación de hombres y material para Overlord, y apoyar la Ofensiva Combinada de Bombarderos . Se enfrentó al general Dwight D. Eisenhower por el desvío de los recursos de ETOUSA al Teatro de Operaciones de Eisenhower en el norte de África . Eisenhower lo sucedió en ETOUSA en enero de 1944, y Devers fue al Mediterráneo como Comandante del Teatro de Operaciones del Norte de África, Ejército de los Estados Unidos (NATOUSA) y Comandante Supremo Aliado Adjunto, Teatro Mediterráneo, al General británico Sir Henry Maitland Wilson.. Devers participó en la organización, planificación y liderazgo de la Operación Dragoon , la invasión del sur de Francia en agosto de 1944. Lideró el 6o Grupo de Ejércitos en Francia y Alemania a través del avance al Rin, el contraataque alemán en la Operación Northwind , las reducir el bolsillo de Colmar y la invasión aliada occidental de Alemania . Después de la guerra, comandó las Fuerzas Terrestres del Ejército .

Educación y vida temprana [ editar ]

Jacob Loucks Devers nació el 8 de septiembre de 1887, [2] en York, Pensilvania , una pequeña ciudad industrial en el condado de York, que se encuentra en la zona centro-sur oriental del estado. Sus padres eran Philip Devers, relojero y socio en una joyería, y Ella Kate Loucks, ama de casa. Fue el primero de los cuatro hijos de la pareja. [3] Tenía dos hermanos menores, Frank y Phillip, y una hermana menor, Catherine, conocida como Kitts. Los Devers, de ascendencia irlandesa y alsaciana , eran estrictos, trabajadores y religiosos. La familia pertenecía a la Iglesia Evangélica Luterana, que no creía en fumar ni en beber. Mientras les brindaba una cómoda vida de clase media a sus hijos, la pareja les enseñó a valorar la confiabilidad, la integridad y la laboriosidad. [4]

Al crecer en el corazón del país holandés de Pensilvania , el joven Jamie Devers (como lo llamaba su familia) disfrutaba del aire libre: acampar, pescar y cazar. Jugó todos los deportes habituales de la infancia y se hizo amigo fácilmente con su sonrisa cautivadora y su personalidad alegre. Además de las tareas del hogar, hacía trabajos ocasionales en el vecindario y trabajaba en la granja de su abuelo materno Jacob Loucks. [5] Inicialmente, fue educado en la Escuela Primaria Garfield en York. Entró en York High School en septiembre de 1901. Un estudiante popular, fue elegido presidente de la clase. Tenía un excelente expediente académico, obteniendo altas calificaciones en matemáticas y ciencias. Siempre competitivo, aunque ligeramente constituido, el Devers de 120 libras (54 kg) y 5 pies 10 pulgadas (178 cm) capitaneó el equipo de baloncesto, jugómariscal de campo defensivo en el fútbol y protagonizó el béisbol. [6]

Devers se graduó de York High School en mayo de 1905. Solicitó y fue aceptado por la Universidad de Lehigh , con la intención de estudiar ingeniería, [7] pero luego el congresista Daniel F. Lafean le ofreció un puesto en la Academia Militar de EE. UU. En West Point, Nueva York . [8] Entró en la Academia en junio con la clase de 1909. Entre sus compañeros de clase estaban George S. Patton , William Hood Simpson y Robert L. Eichelberger , quienes también se convertirían en generales de cuatro estrellas en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y John CH Lee , quien se convertiría en un general de tres estrellas. [9]Le fue bien en sus estudios y se destacó en los deportes, jugando como campocorto en el equipo de béisbol del Ejército y como guardia en el equipo de baloncesto de los Caballeros Negros del Ejército . [10] También jugaba al polo. [11] Se graduó en West Point el 11 de junio de 1909, ocupando el puesto 39 en su clase de 103, y fue comisionado como segundo teniente en su rama elegida: la artillería de campaña . [2] Sólo había nueve puestos disponibles, pero suficientes cadetes de alto rango eligieron otras ramas para que Devers asegurara su primera preferencia. [12]

Primera Guerra Mundial [ editar ]

El primer puesto de Devers fue en el 1er Batallón, 4o de Artillería de Montaña , con base en el Cuartel de Vancouver en el estado de Washington. Se trataba de una unidad de artillería de carga , lo que significa que sus obuses, municiones y equipo eran transportados por mulas . [11] Estaba equipado con el obsoleto cañón de montaña QF de 2,95 pulgadas . [13] Tres meses después de que Devers se uniera, la unidad se trasladó a Fort David A. Russell , Wyoming, donde se reincorporó al 2º Batallón, regresando de Filipinas. El puesto también acogió al 11 ° de Infantería y al 9 ° de Caballería afroamericana . Devers fue asignado a la batería C. Poco después,El primer teniente Lesley J. McNair se convirtió en el comandante de la batería. [14] El 11 de octubre de 1911, Devers se casó con Georgie Hayes Lyon de Arlington, Virginia, sobrina del mayor LeRoy S. Lyon, su comandante de batallón, en una ceremonia en la casa de sus padres en Arlington, Virginia . [15] [16] Se conocieron cuando visitó a su tío en Fort Russell. [dieciséis]

Una pistola de montaña QF de 2,95 pulgadas

Para su siguiente asignación en diciembre de 1912, Devers fue enviado de regreso a West Point para enseñar matemáticas. [17] También dirigió el programa de béisbol y entrenó al equipo de baloncesto Cadet. Sus peloteros incluyeron a Dwight D. Eisenhower y Omar N. Bradley . [15] El 1 de abril de 1916, fue ascendido a primer teniente. [2] Ese agosto fue transferido a la novena artillería de campo recién activada en Schofield Barracks , en lo que entonces era el Territorio de Hawai . Su única hija, Frances Lyon, nació allí el 20 de julio de 1917. La 9ª Artillería de Campaña tenía un batallón de cañones de 4,7 pulgadas y uno de 155 mm.. La artillería media era nueva en el ejército de los Estados Unidos, y el noveno fue su primer regimiento de artillería tirado por un tractor . Devers recibió el mando de la batería F. [18] [19]

Estados Unidos entró en la Primera Guerra Mundial contra Alemania el 6 de abril de 1917. [20] Devers fue ascendido a capitán el 15 de mayo y mayor el 5 de agosto. Fue destinado a la Escuela de Bomberos de Fort Sill , Oklahoma, el 10 de diciembre como instructor. Recibió ascensos a teniente coronel el 30 de julio de 1918 y coronel el 24 de octubre de 1918. [2] Se convirtió en oficial ejecutivo del 9º Regimiento de Artillería de Campaña, su antigua unidad de Hawai ahora en Fort Sill, el 15 de octubre de 1918. [2] En septiembre fue nominado para comandar la 60a artillería de campo, que tenía órdenes de trasladarse al frente occidental.en Francia, pero nunca asumió el cargo. El armisticio del 11 de noviembre de 1918 puso fin a los combates y se cancelaron las órdenes. En cambio, un Devers decepcionado se convirtió en oficial al mando de la 1.ª artillería de campo en Fort Sill el 5 de marzo de 1919. [21] En mayo de 1919, Devers fue enviado a una asignación temporal de tres meses a Europa con el Ejército de Ocupación estadounidense. Asistió a la escuela de artillería francesa en Treves para estudiar armas, municiones, equipo y tácticas utilizadas por los aliados y los alemanes durante la guerra. [22]

Entre guerras [ editar ]

Una pistola de 75 mm

Al regresar a los Estados Unidos, Devers comenzó un segundo período de servicio en West Point, sirviendo como Instructor Superior de Artillería de Campaña y Comandante del Destacamento de Artillería de Campaña. Volvió de coronel a su rango sustantivo de capitán al asumir el cargo el 20 de agosto de 1919. Fue ascendido a comandante nuevamente el 1 de julio de 1920. [23] En ese momento, el superintendente era el general de brigada Douglas MacArthur . MacArthur libró una batalla cuesta arriba e impopular para actualizar el plan de estudios, y Devers defendió a MacArthur y sus métodos, pero su propio departamento no se vio afectado. [24] [25]

Después de cinco años en West Point, Devers fue seleccionado para asistir a la Escuela de Comando y Estado Mayor en Fort Leavenworth, Kansas . Comenzó sus estudios allí el 3 de septiembre de 1924 y terminó como Graduado Distinguido el 28 de junio de 1925. [23] Ocupó el puesto 42 en la clase de 258, que fue encabezada por Dwight Eisenhower. [26] Luego fue destinado una vez más a Fort Sill, esta vez como director del Departamento de Artillería de la Escuela de Artillería de Campo hasta el 31 de agosto de 1929. [23] Entre los oficiales con los que trabajó estaba el Capitán Edward H. Brooks . [27]Durante su gira, a Devers se le atribuyó la realización de una serie de innovadoras mejoras tácticas y técnicas de artillería, incluidas técnicas avanzadas de apoyo de fuego que luego se utilizarían con éxito durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Siguió siendo un firme defensor de la mecanización durante el período de entreguerras. [28] La idea de eliminar los caballos encontró una fuerte resistencia por parte de los artilleros conservadores. [29]

Una pistola de 155 mm

En septiembre de 1929, se ordenó a Devers a Washington, DC, servir en el estado mayor del Jefe de Artillería de Campaña. Elegido para asistir al Army War College en Washington, comenzó sus estudios allí el 15 de agosto de 1932 y se graduó el 29 de junio de 1933. A esto le siguió una asignación de un año a Fort Hoyle, Maryland , como oficial ejecutivo de la 1.ª artillería de campo. Brigada, y luego como comandante del 2º Batallón, 6º de Artillería de Campaña . Después de 14 años como mayor, fue ascendido a teniente coronel nuevamente el 26 de febrero de 1934. El 15 de junio de 1934, fue enviado a Fort Myer , Virginia, cerca del Distrito de Columbia, como comandante del 1er Batallón del 16º de Artillería de Campaña . [30]Los jóvenes oficiales del regimiento como el segundo teniente Alexander Graham se sorprendieron cuando Devers les hizo disparar sus cañones de 75 mm . Graham, quien se casó con la hija de Devers, Frances, el 30 de julio de 1935, quedó impresionado de que Devers los hiciera hacerlo en cada oportunidad. [31]

Devers regresó a la Academia Militar por tercera vez, esta vez como gerente graduado de atletismo. El superintendente era ahora el general de división William Durward Connor , un oficial conocido por su lengua afilada. Más tarde, Devers recordó que "mucha gente le tenía miedo al general Connor. Me llamaba idiota una vez a la semana". [32] La responsabilidad había aumentado considerablemente desde los días en que Devers era cadete. Luego, solo había seis deportes de equipo universitarios ; en 1936 había dieciocho. A pesar de la Gran Depresión, las Juntas Atléticas, que dirigía Devers, habían acumulado fondos considerables. Su principal tarea fue la construcción de nuevos campos de juego donde no parecía haber ningún terreno disponible. Se le ocurrió un plan para mover el derecho de paso del ferrocarril de West Shore . Encontró que el ferrocarril le daba la bienvenida al plan, ya que una ruta más corta y recta les ahorraba dinero. [33] Los nuevos campos se completaron en diciembre de 1936. [34] Fue ascendido a coronel de pleno derecho el 1 de julio de 1938. [30]

Segunda Guerra Mundial [ editar ]

Emergencia [ editar ]

En agosto de 1939, Devers y su esposa Georgie abordaron el transporte del Ejército Leonard Wood con destino a la Zona del Canal de Panamá . En ese momento existía un temor genuino de que una nación hostil pudiera atacar a los Estados Unidos con un ataque al Canal de Panamá , impidiendo así el movimiento de barcos entre el Pacífico y el Atlántico. El estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Europa en septiembre de 1939 provocó una escalada de temores. Se enviaron refuerzos a Panamá, incluidos el 5º y el 13º de Infantería . Devers se convirtió en jefe de personal del mayor general David L. Stone , y luego de Daniel Van Voorhis., quien reemplazó a Stone en diciembre. Supervisó proyectos de construcción y otras mejoras a las defensas de la Zona del Canal de Panamá. [35]

Por recomendación del nuevo Jefe de Estado Mayor del Ejército , el general George C. Marshall , y con la aprobación del Secretario de Guerra Henry H. Woodring , [36] Devers fue ascendido a general de brigada el 1 de mayo de 1940. [37] ] Su ascenso sobre otros 474 coroneles lo convirtió a los 52 años en el general de brigada más joven del Ejército. [36] [38] En julio, Devers fue llamado a Washington desde la Zona del Canal de Panamá para asumir el mando de la Brigada Provisional en el área del Distrito de Columbia. Ese septiembre Marshall, con la aprobación del nuevo Secretario de Guerra Henry L. Stimson, nombró a Devers principal representante del Ejército de los EE. UU. ante la Junta Presidencial encargada de inspeccionar las bases en el Caribe y Terranova para ser alquiladas a los británicos como parte del Acuerdo Destructores por Bases . Cuando Devers dijo que podía usar un oficial del Cuerpo Aéreo , Marshall le dijo que tomara al que estaba afuera de su puerta, que resultó ser el teniente coronel Townsend E. Griffiss . [39]

Devers fue ascendido a mayor general el 1 de octubre de 1940 y enviado al mando de la recién formada 9.ª División de Infantería en Fort Bragg , Carolina del Norte, en sustitución del general de brigada Francis W. Honeycutt , que había muerto en un accidente aéreo. Supervisaría el entrenamiento del noveno mientras administraba el enorme programa de expansión de la base de Bragg. Devers dirigió el entrenamiento de infantería básica y avanzada en Bragg para los miles de tropas bajo su mando, ejército regular, guardia nacional, reservistas y reclutas. Entre sus coroneles estaba Alexander M. (Sandy) Patch , el comandante de la 47a Infantería. Durante la gira de Devers, la fuerza de Fort Bragg creció de 5.400 a 67.000 soldados. Al mismo tiempo, impulsó inmensos proyectos de construcción de viviendas base, instalaciones de capacitación y carreteras en el puesto abarrotado. Trabajando estrecha y cooperativamente con ingenieros, contratistas locales, intendentes y personal, y reduciendo la burocracia, en seis meses, Devers supervisó la finalización de 2,500 edificios y 93 millas (150 km) de carreteras. [39] [40] [41]

Fuerza blindada [ editar ]

El 1 de agosto de 1941, el general Marshall nombró a Devers Jefe de la Fuerza Blindada , [37] [28] que tenía su sede en Fort Knox , Kentucky. Devers reemplazó a una leyenda de la caballería mecanizada, la mayor general Adna R. Chaffee, Jr. , enferma terminal , [28] que había sido nombrada primera jefa un año antes. [42] Devers informó directamente a Marshall. Él era responsable de inspeccionar, organizar y entrenar las divisiones blindadas del Ejército y los batallones de tanques no divisionales separados, incluido todo el personal no tanque asignado. El Cuartel General del Ejército de McNair (GHQ) estaba a cargo táctico de todas las fuerzas terrestres de EE. UU., Pero el GHQ específicamente no controlaba la Fuerza Blindada semiautónoma.[43] which was considered a "quasi-arm".[44] The Armored Force had complete control of its own training, doctrine and organization.[42] In a major reorganization of the War Department in March 1942, McNair was named Commander of a new component, Army Ground Forces (AGF), which replaced GHQ.[45] Relations between GHQ/AGF and the Armored Force were distant and lines of authority and responsibility were often unclear. McNair seemed to prefer leaving Devers alone.[46]

An M3 Lee tank at Fort Knox

At the time Devers took command, the Armored Force had two operational armored divisions: the 1st Armored Division at Fort Polk, Louisiana, and the 2nd Armored Division at Fort Knox, and one independent tank battalion, the 70th Tank Battalion at Fort George G. Meade, Maryland.[47] Both divisions participated in the large-scale war games of the Louisiana Maneuvers in August and September 1941, and the Carolina Maneuvers in November 1941.[48] Despite some successes, the maneuvers revealed armored unit and equipment operational deficiencies, plus a general lack of combat readiness. Devers attributed much of the poor performance to poorly-trained junior and staff officers, but also saw doctrinal deficiencies that hampered the coordination of tanks, infantry and artillery.[49]

In particular, post-maneuver reports emphasized the vulnerability of tanks to antitank fire. This bolstered the pro-antitank philosophy strongly held by McNair. Devers differed, countering that the number of tank "kills" credited to antitank gunners was unrealistic and biased, feeling that "we were licked by a set of umpires' rules".[50] McNair continued to push for an independent tank destroyer force,[51] while Devers argued that "the weapon to best the tank is a better tank".[52] Nevertheless, in November Marshall authorized creation of a tank destroyer force. The Tank Destroyer Center was created, and the War Department ordered the activation of 53 tank destroyer battalions.[50] Battlefield experience would prove that Devers was right. In combat most tanks were knocked out by other tanks while tank destroyers were mainly used as mobile artillery support. The tank destroyer program was scaled back, and tank destroyer battalions were deactivated. At the end of the war, the tank destroyer quasi-arm was disbanded.[53][52]

Before Devers' arrival, Armored Force doctrine emphasized light tanks weighing no more than 15 short tons (14 t). American doctrine held that tanks were for exploitation, not fighting other tanks.[54] He rejected the M6 heavy tank and recommended to McNair that it be cancelled, citing its tremendous weight and concerns about its mobility and reliability. This was seen as support for this position,[55] but Devers wanted a medium tank, preferably mounting something like a 105mm howitzer. He was appalled to find that the Armored Force's tanks were armed with nothing heavier than a 37mm gun. A new medium tank was beginning to come off the production line: the M3 Lee. Devers observed testing of one just days after taking command, and was unimpressed. American industry was unable to cast a turret large enough to hold a 75mm gun, so the M3 carried a 37mm gun, with a 75mm in a sponson. This gave it a limited traverse, rendering it difficult to engage moving targets. To make matters worse, the designers shortened the barrel to improve the M3's mobility, which Devers realized also reduced the gun's muzzle velocity, and hence its effectiveness against armor.[56] In practice, M3 crews attempted to engage German armor with the 75mm, as the 37mm was ineffective against it. It was found that the 75mm could penetrate the frontal armor of German tanks at 400 yards (370 m), but German tanks destroyed M3s at up to 1,100 yards (1,000 m).[57] Devers pronounced the M3 "overweight, underpowered, and insufficiently armed".[58]

An M7 Priest

Often against the views of his superiors, Devers lobbied for a still more heavily armored and better armed medium tank, the M4 Sherman. He played an important role in the M4's design, development and manufacturing, particularly its engine and armament. Throughout his tour as Chief of the Armored Force he worked closely with the Ordnance Department, manufacturers and the Armored Force Board at Fort Knox on the research and testing of tanks, guns, armored vehicles and ammunition. The biggest obstacle was engines. Those of pre-war tanks were rated at 250 horsepower (190 kW), which was insufficient for a 35 short tons (32 t) medium tank. Devers wanted an 800 horsepower (600 kW) engine, but this was beyond the ability of the American automotive industry to produce. Extraordinary efforts resulted in the development of a number of 400 horsepower (300 kW) engines. He controversially rejected the General Motors 6046 diesel engine in favor of gasoline engines. Battlefield experience would demonstrate that the diesel engine was superior. The quest for a better engine eventually settled on the Ford GAA engine,[59][60] but there was a persistent shortage of tank engines.[61] Some 49,234 of the reliable, versatile, low-cost M4 Sherman and its variants would be produced.[62]

After the GHQ Maneuvers, the Army expected to have a period of "remedial training" to fix problems. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor 7 December 1941, shattered those expectations and plunged a not fully prepared United States into the war.[52][63] At the beginning of 1942, two armored divisions were operational and three were in training; the 6th Armored Division was activated in February, followed by the 7th Armored Division in March.[64] McNair recommended that one division in five be an armored division;[65] that meant up to fifty armored divisions by the end of 1943.[66] Increased pressure was on Devers, promoted to lieutenant general (equal in rank to McNair) on 6 September 1942,[37] to push more armored units through the pipeline even faster. Training was sometimes neglected because of the pressing need to get units ready for overseas deployment.[67] Initially the Armored Force trained all the components of the armored division, but after March 1942 it became restricted to tank personnel, with other personnel coming from their own branch training centers.[46][68] Devers sent Patton, now commander of I Armored Corps, to set up the Desert Training Center (DTC) in the California-Arizona Mojave Desert, where soldiers could train for desert warfare. By the time it closed in 1944, 20 infantry and armored divisions had trained there, although none fought in the desert, and five of them were sent to the Pacific.[69]

Devers was an articulate proponent of the Army's now-emerging tactical doctrine of combined arms: infantry-artillery-armor-close air support.[70] He carried a translation of a German manual on the components of the panzer division.[71] Devers was neither the first nor the only general to embrace combined arms as the doctrinal solution to the problem of how best to employ tanks, but he was well-placed to act upon it.[72] At his direction an updated, comprehensive (460 pages) Armed Force Field Manual: Tactics and Technique FM 17–10 was written, published and distributed in March 1942.[73] A German manual on tank platoon tactics, with a foreword by Heinz Guderian, was translated into English and issued as an Armored Force publication.[74] March 1942 saw a reorganization of the armored divisions in the wake of the 1941 maneuvers. Devers added an artillery headquarters to the armored division, and reorganized the artillery component into three battalions, each of three batteries of six M7 Priest self-propelled guns. A division trains headquarters was added to coordinate logistical activities.[62][75] In a first, at Devers' insistence, a flight of light aircraft to be used for artillery spotting and reconnaissance were included in the new Table of Organization and Equipment (TO&E) for each division.[75] He was a strong and early supporter of the development of the DUKW, an amphibious truck. Vannevar Bush later recalled that in the early stages of its development, Devers was the only man in the Army who fully appreciated its possibilities.[76] Its value would be demonstrated during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943.[77]

An M4 Sherman tank

From 14 December 1942 to 28 January 1943, Devers went on an inspection tour of the battlefields in North Africa, taking with him Major General Edward H. Brooks and Brigadier General Williston B. Palmer from the Armored Force, and Gladeon M. Barnes from the Ordnance Department. He spoke with key British generals including Harold Alexander, Bernard Montgomery and Richard McCreery, and American commanders including Eisenhower, Patton, Thomas B. Larkin and Orlando Ward. Eisenhower was defensive, suspicious that Marshall may have sent Devers to replace him, and nervous when Devers had critical comments about the handling of the 1st Armored Division. Devers and his party received a great deal of feedback, both positive and negative about American equipment. Devers noted that the M4 Sherman was superior to the M3 Lee that the 1st Armored Division was equipped with, but urged the development of the more powerful 76mm gun.[78][79]

The intelligence gathered was nearly lost when their B-17 lost its way returning to England, crash-landing in Athenry, Republic of Ireland. Fortunately, nobody was injured and the entire group, with their critical intelligence, was able to make their way by train to Northern Ireland early the following morning.

In 1943, McNair took an axe to the armored division organization, dramatically downsizing it. For all but the 2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions, the number of armored battalions was reduced to three.[80] Devers favored the older, larger organization.[81] The surplus armored battalions were utilized as separate armored battalions, so by the end of 1943 there were 54 armored battalions in armored divisions and 65 non-divisional battalions. By this time, the planned number of Army Ground Force divisions had been dramatically cut to 90, and McNair considered that only ten armored divisions were required, and he suggested that six of the sixteen armored divisions already active be broken up. This proposal was not accepted, and the number of armored divisions was frozen at sixteen.[80]

European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA)[edit]

On 3 May 1943, while on an aerial inspection tour, Lieutenant General Frank M. Andrews,[82] European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA) commander since replacing Eisenhower on 5 February 1943,[83] was killed in an aircraft crash in Iceland.[82] Marshall appointed Devers to take command of ETOUSA in his place.[84] Devers arrived in England on 9 May 1943.[85] His principal tasks were overseeing preparation of detailed plans and the buildup of men and materiel for Operation Overlord, and supporting the Combined Bomber Offensive.[86] At the end of May 1943, there were 133,000 US troops in the United Kingdom, of which 19,000 were in the ground forces, 74,000 in the air forces, and 34,000 in the services of supply. By the end of the year, their numbers had grown to 774,000, of which 265,000 were in the ground forces, 286,000 in the air forces, and 220,000 in the services of supply.[87] In preparing the plans for Overlord, he worked closely with the Chief Of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC), British Lieutenant General Frederick E. Morgan,[82] with whom he had a good working relationship.[86] Devers' main objection to the COSSAC plan was that he did not want American units smaller than corps directly subordinated to British command,[88] based on what he called "the Pershing Principle".[89]

An M26 Pershing tank

Devers clashed with Eisenhower over the diversion of ETOUSA resources to Eisenhower's North African Theater of Operations. On 28 July 1943, Eisenhower and Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz asked that four groups of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers be sent to the North African Theater to help support Operation Avalanche, the Allied invasion of Italy. The planned assault area at Salerno was at the extreme range of Allied fighters based in Sicily, and long-range bombers were needed to isolate the battlefield. Eisenhower and Spaatz felt that their theater should have priority. However, the four groups represented about a third of the Eighth Air Force's heavy bombers, and their departure would greatly impact the Combined Bomber Offensive, so Devers turned down the request. Devers and Eighth Air Force's commander, Brigadier General Ira C. Eaker, spoke to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, who agreed with them. When Eisenhower appealed to Washington, Marshall and General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of Army Air Forces, also supported Devers. In August, Eisenhower asked for permission to retain three groups of Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers in the North African Theater. Devers again turned down his request, and Marshall and Arnold again supported him. In September though, when Avalanche came under severe pressure from German counterattacks, Devers readily acceded to a request for the return of the three groups.[90][91] Stephen Ambrose later noted that "Eisenhower was not accustomed to having his requests to Marshall turned down and found it difficult to accept."[92]

In September 1943, AGF representatives met with Devers to discuss his needs, and he asked for 250 of the new T26E1 tanks (later redesignated the M26 Pershing) to be produced and shipped as a matter of urgency. The Ordnance Department concurred, but added on 1,000 T23 series tanks, an advanced design handicapped by problems with the reliability of its electric transmission. McNair disapproved the request,[93][94][95] writing that "the M4 tank, particularly the M4A3, has been widely hailed as the best tank on the battlefield today ... Other than this particular request, which represents the British view—there has been no call from any theater for a 90mm tank gun. There appears to be no fear on the part of our forces of the German Mark VI (Tiger) tank ... there can be no basis for the T26 tank other than the conception of a tank versus tank duel—which is believed unsound and unnecessary ... there is no indication that the 76mm antitank gun is inadequate against the Mark VI (Tiger) tank."[96]

North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA)[edit]

At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, President Roosevelt named Eisenhower as the Supreme Allied Commander for Overlord. Devers hoped that he would be appointed commander of the First Army Group, but instead was sent to the Mediterranean as Commander North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), primarily a logistical administrative organization.[97] American formations in the theater included Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark's Fifth Army and George Patton's Seventh Army; the Twelfth Air Force, led by Major General John K. Cannon; the Fifteenth Air Force, commanded by Major General Nathan Twining; and the NATOUSA Services of Supply headed by Lieutenant General Thomas B. Larkin.[98][99] Eaker went with Devers as Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces.[100][98] Devers, who arrived at Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ) in Algiers on 4 January 1944,[101] was also deputy to the Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean Theater, British General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson.[98] Devers and Wilson worked well together, and despite the administrative nature of his position, Devers spent most of his time at the front. Wilson often had Devers deal with difficult cases like the French and the Poles,[102] and Devers was later decorated by the Polish government in exile for allowing Poles captured in German uniform to join the Polish II Corps in Italy.[103]

Devers (left) with British General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson.

At the beginning of 1944, Allied Armies in Italy (AAI) fighting on the Italian Front were bogged down south of Rome in front of the German Gustav Line. This chain of strong defensive positions in mountainous terrain was anchored in the middle at Monte Cassino. Operation Shingle, Clark's plan for a surprise end run to outflank the German Winter Line, called for Allied landings at Anzio on Italy's west coast thirty miles south of Rome. On 7 January 1944, just days after he had become Wilson's deputy, Devers attended a conference in Marrakesh to discuss Shingle. In attendance was Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, General Wilson, General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief of the AAI, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham and Major General Walter Bedell Smith. Devers wondered why such a high-level conference was required for what he saw as a simple military decision, but noted in his diary that "the individuals present all favored an amphibious operation at Anzio."[104]

Devers clashed with Smith over the latter's attempt to obtain officers for Eisenhower's command. He tried to be accommodating, and consented to release a number of officers, including Patton and Major General Everett Hughes, but declined to give up others, including Larkin, Brigadier General Clarence Adcock and, in particular, Major General Lucian Truscott, then commanding the 3rd Infantry Division. Eisenhower wanted Truscott to command a corps in the assault in Operation Overlord; Devers foresaw him doing the same in southern France.[105][106] Eisenhower appealed to Marshall, who supported him; but Devers protested that Truscott was about to lead the 3rd Infantry Division ashore at Anzio in a few days' time. Not wanting to deprive Devers of a key subordinate on the eve of battle, Marshall backed down.[107] Soon after the landing, Devers flew to the beachhead to see Truscott, but was dismayed to find that the advance had halted on Clark's orders.[108] Major General John P. Lucas' VI Corps did not achieve the desired result at Anzio, and Clark's attempted crossing of the Rapido River was a disaster.[109][110]

At Monte Cassino the historic abbey overlooked Allied positions below. Ground commanders were sure the monastery was being used by the Germans as an observation post. Lieutenant-General Bernard C. Freyberg, commander of the New Zealand Corps preparing for a new assault on the mountain, had repeatedly requested that the abbey be bombed. Taking advantage of the German practice of not giving away their positions by firing on small planes, Devers and Eaker flew low over the monastery, and saw what they believed to be a radio aerial and enemy soldiers moving in and out. Wilson reluctantly agreed to its bombing. On 15 February Devers watched waves of American bombers level the monastery with Alexander, Clark, Freyberg and Eaker.[111][112] But follow-up attacks that day, and over the next eight days, failed to take the position, much less break the Gustav Line.[111] Devers visited Anzio on 16 February, and agreed with Alexander that Lucas should be relieved. Clark did so on 22 February.[113][114]

Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver W. H. Leese (left), commander of the British Eighth Army, with Devers and Lieutenant-General Sir Richard L. McCreery (right), commanding the British X Corps, at Eighth Army Tactical Headquarters.

The continuing failure to advance in Italy prompted the Combined Chiefs of Staff to postpone Operation Anvil, the on-again-off-again proposal for Allied landings along the coast of southern France coinciding with Overlord. Clark told Devers that another attack on the Gustav Line could not be mounted until May, and VI Corps could not be withdrawn from Anzio until it succeeded.[115] But planning for Anvil, begun in mid-January by AFHQ's Force 163 in Algiers continued.[116] Initially Clark was to lead the assault, with Lucas taking over Fifth Army. Devers did not have much faith in either of them, even before Lucas' relief. Lyman Lemnitzer later recalled that Fifth Army staff feared that Devers would relieve Clark every time the two met.[117]

Marshall insisted that Anvil required an experienced commander, and with Patton gone, Clark was the only one in the theater. Then Devers received a cable that IV Corps headquarters was on its way to the theater. It was commanded by Major General Alexander Patch, who had a distinguished combat record leading the soldiers and marines of XIV Corps in the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific. With Marshall's concurrence, Devers appointed Patch to replace Patton as commander of the Seventh Army and Force 163 on 2 March.[118] While Patch and his staff planned the operation, Devers ensured that the supplies accumulated for it were not dissipated.[119]

A successful Allied offensive in May finally broke through the Gustav Line, and Rome fell to Clark's army on 4 June.[120] On 13 June, Devers ordered Larkin to shift priority for supplies from Fifth Army in Italy to Seventh Army.[121] Two days later, Wilson ordered VI Corps to be withdrawn from the front line in preparation for Anvil.[122] Virtually all the material needed for the assault was on hand, on the way, or promised, thanks to Devers' efforts to preserve the stockpile of Anvil stores and supplies even when the operation was in doubt.[121] To command the assault, he created a special headquarters on Corsica called Advanced Detachment AFHQ, with Devers in command.[123]

Devers sent a cable to Marshall on 1 July proposing that an army group be formed, with himself as commander.[124] Eisenhower concurred with this on 12 July.[123] While it would have been easy enough to add the Seventh Army to Bradley's 12th Army Group, this would have meant that Eisenhower would have to deal with the French, and after his experience in Operation Torch, Eisenhower preferred to let Devers do it.[125] Marshall made the appointment on 16 July. Thus, Devers wore four "hats" for the operation: Deputy Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean Theater; Commanding General NATOUSA; Commander, Advanced Detachment AFHQ, which was activated on 29 July; and Commanding General, 6th Army Group, which Devers activated on 1 August.[123]

France and Germany 1944–45[edit]

Anvil commanders (left to right): Lieutenant General Ira C. Eaker, Major General John K. Cannon, Devers and Major General Thomas B. Larkin

Operation Dragoon was a crushing success. In a few short weeks, the French and American forces drove the Germans from southeastern France and captured major ports including Marseille on 28 August.[126] On 15 September 1944, the 6th Army Group became operational, assuming control of Patch's Seventh Army and General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny's French First Army (as it became on 19 September).[127] The French First Army was the largest French force ever amassed under a foreign military leader.[38][128] Eisenhower's SHAEF assumed operational control of the 6th Army Group, although Devers retained his own logistical system via the Mediterranean.[127] The campaign was not without cost, and concurrent combat in Normandy and Italy created a shortage of replacements, especially infantry, that left VI Corps about 5,200 men short.[126]

Devers remained in command of NATOUSA,[129] so he sent Clark a message on 19 October suggesting that units be rested in order to keep casualties down.[130] Devers had written to McNair on 4 February 1944, noting that when divisions were left in the line for more than 30 to 40 days, fatigue, carelessness and exposure resulted in increased casualty and sickness rates.[131] Clark replied that "your radio indicates a lack of appreciation of our tactical situation, the terrain, enemy resistance, and my mission."[130] Devers noted in his diary that Clark's response "shows quite well his lack of judgment and tact and indicate definitely that he is not a team player",[117] and he recommended to Marshall that Eaker and not Clark be his successor in the Mediterranean. Marshall chose to appoint Lieutenant General Joseph T. McNarney on 22 October.[129][132]

The activation of the French First Army left Seventh Army with only one corps. Devers asked for IV Corps to be transferred from Italy, but Wilson argued that this would adversely affect operations in Italy against the Gothic Line, and the Combined Chiefs agreed.[133] Instead, Devers proposed on 26 September that Major General Wade H. Haislip's XV Corps to be transferred from Patton's Third Army, which had severe logistical difficulties, to the Seventh Army. Devers argued that they could better be supported over the 6th Army Group's line of communications from the Mediterranean. Eisenhower agreed, and further ordered that three more divisions scheduled to join Bradley's 12th Army Group in northern France, but unlikely to do so until the supply and transport situation improved, be diverted to Marseilles, and join the 6th Army Group.[134] Haislip was a good choice for the 6th Army Group. He spoke French fluently, having fought in France during World War I and attended the Ecole Superieure de Guerre from 1925 to 1927, and was attuned to French sensibilities.[135][136] Above all, Haislip got along well with Major General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, the mercurial commander of the French 2nd Armored Division.[129] Devers was shocked when Leclerc informed him that he and his men wanted to serve with the American Army, not the French First Army, which he considered dominated by Vichy French traitors.[137]

Despite the administrative nature of his position, Devers spent most of his time at the front.

Devers may have oversold the benefits of the southern line of communications.[138] Marseille had been captured, but the harbor entrance was blocked with 75 sunken ships; the harbor basin had been sown with naval mines; the quays, jetties and cranes had been demolished; and the surrounding area had been mined and booby trapped. While the US Navy cleared the harbor, the 1051st Port Construction and Repair Group undertook the rehabilitation of the port. Ships were able to discharge in the stream from 5 September, and the first Liberty ship docked on 15 September. [139] Beyond the port, there were numerous breakages in the rail network, and many bridges were down. To get the railroad from Marseille working, Devers turned to Brigadier General Carl R. Gray, Jr., the commander of the 1st Military Railway Service. By 25 September, the railroad reached Lyon with a capacity of 3,000 short tons (2,700 t) per day. Devers pressed Gray for 15,000 short tons (14,000 t). By 1 October, when Devers had promised Eisenhower that he could support ten divisions by rail, sufficient supplies were arriving for just one. The rest had to be supported by road.[140][141] Not until the third week in October could all of the Seventh Army's needs, including those of XV Corps, be met.[142]

Devers conceded that he would only be able to supply Patton with 1,000 short tons (910 t) per day from 15 November, which only increased Eisenhower's resolve to give priority to opening the port of Antwerp in the north. Devers was ordered to clear the Germans from the west bank of the Rhine in his sector.[143] His offensive went well; the French 1st Armored Division reached the Rhine on 19 November,[144] and Leclerc captured Strasbourg on 23 November.[145] Devers inflicted a crushing defeat on General Friedrich Wiese's Nineteenth Army, nearly destroying six of its eight divisions.[146] A large German presence remained west of the Rhine, which came to be called the Colmar Pocket.[147] When Eisenhower and Bradley visited 6th Army Group on 24 November, they were astonished to find Devers, Patch and Haislip energetically planning a crossing of the Rhine in early December. Bradley drew attention to the formidable defenses on the far bank, and Devers told him that he had spoken to patrols that had found them empty. Eisenhower would have none of it. His strategy remained to destroy the German forces on the west bank before attempting a crossing.[148][149] The official historians described this decision as "difficult to understand".[150]

Lieutenant Generals Lucian K. Truscott, Jr. and Alexander M. Patch with Devers

An attempt to reduce the Colmar Pocket on 15 December was called off by Eisenhower when Bradley was hit by the German Ardennes Offensive,[151] which Brigadier General Garrison H. Davidson, the Seventh Army Engineer, felt might have been avoided entirely if Devers had been allowed to proceed with the Rhine crossing.[152] In response to the crisis, Eisenhower ordered Devers to cease offensive operations and assume responsibility for much of Patton's front, allowing the Third Army to turn north.[153] This left the Seventh Army holding a 126-mile (203 km) front with six infantry and two armored divisions.[154] Eisenhower ordered Devers to effect a major withdrawal to a shorter line, but Devers baulked at this, and there was a violent French reaction to the prospect of abandoning Strasbourg.[155] On 31 December 1944, the Seventh Army was struck by Operation Nordwind.[156] Between 5 and 25 January 1945, there were four more major German attacks against the 6th Army Group by Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler's Army Group Oberrhein.[157] Seventh Army suffered some 14,000 casualties, but the Germans did not break through and Strasbourg was held.[158] In Devers' estimation Brooks, the commander of VI Corps, "fought one of the great defensive battles of all times with very little".[158]

Devers now turned his attention to the Colmar Pocket.[159] He had expected the Germans to withdraw, and thought that the French First Army would be able to eliminate the pocket.[147] He later admitted that he had underestimated the German determination to hold it and overestimated de Lattre’s ability to keep the French First Army moving against the renewed and strengthened German resistance.[151][160] Eisenhower regarded it as a "sore", and sent five additional American divisions to 6th Army Group to help clean it out. After the Ardennes Offensive and Northwind, Devers regarded it as petty of Bradley to begrudge him the additional divisions.[161] French and American troops finally eliminated the Colmar Pocket on 5 February 1945.[162] Against Eisenhower's preference, Devers was promoted to general on 8 March 1945 ahead of Spaatz, Bradley and Patton.[163] He therefore remained the second-highest ranking American officer in Europe after Eisenhower.[164]

Seventh Army crossed the Rhine on 26 March, and began its final advance into Germany.[165] On 5 May 1945, General Hermann Foertsch surrendered Army Group G unconditionally to Devers. Patch, Haislip and other American generals were present, but no representative of the French First Army. This caused a final diplomatic tussle with the French over the status of the General Hans Schmidt's Twenty-Fourth Army, which de Lattre insisted should surrender to him. Devers refused to hand Schmidt over to de Lattre. Two days later, Eisenhower accepted a general surrender of the German armed forces at his headquarters at Rheims.[166]

Army Ground Forces[edit]

Following the surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945, the Seventh Army was transferred to the 12th Army Group, and the French First Army reverted to national control, leaving the 6th Army Group with little to do, although Devers acted as commander of the 12th Army Group in Bradley's absence.[167] In June 1945, Devers was appointed Chief of Army Ground Forces,[168] in succession to General Joseph Stilwell, who had left to command the Tenth United States Army on Okinawa.[169] Army Ground Forces still controlled schools and training centers in the United States,[170] but its focus was demobilization and coordinating the redeployment of units from Europe to the Pacific, where the war with Japan continued until it too surrendered on 14 August 1945.[171] Devers hired a civilian secretary, Dorothy Benn, a widow whose husband, an Army Air Forces pilot, had been listed as missing in action in New Guinea in 1943 and was presumed dead until his body was found in 1957.[172]

A Bell 47 helicopter

The Army Service Forces was abolished on 14 May 1946, on the recommendation of War Department's Simpson Board, but the Army Ground Forces remained. Devers' November 1945 testimony before the board had urged that the Army Service Forces be retained.[173] Army Ground Forces was given control of the six armies in the United States,[174] but as demobilization gathered pace, the strength of the army shrank dramatically.[175] Devers was faced with the unpleasant task of informing many officers that they were being demoted.[176] One reform that he did achieve was to reduce the number of combat branches to just three: infantry, armor and artillery.[175]

McNair had established Army Ground Forces headquarters at the Army War College campus, where Devers lived,[176] but Stilwell had moved the headquarters into the Pentagon. Eisenhower, as the new Chief of Staff of the Army, decided that the Army Ground Forces headquarters should be co-located with the Army Air Forces' Tactical Air Command, so it was moved to Fort Monroe, Virginia, not far from Langley Field.[177] Devers opened his headquarters there on 1 October 1946.[175] Further reorganization occurred on 10 March 1948, when Army Ground Forces was renamed Army Field Forces. Control of the armies was transferred to the Department of the Army, and Army Field Forces was reduced to a coordinating staff agency.[178]

As a member of the Joint Research and Development Committee with Spaatz, Devers took an interest in the development of helicopters, taking rides in different machines. He met with Larry Bell, the founder of Bell Aircraft. Bell's company was in a poor financial situation, and he was hoping that the Army would buy fifty of his new Bell 47 helicopters. Devers was impressed with the aircraft, and agreed to do so, although for $25,000 each rather than the $35,000 Bell was asking for, and found the money from Army Ground Forces funds. The Bell H-13 Sioux would go on to become one of the world's most recognizable helicopters.[179][180]

Retirement and post-military career[edit]

Under the rules of the time, Devers was given mandatory retirement on his 62nd birthday on 30 September 1949. Devers and his wife Georgie decided to buy a farm in Herndon, West Virginia, although they retained their "Yellow House" in Georgetown, Virginia, where Georgie had resided during the war. Devers settled into the role of a cattle rancher. He hired Curtis and Beatrix Murphy as handyman and cook. When he discovered that they owed $2,000 in hospital bills, he paid it for them, and never accepted repayment. They continued working for him until his death.[181]

Fairchild C-123 Providers

Finding that the life of a rancher did not sufficiently hold his interest, Devers accepted a job as managing director of the American Automobile Association Foundation for Traffic Safety. He hired Dorothy Benn as his executive assistant. The job mostly involved fund-raising, which Devers did not enjoy, and he left when a better opportunity as technical assistant to the president of Fairchild Aircraft presented itself in 1950.[182] He successfully lobbied the United States Air Force to buy the Fairchild C-123 Provider.[183] He was also a strong advocate of Fairchild's AR-15 rifle, which he maintained was a much better weapon than the Army's M14 rifle, which Devers described as "obsolescent".[184] As the M16 rifle, the AR-15 would ultimately supplant the M14.[185]

Devers also served briefly in 1951 as military advisor to Frank P. Graham, the United Nations mediator in the dispute between India and Pakistan over the status of Kashmir.[186] Eisenhower, now president, had Devers represent the United States at tenth anniversary ceremonies for the invasion of southern France in 1954, for the dedication of Epinal American Cemetery and Memorial and the Rhone American Cemetery and Memorial in France, and for that of the Sicily–Rome American Cemetery and Memorial in Italy. In 1960, as Devers was leaving Fairchild, Eisenhower asked him to replace Marshall as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission. He would remain in this role until 1969.[187] In May 1964, he joined a number of other retired generals, including Eaker, Clyde Eddleman and Merrill B. Twining, for Joint Exercise Desert Strike, a major military exercise.[188]

The farm was sold, and Devers and Georgie moved back to the Yellow House in 1957.[189] Her health declined in the 1960s, and she died on 8 February 1967, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.[190] Dorothy Benn's second husband, a Harvard economics professor who worked for the Department of Agriculture, died in 1973,[191][192] and she married Devers on 28 May 1975. He died at Walter Reed Army Medical Center on 15 October 1979, and was buried with Georgie at Arlington National Cemetery. He was survived by wife Dorothy, who died in 2007, and his daughter Frances, who died in 1986, his sister Catherine, stepdaughter Bonnie Benn Stratton, and her sons Troy DuVal Stratton and W. Benn Stratton, who graduated with the West Point class of 1983. Alex Graham died in 1977; Alex and Frances are buried at Arlington near Devers and Georgie.[193][19][194] Devers' papers are at the York County History Center in York.[195]

Dates of rank[edit]

InsigniaRankComponentDateReference
No insignia in 1909Second LieutenantRegular Army11 June 1909[2]
 First LieutenantRegular Army1 April 1916[2]
 CaptainRegular Army15 May 1917[2]
 MajorNational Army5 August 1917[2]
 Lieutenant ColonelNational Army30 July 1918[2]
 ColonelNational Army24 October 1918[2]
 Reverted to permanent rank of captainRegular Army20 August 1919[2]
 MajorRegular Army1 July 1920[23]
 Lieutenant ColonelRegular Army26 February 1934[30]
 ColonelRegular Army1 July 1938[30]
 Brigadier GeneralRegular Army1 May 1940[37]
 Major GeneralArmy of the United States1 October 1940[37]
 Major GeneralRegular Army22 February 1941[37]
 Lieutenant GeneralArmy of the United States6 September 1942[37]
 GeneralArmy of the United States8 March 1945[37]
 GeneralRetired List30 September 1949[37]

Awards and decorations[edit]

U.S. military decorations
Army Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters[1]
Navy Distinguished Service Medal[1]
Bronze Star Medal[37]
U.S. Military Service Medals
World War I Victory Medal[196]
Army of Occupation of Germany Medal[196]
American Defense Service Medal[196]
American Campaign Medal[196]
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with five service stars[196]
World War II Victory Medal[196]
Army of Occupation Medal with "Germany" clasp[196]
International and Foreign Awards
Grand Officer of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Argentina)[197]
Commander of the Order of Leopold (Belgium)[37]
Croix de guerre with palm (Belgium)[37]
Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil)[37]
Star of Gold (Chile)[37]
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Nile (Egypt)[37]
Legion of Honor, Grand Officer (France)[37]
Croix de guerre 1939–1945 with palm (France)[37]
Order of the Bath, Knight Commander (United Kingdom)[37]
Order of Military Merit (1st Class) (Mexico)[37]
Order of Virtuti Militari, Silver Cross (Poland)[37]

Footnotes[edit]

  1. ^ a b c "Valor awards for Jacob L. Devers". Military Times. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Cullum 1920, p. 1429.
  3. ^ Markey 1998, p. 11.
  4. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 5–7.
  5. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 8–9.
  6. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 10–13.
  7. ^ Adams 2015, p. 10.
  8. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 14–15.
  9. ^ Ancell & Miller 1996, pp. 96, 185, 252, 297.
  10. ^ Adams 2015, p. 12.
  11. ^ a b Wheeler 2015, pp. 29–30.
  12. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 28.
  13. ^ Calhoun 2015, p. 35.
  14. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 34–36.
  15. ^ a b Adams 2015, p. 16.
  16. ^ a b Wheeler 2015, pp. 39–40.
  17. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 41.
  18. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 18–19.
  19. ^ a b "Jacob L. Devers 1909". West Point Association of Graduates. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  20. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 50.
  21. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 62.
  22. ^ Adams 2015, p. 20.
  23. ^ a b c d Cullum 1930, p. 837.
  24. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 23–24.
  25. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 73–74.
  26. ^ Adams 2015, p. 25.
  27. ^ Adams 2015, p. 27.
  28. ^ a b c Cameron 2008, p. 268.
  29. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 84–89.
  30. ^ a b c d Cullum 1940, p. 217.
  31. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 96–97.
  32. ^ Adams 2015, p. 30.
  33. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 105.
  34. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 108.
  35. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 118–123.
  36. ^ a b Adams 2015, pp. 36–37.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Cullum 1950, p. 132.
  38. ^ a b Brown 2001, p. 3.
  39. ^ a b Adams 2015, pp. 38–39.
  40. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 135–136, 144.
  41. ^ Brown 2001, p. 6.
  42. ^ a b Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, pp. 56–57.
  43. ^ Watson 1950, p. 65.
  44. ^ Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, p. 152.
  45. ^ Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, pp. 154–155.
  46. ^ a b Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, p. 58.
  47. ^ Cameron 2008, pp. 253–255.
  48. ^ Cameron 2008, pp. 325–326.
  49. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 78–79.
  50. ^ a b Gabel 1992, p. 175.
  51. ^ Adams 2015, p. 81.
  52. ^ a b c Gabel 1992, p. 192.
  53. ^ Yeide 2004, pp. 249–251.
  54. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 400.
  55. ^ Adams 2015, p. 70.
  56. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 60–64.
  57. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 391.
  58. ^ Adams 2015, p. 64.
  59. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 66–70.
  60. ^ Green, Thomson & Roots 1955, pp. 288–301.
  61. ^ Thompson & Mayo 2003, p. 245.
  62. ^ a b Cameron 2008, pp. 461–462.
  63. ^ Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, p. 54.
  64. ^ Cameron 2008, pp. 365–366.
  65. ^ Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, p. 69.
  66. ^ Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, p. 278.
  67. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 369.
  68. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 262.
  69. ^ Gorman 1992, pp. II-25–II-30.
  70. ^ Cameron 2008, pp. 270–273.
  71. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 368.
  72. ^ Adams 2015, p. 91.
  73. ^ Armored Force 1942, p. 1.
  74. ^ Cameron 2008, p. 282.
  75. ^ a b Adams 2015, p. 83.
  76. ^ Allen 2002.
  77. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 203–204.
  78. ^ Adams 2015, pp. 89–93.
  79. ^ Wheeler 2015, pp. 185–193.
  80. ^ a b Greenfield, Palmer & Wiley 1947, pp. 332–335.
  81. ^ Cameron 2008, pp. 384–385.
  82. ^ a b c Harrison 1951, p. 53.
  83. ^ Matloff 1959, p. 48.
  84. ^ Wheeler 2015, p. 205.
  85. ^ Ruppenthal 1953, p. 123.
  86. ^ a b Adams 2015, p. 96.
  87. ^ Ruppenthal 1953, pp. 128–129.
  88. ^ Harrison 1951, p. 109.
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References[edit]

  • Adams, John A. (2015). General Jacob Devers: World War II's Forgotten Four Star. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-01517-4.
  • Allen, Thomas B. (August 2002). "Odd DUKW: On land and in the water, World War II's amphibian workhorse showed the skeptics a thing or two — now it shows tourists the sights". Smithsonian. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  • Ancell, R. Manning; Miller, Christine (1996). The Biographical Dictionary of World War II Generals and Flag Officers: The US Armed Forces. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29546-8.
  • Armored Force (1942). Armored Force Field Manual FM 17–10. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  • Blumenson, Martin (1969). Salerno to Cassino (PDF). United States Army in World War II: The Mediterranean Theater of Operations. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 22107. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Brown, Matthew J. (2001). Strategic Leadership Assessment of General Jacob L. Devers. Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania: United States Army War College. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  • Calhoun, Mark T. (2015). General Lesley J. McNair: Unsung Architect of the US Army. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2069-2. OCLC 895730835.
  • Cameron, Robert Stewart (2008). Mobility, Shock and Firepower: The Emergence of the U.S. Army's Armored Branch 1917–1945 (PDF). Washington, DC: Center of Military History U.S. Army. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  • Clark, Mark (1950). Calculated Risk. New York City: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 358946.
  • Clarke, Jeffrey J.; Smith, Robert Ross (1993). Riviera to the Rhine (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. ISBN 0-7948-3771-9. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Colley, David P. (2008). Decision at Strasbourg: Ike's Strategic Mistake to Halt the Sixth Army Group at the Rhine in 1944. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-57488-173-8. OCLC 221961610.
  • Cullum, George W. (1920). Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point New York since its Establishment in 1802: Supplement 1910–1920 (PDF). VI. Chicago, Illinois: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, The Lakeside Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Cullum, George W. (1930). Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point New York since its Establishment in 1802: Supplement 1920–1930. VII. Chicago, Illinois: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, The Lakeside Press. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Cullum, George W. (1940). Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point New York since its Establishment in 1802: Supplement 1930–1940. VII. Chicago, Illinois: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, The Lakeside Press. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Cullum, George W. (1950). Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point New York since its Establishment in 1802: Supplement 1940–1950. IX. Chicago, Illinois: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, The Lakeside Press. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  • Gabel, Christopher (1992). The U.S. Army GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 (PDF). Washington, DC: Center of Military History U.S. Army. ISBN 978-0-16-061295-4. OCLC 71320615. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Gorman, Paul F. (1992). The Secret of Future Victories: IDA Paper P-2653 (PDF). Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analyses. OCLC 65524027. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  • Green, Constance McLaughlin; Thomson, Harry C.; Roots, Peter C. (1955). The Ordnance Department: Planning Munitions for War (PDF). United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 18105901. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  • Greenfield, Kent; Palmer, Robert R.; Wiley, Bell I. (1947). The Organization of Ground Combat Troops (PDF). United States Army in World War II: The Army Ground Forces. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. OCLC 6993009. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Harrison, Gordon A. (1951). Cross Channel Attack. United States Army in World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. OCLC 1350280. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • MacDonald, Charles B. (1973). The Last Offensive (PDF). The United States Army in World War II: The European Theater of Operations. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. ISBN 978-0-486-45556-3. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  • Markey, Michael A. (1998). Jake: The General from West York Avenue. York, Pennsylvania: The Historical Society of York County. OCLC 40560577.
  • Matloff, Maurice (1959). Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–1944. United States Army in World War II: The War Department. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 8749622. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Moenk, Jean (1972). A History of Command and Control of Army Forces in the Continental United States 1919–1972. Fort Monroe, Virginia: Headquarters, United States Continental Army Command. OCLC 2558286.
  • Palmer, Robert R.; Wiley, Bell I.; Keast, William R. (1948). The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops (PDF). The United States Army in World War II: The Army Ground Forces. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military. OCLC 1313266. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Ruppenthal, Roland G. (1953). Logistical Support of the Armies: May 1941 – September 1944 (PDF). I. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 313303609. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
  • Ruppenthal, Roland G. (1959). Logistical Support of the Armies: September 1944– May 1945 (PDF). II. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. OCLC 8743709. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
  • Taaffe, Stephen R. (2011). Marshall and his Generals: U.S. Army Commanders in World War II. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1812-5. OCLC 714731520.
  • Thompson, Harry C.; Mayo, Lida (2003). The Ordnance Department Procurement and Supply (PDF). The United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services. Washington, DC: Center of Military History United States Army. OCLC 53405948. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  • Watson, Mark Skinner (1950). Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations. United States Army in World War II: The War Department. Washington, DC: The War Department Office of Military History. OCLC 67938871. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  • Wheeler, James Scott (2015). Jacob L. Devers: A General's Life. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-6602-5.
  • Yeide, Harry (2004). The Tank Killers: a History of America's World War II Tank Destroyer Force. Havertown, Pennsylvania: Casemate. ISBN 978-1-932033-26-7. OCLC 58482351.
  • Zaloga, Steve (2008). Armored Thunderbolt: the U.S. Army Sherman in World War II. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0424-3. OCLC 191318149.

External links[edit]

  • Papers of Jacob L. Devers, York County Heritage Trust
  • Research Papers of Thomas E. Griess, York County Heritage Trust – a major collection of research materials related to Jacob L. Devers
  • Papers of Jacob L. Devers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Military offices
Preceded by
Adna R. Chaffee Jr.		 Commanding General, Armored Force
1 August 1941 – May 1943		Succeeded by
Alvan Cullom Gillem Jr.
Preceded by
Frank M. Andrews		 Commanding General of U.S. Army Europe
7 May 1943 – 16 January 1944		Succeeded by
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Preceded by
Joseph W. Stilwell		 Commanding General of U.S. Army Ground Forces
29 June 1945 – 9 March 1948		Succeeded by
becomes Army Field Forces
Preceded by
was Army Ground Forces		 Commanding General of U.S. Army Field Forces
10 March 1948 – 10 September 1949		Succeeded by
Mark W. Clark