Historia de Japón


La primera habitación humana en el archipiélago japonés se remonta a tiempos prehistóricos alrededor del 30.000 a. C. El período Jōmon , llamado así por su cerámica marcada con cordones , fue seguido por el pueblo Yayoi en el primer milenio a. C. cuando se introdujeron nuevos inventos de Asia. Durante este período, la primera referencia escrita conocida a Japón se registró en el Libro chino de Han en el siglo I d.C.

Alrededor del siglo IV a. C., el pueblo Yayoi de la península de Corea emigró al archipiélago japonés e introdujo la tecnología del hierro y la civilización agrícola. [1] Debido a que tenían una civilización agrícola, la población de Yayoi comenzó a crecer rápidamente y abrumar al pueblo Jōmon , un nativo del archipiélago japonés que eran cazadores-recolectores. [2]

Entre el siglo IV y el IX, los muchos reinos y tribus de Japón se unificaron gradualmente bajo un gobierno centralizado, nominalmente controlado por el Emperador de Japón . La dinastía imperial establecida en este momento continúa hasta el día de hoy, aunque en un papel casi completamente ceremonial. En 794, se estableció una nueva capital imperial en Heian-kyō ( Kyoto moderno ), lo que marcó el comienzo del período Heian , que duró hasta 1185. El período Heian se considera una edad de oro de la cultura clásica japonesa . La vida religiosa japonesa desde ese momento en adelante fue una mezcla de prácticas nativas sintoístas y budismo .

Durante los siglos siguientes, el poder de la casa imperial disminuyó, pasando primero a los grandes clanes de aristócratas civiles, sobre todo los Fujiwara , y luego a los clanes militares y sus ejércitos de samuráis . El clan Minamoto bajo Minamoto no Yoritomo salió victorioso de la Guerra Genpei de 1180-1185, derrotando a su clan militar rival, los Taira . Después de tomar el poder, Yoritomo estableció su capital en Kamakura y tomó el título de shōgun . En 1274 y 1281, el shogunato de Kamakura resistió dos invasiones mongolas , pero en 1333 fue derrocado por un aspirante rival al shogunato, marcando el comienzo del período Muromachi . Durante el período Muromachi, los señores de la guerra regionales llamados daimyō crecieron en poder a expensas del shōgun . Finalmente, Japón descendió a un período de guerra civil . En el transcurso del siglo XVI, Japón se reunificó bajo el liderazgo del destacado daimyō Oda Nobunaga y su sucesor Toyotomi Hideyoshi . Después de la muerte de Toyotomi en 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu llegó al poder y fue nombrado shōgun por el emperador. El shogunato Tokugawa , que gobernó desde Edo ( Tokio actual ), presidió una era próspera y pacífica conocida como el período Edo (1600-1868). El shogunato Tokugawa impuso un estricto sistema de clases en la sociedad japonesa y cortó casi todo contacto con el mundo exterior .

Portugal y Japón iniciaron su primera afiliación en 1543, cuando los portugueses se convirtieron en los primeros europeos en llegar a Japón desembarcando en el archipiélago del sur. Tuvieron un impacto significativo en Japón, incluso en esta interacción inicial limitada, introduciendo armas de fuego en la guerra japonesa . La expedición estadounidense Perry en 1853-1854 puso fin de manera más completa al aislamiento de Japón; esto contribuyó a la caída del shogunato y al retorno del poder al emperador durante la Guerra Boshin en 1868. El nuevo liderazgo nacional del siguiente período Meiji transformó el aislado país de la isla feudal en un imperio que siguió de cerca los modelos occidentales y se convirtió en un gran poder . Aunque la democracia se desarrolló y la cultura civil moderna prosperó durante el período Taishō (1912–26), las poderosas fuerzas armadas de Japón tuvieron una gran autonomía y dominaron a los líderes civiles japoneses en las décadas de 1920 y 1930. El ejército japonés invadió Manchuria en 1931 y, a partir de 1937, el conflicto se convirtió en una guerra prolongada con China . El ataque de Japón a Pearl Harbor en 1941 llevó a la guerra con Estados Unidos y sus aliados . Las fuerzas de Japón pronto se ampliaron demasiado, pero el ejército resistió a pesar de los ataques aéreos aliados que infligieron graves daños a los centros de población. El emperador Hirohito anunció la rendición de Japón el 15 de agosto de 1945, tras los bombardeos atómicos de Hiroshima y Nagasaki y la invasión soviética de Manchuria .

Los aliados ocuparon Japón hasta 1952, durante el cual se promulgó una nueva constitución en 1947 que transformó a Japón en una monarquía constitucional . Después de 1955, Japón disfrutó de un crecimiento económico muy alto bajo el gobierno del Partido Liberal Democrático y se convirtió en una potencia económica mundial . Desde la Década Perdida de la década de 1990, el crecimiento económico se ha desacelerado. El 11 de marzo de 2011, Japón sufrió un terremoto y tsunami de magnitud 9,0 , uno de los terremotos más poderosos jamás registrados, que mató a casi 20.000 personas y provocó el grave desastre nuclear de Fukushima Daiichi .

Período paleolítico

Japón en el último máximo glacial en el Pleistoceno tardío hace unos 20.000 años el contorno negro indica el Japón actual

Los cazadores-recolectores llegaron a Japón en el Paleolítico , aunque queda poca evidencia de su presencia, ya que los suelos ácidos de Japón son inhóspitos para el proceso de fosilización. Sin embargo, el descubrimiento de ejes de tierra de borde únicos en Japón que datan de hace más de 30.000 años puede ser evidencia del primer Homo sapiens en Japón. [3] Los primeros humanos probablemente llegaron a Japón por mar en embarcaciones. [4] La evidencia de presencia humana data de hace 32.000 años en la cueva Yamashita de Okinawa [5] y hasta hace 20.000 años en la cueva Shiraho Saonetabaru de la isla Ishigaki . [6]

Período jomon

Reconstrucción de una familia Jōmon del sitio Sannai-Maruyama .

El período Jōmon del Japón prehistórico se extiende desde aproximadamente 13.000 a . C. [7] hasta aproximadamente 1.000 a. C. [8] Japón estaba habitado por una cultura predominantemente de cazadores-recolectores que alcanzó un grado considerable de sedentarismo y complejidad cultural. [9] El nombre Jōmon, que significa "marcado con cordón", fue aplicado por primera vez por el erudito estadounidense Edward S. Morse, quien descubrió fragmentos de cerámica en 1877. [10] El estilo de cerámica característico de las primeras fases de la cultura Jōmon fue decorado por imprimiendo cuerdas en la superficie de la arcilla húmeda. [11] Generalmente se acepta que la cerámica Jōmon se encuentra entre las más antiguas del este de Asia y del mundo. [12]

  • Un jarrón de principios del período Jōmon (11000–7000 a. C.)

  • Jarrón Jōmon medio (2000 a.

  • Figurilla Dogū de finales del período Jōmon (1000–400 a. C.)


Periodo Yayoi

El advenimiento del pueblo Yayoi de la península de Corea trajo transformaciones fundamentales al archipiélago japonés, comprimiendo los logros milenarios de la Revolución Neolítica en un lapso relativamente corto de siglos, particularmente con el desarrollo del cultivo del arroz [13] y la metalurgia. Hasta hace poco, se pensaba que el inicio de esta ola de cambios había comenzado alrededor del 400 a. C. [14] La evidencia de radiocarbono sugiere ahora que la nueva fase comenzó unos 500 años antes, entre 1000 y 800 a. C. [15] [16] Radiando desde el norte de Kyūshū, los Yayoi, dotados con armas y herramientas de bronce y hierro inicialmente importados de China y la península de Corea, suplantaron gradualmente a los Jōmon. [17] También introdujeron la producción de tejidos y seda, [18] nuevos métodos de trabajo en madera, [15] tecnología de fabricación de vidrio, [15] y nuevos estilos arquitectónicos. [19] La expansión del Yayoi parece haber provocado una fusión con el Jōmon indígena, lo que resultó en una pequeña mezcla genética. [20]

Una campana de bronce del período Yayoi ( dōtaku ) del siglo III d.C.

Las tecnologías Yayoi se originaron en el continente asiático. Existe un debate entre los académicos sobre hasta qué punto su difusión se logró mediante la migración o simplemente una difusión de ideas, o una combinación de ambos. La teoría de la migración está respaldada por estudios genéticos y lingüísticos. [15] El historiador Hanihara Kazurō ha sugerido que la afluencia anual de inmigrantes del continente osciló entre 350 y 3000. [21]

La población de Japón comenzó a aumentar rápidamente, quizás con un aumento de 10 veces sobre el Jōmon. Los cálculos del tamaño de la población han variado de 1 a 4 millones al final del Yayoi. [22] Los restos óseos de finales del período Jōmon revelan un deterioro en los ya de por sí deficientes estándares de salud y nutrición, en contraste con los sitios arqueológicos de Yayoi donde hay grandes estructuras que sugieren depósitos de grano. Este cambio fue acompañado por un aumento tanto de la estratificación de la sociedad como de la guerra tribal, indicada por tumbas segregadas y fortificaciones militares. [15]

Durante el período Yayoi, las tribus Yayoi se fusionaron gradualmente en varios reinos. El primer trabajo escrito de la historia que menciona a Japón, el Libro de Han, completado alrededor del 82 d.C., establece que Japón, conocido como Wa , estaba dividido en cien reinos. Una obra de historia china posterior, el Wei Zhi , afirma que para el año 240 d.C., un reino poderoso había ganado ascendencia sobre los demás. Según Wei Zhi , este reino se llamaba Yamatai , aunque los historiadores modernos continúan debatiendo su ubicación y otros aspectos de su representación en Wei Zhi . Se decía que Yamatai había sido gobernado por la monarca Himiko . [23]

Período Kofun (c. 250–538)

Daisenryō Kofun, Osaka

Durante el período Kofun posterior , la mayor parte de Japón se unificó gradualmente bajo un solo reino. El símbolo del creciente poder de los nuevos líderes de Japón fueron los túmulos funerarios kofun que construyeron alrededor del año 250 d.C. en adelante. [24] Muchos eran de escalas masivas, como el Daisenryō Kofun , un túmulo funerario con forma de ojo de cerradura de 486 m de largo que tardó quince años en completarse a enormes equipos de trabajadores. Se acepta comúnmente que la tumba fue construida para el emperador Nintoku . [25] Los kofun a menudo estaban rodeados y llenos de numerosas esculturas de arcilla haniwa , a menudo en forma de guerreros y caballos. [24]

El centro del estado unificado era Yamato en la región de Kinai en el centro de Japón. [24] Los gobernantes del estado de Yamato eran una línea hereditaria de emperadores que aún reinan como la dinastía más larga del mundo. Los gobernantes del Yamato extendieron su poder por todo Japón a través de la conquista militar, pero su método preferido de expansión fue convencer a los líderes locales de que aceptaran su autoridad a cambio de posiciones de influencia en el gobierno. [26] Muchos de los poderosos clanes locales que se unieron al estado de Yamato se conocieron como los uji . [27]

Extensión territorial de la corte de Yamato durante el período Kofun

Estos líderes buscaron y recibieron el reconocimiento diplomático formal de China, y las cuentas chinas registran cinco líderes sucesivos como los Cinco reyes de Wa . Los artesanos y académicos de China y los Tres Reinos de Corea desempeñaron un papel importante en la transmisión de tecnologías continentales y habilidades administrativas a Japón durante este período. [27]

Período Asuka (538–710)

El templo budista de Horyu-ji es la estructura de madera más antigua del mundo. Fue encargado por el príncipe Shotoku y representa el comienzo del budismo en Japón.

El período Asuka comenzó ya en 538 EC con la introducción de la religión budista del reino coreano de Baekje . [28] Desde entonces, el budismo ha coexistido con la religión sintoísta nativa de Japón, en lo que hoy se conoce como Shinbutsu-shūgō . [29] El período toma su nombre de la capital imperial de facto , Asuka , en la región de Kinai . [30]

El clan budista Soga asumió el control del gobierno en la década de 580 y controló Japón entre bastidores durante casi sesenta años. [31] El príncipe Shōtoku , un defensor del budismo y de la causa de Soga, que era de ascendencia parcial de Soga, sirvió como regente y líder de facto de Japón desde 594 hasta 622. Shōtoku fue autor de la constitución de diecisiete artículos , un código inspirado en Confucian de conducta para funcionarios y ciudadanos, y trató de introducir un servicio civil basado en el mérito llamado Sistema de Cap and Rank . [32] En 607, Shōtoku ofreció un sutil insulto a China al abrir su carta con la frase: "El gobernante de la tierra del sol naciente se dirige al gobernante de la tierra del sol poniente" como se ve en los caracteres kanji de Japón. ( Nipón ). [33] En 670, una variante de esta expresión, Nihon , se estableció como el nombre oficial de la nación, que ha persistido hasta el día de hoy. [34]

Nihon
La palabra Nihon escrita en kanji (colocación horizontal de caracteres). El texto significa "Japón" en japonés.
El príncipe Shōtoku fue un regente semi-legendario y un político del período Asuka .

En 645, el clan Soga fue derrocado en un golpe de estado lanzado por el príncipe Naka no Ōe y Fujiwara no Kamatari , el fundador del clan Fujiwara . [35] Su gobierno diseñó e implementó las Reformas Taika de gran alcance . La Reforma comenzó con la reforma agraria, basada en las ideas y filosofías confucianas de China . Nacionalizó toda la tierra en Japón, para distribuirla equitativamente entre los cultivadores, y ordenó la compilación de un registro de hogares como base para un nuevo sistema de impuestos. [36] El verdadero objetivo de las reformas era lograr una mayor centralización y mejorar el poder de la corte imperial, que también se basaba en la estructura gubernamental de China. Se enviaron enviados y estudiantes a China para aprender sobre la escritura, la política, el arte y la religión chinos. Después de las reformas, la Guerra Jinshin de 672, un sangriento conflicto entre el príncipe Ōama y su sobrino el príncipe Ōtomo , dos rivales al trono, se convirtió en un catalizador importante para nuevas reformas administrativas. [35] Estas reformas culminaron con la promulgación del Código Taihō , que consolidó los estatutos existentes y estableció la estructura del gobierno central y sus gobiernos locales subordinados. [37] Estas reformas legales crearon el estado ritsuryō , un sistema de gobierno centralizado al estilo chino que se mantuvo vigente durante medio milenio. [35]

El arte del período Asuka encarna los temas del arte budista. [38] Una de las obras más famosas es el templo budista de Horyu-ji , encargado por el príncipe Shōtoku y terminado en 607 EC. Ahora es la estructura de madera más antigua del mundo. [39]

Período de Nara (710–794)

El Daibutsu-den, dentro del complejo de Tōdai-ji . Este templo budista fue patrocinado por la Corte Imperial durante el período de Nara .

En 710, el gobierno construyó una nueva y grandiosa capital en Heijō-kyō (la moderna Nara ) siguiendo el modelo de Chang'an , la capital de la dinastía Tang china . Durante este período, aparecieron los dos primeros libros producidos en Japón: el Kojiki y Nihon Shoki , [40] que contienen crónicas de relatos legendarios del Japón temprano y su mito de creación , que describe a la línea imperial como descendientes de los dioses . [41] El Man'yōshū fue compilado en la segunda mitad del siglo VIII, que es ampliamente considerada la mejor colección de poesía japonesa. [42]

Durante este período, Japón sufrió una serie de desastres naturales, incluidos incendios forestales, sequías, hambrunas y brotes de enfermedades, como una epidemia de viruela en 735-737 que mató a más de una cuarta parte de la población. [43] El emperador Shōmu (r. 724-749) temía que su falta de piedad hubiera causado el problema y, por lo tanto, aumentó la promoción del budismo por parte del gobierno, incluida la construcción del templo Tōdai-ji en 752. [44] Los fondos para construir este El templo fue levantado en parte por el influyente monje budista Gyōki , y una vez terminado fue utilizado por el monje chino Ganjin como lugar de ordenación . [45] Sin embargo, Japón entró en una fase de disminución de la población que continuó hasta bien entrado el siguiente período Heian . [46] También hubo un intento serio de derrocar la casa imperial durante el período medio de Nara. Durante la década de 760, el monje Dōkyō intentó establecer su propia dinastía con la ayuda de la emperatriz Shōtoku , pero después de su muerte en 770 perdió todo su poder y fue exiliado. El clan Fujiwara , además, consolidó su poder.

Período de Heian (794-1185)

Maqueta en miniatura de la antigua capital Heian-kyō
Posteriormente la Guerra de los Tres Años en el siglo XI.

En 784, la capital se trasladó brevemente a Nagaoka-kyō , luego nuevamente en 794 a Heian-kyō ( Kyoto moderno ), que siguió siendo la capital hasta 1868. [47] El poder político dentro de la corte pronto pasó al clan Fujiwara, una familia de Nobles de la corte que se acercaron cada vez más a la familia imperial a través del matrimonio mixto. [48] Entre 812 y 814 EC, una epidemia de viruela mató a casi la mitad de la población japonesa. [49]

En 858, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa se declaró sesshō ("regente") al emperador menor de edad. Su hijo Fujiwara no Mototsune creó el cargo de kampaku , que podía gobernar en lugar de un emperador reinante adulto. Fujiwara no Michinaga , un estadista excepcional que se convirtió en kampaku en 996, gobernó durante el apogeo del poder del clan Fujiwara [50] y casó a cuatro de sus hijas con emperadores, actuales y futuros. [48] El clan Fujiwara se mantuvo en el poder hasta 1086, cuando el emperador Shirakawa cedió el trono a su hijo, el emperador Horikawa, pero continuó ejerciendo el poder político, estableciendo la práctica del gobierno de clausura , [51] mediante el cual el emperador reinante funcionaría como un mascarón de proa mientras que la autoridad real estaba en manos de un predecesor retirado detrás de escena. [50]

A lo largo del período Heian, el poder de la corte imperial disminuyó. La corte quedó tan absorta en las luchas de poder y en las actividades artísticas de los nobles de la corte que descuidó la administración del gobierno fuera de la capital. [48] La nacionalización de la tierra emprendida como parte del estado ritsuryō decayó cuando varias familias nobles y órdenes religiosas lograron asegurar el estatus de exención de impuestos para sus mansiones privadas shōen . [50] En el siglo XI, más tierras en Japón estaban controladas por propietarios shōen que por el gobierno central. La corte imperial se vio así privada de los ingresos fiscales para pagar su ejército nacional. En respuesta, los dueños del shōen establecieron sus propios ejércitos de guerreros samuráis . [52] Dos poderosas familias nobles que habían descendido de ramas de la familia imperial, [53] los clanes Taira y Minamoto , adquirieron grandes ejércitos y muchos shōen fuera de la capital. El gobierno central comenzó a utilizar estos dos clanes guerreros para reprimir rebeliones y piratería. [54] La población de Japón se estabilizó durante el período Heian tardío después de cientos de años de declive. [55]

Durante el período temprano de Heian, la corte imperial consolidó con éxito su control sobre el pueblo Emishi del norte de Honshu. [56] Ōtomo no Otomaro fue el primer hombre al que la corte otorgó el título de seii tai-shōgun ("Gran general bárbaro que subyuga"). [57] En 802, seii tai-shōgun Sakanoue no Tamuramaro subyugó al pueblo Emishi, que estaba dirigido por Aterui . [56] En 1051, los miembros del clan Abe , que ocupaban puestos clave en el gobierno regional, desafiaban abiertamente a la autoridad central. La corte solicitó al clan Minamoto que se enfrentara al clan Abe, a quien derrotaron en la Antigua Guerra de los Nueve Años . [58] Por tanto, el tribunal reafirmó temporalmente su autoridad en el norte de Japón. Después de otra guerra civil, la Guerra de los Tres Años Posterior  , Fujiwara no Kiyohira tomó todo el poder; su familia, la del norte de Fujiwara , controló el norte de Honshu durante el siglo siguiente desde su capital, Hiraizumi . [59]

En 1156, estalló una disputa sobre la sucesión al trono y los dos pretendientes rivales (el emperador Go-Shirakawa y el emperador Sutoku ) contrataron a los clanes Taira y Minamoto con la esperanza de asegurar el trono por la fuerza militar. Durante esta guerra, el clan Taira liderado por Taira no Kiyomori derrotó al clan Minamoto. Kiyomori usó su victoria para acumular poder para sí mismo en Kioto e incluso instaló a su propio nieto Antoku como emperador. El resultado de esta guerra condujo a la rivalidad entre los clanes Minamoto y Taira. Como resultado, la disputa y la lucha por el poder entre ambos clanes llevaron a la rebelión Heiji en 1160. En 1180, Taira no Kiyomori fue desafiada por un levantamiento liderado por Minamoto no Yoritomo , un miembro del clan Minamoto a quien Kiyomori había exiliado a Kamakura. [60] Aunque Taira no Kiyomori murió en 1181, la sangrienta Guerra Genpei entre las familias Taira y Minamoto continuó durante otros cuatro años. La victoria del clan Minamoto se selló en 1185, cuando una fuerza comandada por el hermano menor de Yoritomo, Minamoto no Yoshitsune , obtuvo una victoria decisiva en la Batalla naval de Dan-no-ura . Yoritomo y sus sirvientes se convirtieron así en los gobernantes de facto de Japón. [61]

Cultura heian

Una pintura de pergamino fechada c.  1130 , que ilustra una escena del capítulo "Bamboo River" de The Tale of Genji

Durante el período Heian, la corte imperial fue un centro vibrante de alto arte y cultura. [62] Sus logros literarios incluyen la colección de poesía Kokinshū y el Diario de Tosa , ambos asociados con el poeta Ki no Tsurayuki , así como la colección de misceláneas de Sei Shōnagon The Pillow Book , [63] y Tale of Genji de Murasaki Shikibu . , a menudo considerada la obra maestra de la literatura japonesa. [64]

El desarrollo de los silabarios escritos kana fue parte de una tendencia general de disminución de la influencia china durante el período Heian. Las misiones oficiales japonesas a la dinastía Tang de China, que comenzaron en el año 630, [65] terminaron durante el siglo IX, aunque continuaron las misiones informales de monjes y eruditos y, a partir de entonces, se aceleró el desarrollo de formas nativas de arte y poesía japonesas. [66] Un logro arquitectónico importante, aparte del propio Heian-kyō, fue el templo de Byōdō-in construido en 1053 en Uji . [67]

Período de Kamakura (1185-1333)

Minamoto no Yoritomo fue el fundador del shogunato de Kamakura en 1192. Este fue el primer gobierno militar en el que el shogun con los samuráis eran los gobernantes de facto de Japón.

Tras la consolidación del poder, Minamoto no Yoritomo decidió gobernar en concierto con la Corte Imperial en Kioto . Aunque Yoritomo estableció su propio gobierno en Kamakura en la región de Kantō ubicada en el este de Japón, su poder fue legalmente autorizado por la corte imperial en Kioto en varias ocasiones. En 1192, el emperador declaró a Yoritomo seii tai-shōgun (征 夷 大 将軍; Gran General de sometimiento bárbaro oriental ), abreviado shōgun . [68] El gobierno de Yoritomo se llamaba bakufu (幕府("gobierno de la tienda"), refiriéndose a las tiendas donde acampaban sus soldados. El término inglés shogunato se refiere al bakufu . [69] Japón permaneció en gran parte bajo el dominio militar hasta 1868. [70 ]

La corte imperial confirió legitimidad al shogunato, pero el shogunato era el gobernante de facto del país. La corte mantuvo funciones burocráticas y religiosas, y el shogunato agradeció la participación de miembros de la clase aristocrática. Las instituciones más antiguas permanecieron intactas en una forma debilitada, y Kioto siguió siendo la capital oficial. Este sistema se ha contrastado con la "regla del guerrero simple" del último período Muromachi. [68]

Yoritomo pronto se volvió contra Yoshitsune, quien inicialmente fue albergado por Fujiwara no Hidehira , el nieto de Kiyohira y el gobernante de facto del norte de Honshu. En 1189, después de la muerte de Hidehira, su sucesor Yasuhira intentó ganarse el favor de Yoritomo atacando la casa de Yoshitsune. Aunque Yoshitsune fue asesinado, Yoritomo aún invadió y conquistó los territorios del clan Fujiwara del Norte. [71] En los siglos siguientes, Yoshitsune se convertiría en una figura legendaria, retratada en innumerables obras literarias como un héroe trágico idealizado. [72]

Después de la muerte de Yoritomo en 1199, la oficina del shogun se debilitó. Detrás de escena, la esposa de Yoritomo, Hōjō Masako, se convirtió en el verdadero poder detrás del gobierno. En 1203, su padre, Hōjō Tokimasa , fue nombrado regente del shogun, el hijo de Yoritomo, Minamoto no Sanetomo . De ahora en adelante, los shogun de Minamoto se convirtieron en marionetas de los regentes Hōjō , quienes ejercían el poder real. [73]

El régimen que Yoritomo había establecido, y que fue mantenido por sus sucesores, era descentralizado y de estructura feudal , en contraste con el anterior estado ritsuryō. Yoritomo seleccionó a los gobernadores provinciales, conocidos con los títulos de shugo o jitō , [74] de entre sus vasallos cercanos, los gokenin . El shogunato de Kamakura permitió a sus vasallos mantener sus propios ejércitos y administrar la ley y el orden en sus provincias en sus propios términos. [75]

En 1221, el emperador retirado Go-Toba instigó lo que se conoció como la Guerra Jōkyū , una rebelión contra el shogunato, en un intento por restaurar el poder político en la corte. La rebelión fue un fracaso y llevó a Go-Toba al exilio a la isla Oki , junto con otros dos emperadores, el emperador retirado Tsuchimikado y el emperador Juntoku , que fueron exiliados a la provincia de Tosa y la isla de Sado, respectivamente. [76] El shogunato consolidó aún más su poder político en relación con la aristocracia de Kioto. [77]

Los ejércitos samuráis de toda la nación se movilizaron en 1274 y 1281 para hacer frente a dos invasiones a gran escala lanzadas por Kublai Khan del Imperio mongol . [78] Aunque superados en número por un enemigo equipado con armamento superior, los japoneses lucharon contra los mongoles en Kyushu en ambas ocasiones hasta que la flota mongola fue destruida por tifones llamados kamikaze , que significa "viento divino". A pesar de la victoria del shogunato de Kamakura, la defensa agotó tanto sus finanzas que no pudo compensar a sus vasallos por su papel en la victoria. Esto tuvo consecuencias negativas permanentes para las relaciones del shogunato con la clase samurái. [79] El descontento entre los samuráis resultó decisivo para acabar con el shogunato de Kamakura. En 1333, el emperador Go-Daigo lanzó una rebelión con la esperanza de restaurar el poder total a la corte imperial. El shogunato envió al general Ashikaga Takauji para sofocar la revuelta, pero Takauji y sus hombres unieron fuerzas con el emperador Go-Daigo y derrocaron al shogunato de Kamakura. [80]

Sin embargo, Japón entró en un período de prosperidad y crecimiento de la población que comenzó alrededor de 1250. [81] En las zonas rurales, el mayor uso de herramientas de hierro y fertilizantes, mejores técnicas de riego y doble cultivo aumentó la productividad y las aldeas rurales crecieron. [82] Menos hambrunas y epidemias permitieron el crecimiento de las ciudades y el auge del comercio. [81] El budismo, que había sido en gran parte una religión de las élites, fue llevado a las masas por monjes prominentes, como Hōnen (1133-1212), quien estableció el Budismo de la Tierra Pura en Japón, y Nichiren (1222-1282), quien fundó el budismo de Nichiren . El budismo zen se extendió ampliamente entre la clase samurái. [83]

Clan Shiraishi
Dibujo antiguo que representa a un samurái luchando contra las fuerzas del Imperio mongol
Samurai Mitsui Sukenaga (derecha) derrotando al ejército de invasión de Mongolia (izquierda)

Período Muromachi (1333-1568)

Retrato de Ashikaga Takauji, quien fue el fundador y primer shōgun del shogunato Ashikaga.

Takauji y muchos otros samuráis pronto se sintieron insatisfechos con la Restauración Kenmu del Emperador Go-Daigo , un ambicioso intento de monopolizar el poder en la corte imperial. Takauji se rebeló después de que Go-Daigo se negó a nombrarlo shōgun. En 1338, Takauji capturó Kioto e instaló a un miembro rival de la familia imperial en el trono, el emperador Kōmyō , quien lo nombró shogun. [84] Go-Daigo respondió huyendo a la ciudad sureña de Yoshino , donde estableció un gobierno rival. Esto marcó el comienzo de un prolongado período de conflicto entre el Tribunal Norte y el Tribunal Sur. [85]

Takauji estableció su shogunato en el distrito Muromachi de Kioto. Sin embargo, el shogunato se enfrentó al doble desafío de luchar contra la Corte Sur y mantener su autoridad sobre sus propios gobernadores subordinados. [85] Como el shogunato de Kamakura, el shogunato de Muromachi nombró a sus aliados para gobernar en las provincias, pero estos hombres se autodenominaron cada vez más como señores feudales, llamados daimyōs, de sus dominios y a menudo se negaron a obedecer al shogun. [86] El shogun Ashikaga que tuvo más éxito en unir al país fue el nieto de Takauji, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , quien llegó al poder en 1368 y mantuvo su influencia hasta su muerte en 1408. Yoshimitsu expandió el poder del shogunato y en 1392, negoció un trato. para unir los Tribunales del Norte y del Sur y poner fin a la guerra civil. A partir de entonces, el shogunato mantuvo al emperador y su corte bajo estricto control. [85]

Kinkaku-ji was built in 1397 by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
Map showing the territories of major daimyō families around 1570 CE

During the final century of the Ashikaga shogunate the country descended into another, more violent period of civil war. This started in 1467 when the Ōnin War broke out over who would succeed the ruling shogun. The daimyōs each took sides and burned Kyoto to the ground while battling for their preferred candidate. By the time the succession was settled in 1477, the shogun had lost all power over the daimyō, who now ruled hundreds of independent states throughout Japan.[87] During this Warring States period, daimyōs fought among themselves for control of the country.[88] Some of the most powerful daimyōs of the era were Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen.[89] One enduring symbol of this era was the ninja, skilled spies and assassins hired by daimyōs. Few definite historical facts are known about the secretive lifestyles of the ninja, who became the subject of many legends.[90] In addition to the daimyōs, rebellious peasants and "warrior monks" affiliated with Buddhist temples also raised their own armies.[91]

Portuguese

Amid this on-going anarchy, a trading ship was blown off course and landed in 1543 on the Japanese island of Tanegashima, just south of Kyushu. The three Portuguese traders on board were the first Europeans to set foot in Japan.[92] Soon European traders would introduce many new items to Japan, most importantly the musket.[93] By 1556, the daimyōs were using about 300,000 muskets in their armies.[94] The Europeans also brought Christianity, which soon came to have a substantial following in Japan reaching 350,000 believers. In 1549 the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier disembarked in Kyushu.

Japan (Iapam) and Korea, in the 1568 Portuguese map of the cartographer João Vaz Dourado.

Initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West, the first map made of Japan in the west was represented in 1568 by the Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado.[95]

The Portuguese were allowed to trade and create colonies where they could convert new believers into the Christian religion. The civil war status in Japan greatly benefited the Portuguese, as well as several competing gentlemen who sought to attract Portuguese black boats and their trade to their domains. Initially, the Portuguese stayed on the lands belonging to Matsura Takanobu, Firando (Hirado),[96] and in the province of Bungo, lands of Ōtomo Sōrin, but in 1562 they moved to Yokoseura when the Daimyô there, Omura Sumitada, offered to be the first lord to convert to Christianity, adopting the name of Dom Bartolomeu. In 1564, he faced a rebellion instigated by the Buddhist clergy and Yokoseura was destroyed.

In 1561 forces under Ōtomo Sōrin attacked the castle in Moji with an alliance with the Portuguese, who provided three ships, with a crew of about 900 men and more than 50 cannons. This is thought to be the first bombardment by foreign ships on Japan.[97]

In 1565 was the first recorded naval battle between Europeans and the Japanese. In the Battle of Fukuda Bay the daimyō Matsura Takanobu attacked two Portuguese trade vessels at Hirado port.[98] The engagement led the Portuguese traders to find a safe harbour for their ships that took them to Nagasaki.

The Black Ship_ Portuguese traders that came from Goa and Macau once a year.

In 1571, Dom Bartolomeu, or Ōmura Sumitada, guaranteed a little land in the small fishing village of Nagasáqui to the Jesuits, who divided them into six areas, to receive Christians exiled from other territories and Portuguese merchants. The Jesuits built a chapel and a school under the name of São Paulo, as well as those in Goa and Malacca. By 1579, Nagasáqui already had four hundred houses, with some Portuguese married. Fearful that Nagasaki could fall into the hands of its rival Takanobu, Omura Sumitada (Dom Bartolomeu) decided to guarantee the city directly to the Jesuits in 1580.[99]

After a few years, as the Jesuits believed that if they understood the language they would achieve more conversions to Catholic religion, Portuguese became the first Western language to have a Japanese dictionary, compiled by Jesuits such as João Rodrigues and published in Nagasaki in 1603.[100]

Oda Nobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer many other daimyōs; his consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603). After Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582 by Akechi Mitsuhide, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590 and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. Before the invasion , Hideyoshi tried to hire two Portuguese galleons to join the invasion but the Portuguese refused the offer.[101]

Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. In 1603 the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyōs, and in 1639 the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868), this act ended with Portuguese influence after 100 years in Japanese territory, also aiming to limit the political presence of any foreign power.[92]

Muromachi culture

In spite of the war, Japan's relative economic prosperity, which had begun in the Kamakura period, continued well into the Muromachi period. By 1450 Japan's population stood at ten million, compared to six million at the end of the thirteenth century.[81] Commerce flourished, including considerable trade with China and Korea.[102] Because the daimyōs and other groups within Japan were minting their own coins, Japan began to transition from a barter-based to a currency-based economy.[103] During the period, some of Japan's most representative art forms developed, including ink wash painting, ikebana flower arrangement, the tea ceremony, Japanese gardening, bonsai, and Noh theater.[104] Though the eighth Ashikaga shogun, Yoshimasa, was an ineffectual political and military leader, he played a critical role in promoting these cultural developments.[105] He had the famous Kinkaku-ji or "Temple of the Golden Pavilion" built in Kyoto in 1397.[106]

Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600)

Edo period screen depicting the Battle of Sekigahara. It began on October 21, 1600, with a total of 160,000 men facing each other.

During the second half of the 16th century, Japan gradually reunified under two powerful warlords: Oda Nobunaga; and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The period takes its name from Nobunaga's headquarters, Azuchi Castle, and Hideyoshi's headquarters, Momoyama Castle.[69]

Japan in 1582, showing territory conquered by Oda Nobunaga in gray

Nobunaga was the daimyō of the small province of Owari. He burst onto the scene suddenly, in 1560, when, during the Battle of Okehazama, his army defeated a force several times its size led by the powerful daimyō Imagawa Yoshimoto.[107] Nobunaga was renowned for his strategic leadership and his ruthlessness. He encouraged Christianity to incite hatred toward his Buddhist enemies and to forge strong relationships with European arms merchants. He equipped his armies with muskets and trained them with innovative tactics.[108] He promoted talented men regardless of their social status, including his peasant servant Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became one of his best generals.[109]

The Azuchi–Momoyama period began in 1568, when Nobunaga seized Kyoto and thus effectively brought an end to the Ashikaga shogunate.[107] He was well on his way towards his goal of reuniting all Japan in 1582 when one of his own officers, Akechi Mitsuhide, killed him during an abrupt attack on his encampment. Hideyoshi avenged Nobunaga by crushing Akechi's uprising and emerged as Nobunaga's successor.[110] Hideyoshi completed the reunification of Japan by conquering Shikoku, Kyushu, and the lands of the Hōjō family in eastern Japan.[111] He launched sweeping changes to Japanese society, including the confiscation of swords from the peasantry, new restrictions on daimyōs, persecutions of Christians, a thorough land survey, and a new law effectively forbidding the peasants and samurai from changing their social class.[112] Hideyoshi's land survey designated all those who were cultivating the land as being "commoners", an act which effectively granted freedom to most of Japan's slaves.[113]

As Hideyoshi's power expanded he dreamed of conquering China and launched two massive invasions of Korea starting in 1592. Hideyoshi failed to defeat the Chinese and Korean armies on the Korean Peninsula and the war ended after his death in 1598.[114] In the hope of founding a new dynasty, Hideyoshi had asked his most trusted subordinates to pledge loyalty to his infant son Toyotomi Hideyori. Despite this, almost immediately after Hideyoshi's death, war broke out between Hideyori's allies and those loyal to Tokugawa Ieyasu, a daimyō and a former ally of Hideyoshi.[115] Tokugawa Ieyasu won a decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, ushering in 268 uninterrupted years of rule by the Tokugawa clan.[116]

Edo period (1600–1868)

Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The Edo period was characterized by relative peace and stability[117] under the tight control of the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled from the eastern city of Edo (modern Tokyo).[118] In 1603, Emperor Go-Yōzei declared Tokugawa Ieyasu shōgun, and Ieyasu abdicated two years later to groom his son as the second shōgun of what became a long dynasty.[119] Nevertheless, it took time for the Tokugawas to consolidate their rule. In 1609, the shōgun gave the daimyō of Satsuma Domain permission to invade the Ryukyu Kingdom for perceived insults towards the shogunate; the Satsuma victory began 266 years of Ryukyu's dual subordination to Satsuma and China.[97][120] Ieyasu led the Siege of Osaka that ended with the destruction of the Toyotomi clan in 1615.[121] Soon after the shogunate promulgated the Laws for the Military Houses, which imposed tighter controls on the daimyōs,[122] and the alternate attendance system, which required each daimyō to spend every other year in Edo.[123] Even so, the daimyōs continued to maintain a significant degree of autonomy in their domains.[124] The central government of the shogunate in Edo, which quickly became the most populous city in the world,[118] took counsel from a group of senior advisors known as rōjū and employed samurai as bureaucrats.[125] The emperor in Kyoto was funded lavishly by the government but was allowed no political power.[126]

The Tokugawa shogunate went to great lengths to suppress social unrest. Harsh penalties, including crucifixion, beheading, and death by boiling, were decreed for even the most minor offenses, though criminals of high social class were often given the option of seppuku ("self-disembowelment"), an ancient form of suicide that became ritualized.[123] Christianity, which was seen as a potential threat, was gradually clamped down on until finally, after the Christian-led Shimabara Rebellion of 1638, the religion was completely outlawed.[127] To prevent further foreign ideas from sowing dissent, the third Tokugawa shogun, Iemitsu, implemented the sakoku ("closed country") isolationist policy under which Japanese people were not allowed to travel abroad, return from overseas, or build ocean-going vessels.[128] The only Europeans allowed on Japanese soil were the Dutch, who were granted a single trading post on the island of Dejima. China and Korea were the only other countries permitted to trade,[129] and many foreign books were banned from import.[124]

During the first century of Tokugawa rule, Japan's population doubled to thirty million, mostly because of agricultural growth; the population remained stable for the rest of the period.[130] The shogunate's construction of roads, elimination of road and bridge tolls, and standardization of coinage promoted commercial expansion that also benefited the merchants and artisans of the cities.[131] City populations grew,[132] but almost ninety percent of the population continued to live in rural areas.[133] Both the inhabitants of cities and of rural communities would benefit from one of the most notable social changes of the Edo period: increased literacy and numeracy. The number of private schools greatly expanded, particularly those attached to temples and shrines, and raised literacy to thirty percent. This may have been the world's highest rate at the time[134] and drove a flourishing commercial publishing industry, which grew to produce hundreds of titles per year.[135] In the area of numeracy – approximated by an index measuring people's ability to report an exact rather than a rounded age (age-heaping method), and which level shows a strong correlation to later economic development of a country – Japan's level was comparable to that of north-west European countries, and moreover, Japan's index came close to the 100 percent mark throughout the nineteenth century. These high levels of both literacy and numeracy were part of the socio-economical foundation for Japan's strong growth rates during the following century.[136]

Culture and philosophy

Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798.

The Edo period was a time of cultural flourishing, as the merchant classes grew in wealth and began spending their income on cultural and social pursuits.[137][138] Members of the merchant class who patronized culture and entertainment were said to live hedonistic lives, which came to be called the ukiyo ("floating world").[139] This lifestyle inspired ukiyo-zōshi popular novels and ukiyo-e art, the latter of which were often woodblock prints[140] that progressed to greater sophistication and use of multiple printed colors.[141]

Forms of theatre such as kabuki and bunraku puppet theatre became widely popular.[142] These new forms of entertainment were (at the time) accompanied by short songs (kouta) and music played on the shamisen, a new import to Japan in 1600.[143] Haiku, whose greatest master is generally agreed to be Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), also rose as a major form of poetry.[144] Geisha, a new profession of entertainers, also became popular. They would provide conversation, sing, and dance for customers, though they would not sleep with them.[145]

The Tokugawas sponsored and were heavily influenced by Neo-Confucianism, which led the government to divide society into four classes based on the four occupations.[146] The samurai class claimed to follow the ideology of bushido, literally "the way of the warrior".[147]

Decline and fall of the shogunate

By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the shogunate showed signs of weakening.[148] The dramatic growth of agriculture that had characterized the early Edo period had ended,[130] and the government handled the devastating Tenpō famines poorly.[148] Peasant unrest grew and government revenues fell.[149] The shogunate cut the pay of the already financially distressed samurai, many of whom worked side jobs to make a living.[150] Discontented samurai were soon to play a major role in engineering the downfall of the Tokugawa shogunate.[151]

At the same time, the people drew inspiration from new ideas and fields of study. Dutch books brought into Japan stimulated interest in Western learning, called rangaku or "Dutch learning".[152] The physician Sugita Genpaku, for instance, used concepts from Western medicine to help spark a revolution in Japanese ideas of human anatomy.[153] The scholarly field of kokugaku or "national learning", developed by scholars such as Motoori Norinaga and Hirata Atsutane, promoted what it asserted were native Japanese values. For instance, it criticized the Chinese-style Neo-Confucianism advocated by the shogunate and emphasized the Emperor's divine authority, which the Shinto faith taught had its roots in Japan's mythic past, which was referred to as the "Age of the Gods".[154]

Samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Boshin War

The arrival in 1853 of a fleet of American ships commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry threw Japan into turmoil. The US government aimed to end Japan's isolationist policies. The shogunate had no defense against Perry's gunboats and had to agree to his demands that American ships be permitted to acquire provisions and trade at Japanese ports.[148] The Western powers imposed what became known as "unequal treaties" on Japan which stipulated that Japan must allow citizens of these countries to visit or reside on Japanese territory and must not levy tariffs on their imports or try them in Japanese courts.[155]

The shogunate's failure to oppose the Western powers angered many Japanese, particularly those of the southern domains of Chōshū and Satsuma.[156] Many samurai there, inspired by the nationalist doctrines of the kokugaku school, adopted the slogan of sonnō jōi ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians").[157] The two domains went on to form an alliance. In August 1866, soon after becoming shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power as civil unrest continued.[158] The Chōshū and Satsuma domains in 1868 convinced the young Emperor Meiji and his advisors to issue a rescript calling for an end to the Tokugawa shogunate. The armies of Chōshū and Satsuma soon marched on Edo and the ensuing Boshin War led to the fall of the shogunate.[159]

Meiji period (1868–1912)

Emperor Meiji, the 122nd Emperor of Japan

The emperor was restored to nominal supreme power,[160] and in 1869, the imperial family moved to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo ("eastern capital").[161] However, the most powerful men in the government were former samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma rather than the emperor, who was fifteen in 1868.[160] These men, known as the Meiji oligarchs, oversaw the dramatic changes Japan would experience during this period.[162] The leaders of the Meiji government desired Japan to become a modern nation-state that could stand equal to the Western imperialist powers.[163] Among them were Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori from Satsuma, as well as Kido Takayoshi, Ito Hirobumi, and Yamagata Aritomo from Chōshū.[160]

Political and social changes

The Meiji government abolished the Edo class structure[164] and replaced the feudal domains of the daimyōs with prefectures.[161] It instituted comprehensive tax reform and lifted the ban on Christianity.[164] Major government priorities also included the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and a universal education system.[165] The Meiji government promoted widespread Westernization[166] and hired hundreds of advisers from Western nations with expertise in such fields as education, mining, banking, law, military affairs, and transportation to remodel Japan's institutions.[167] The Japanese adopted the Gregorian calendar, Western clothing, and Western hairstyles.[168] One leading advocate of Westernization was the popular writer Fukuzawa Yukichi.[169] As part of its Westernization drive, the Meiji government enthusiastically sponsored the importation of Western science, above all medical science. In 1893, Kitasato Shibasaburō established the Institute for Infectious Diseases, which would soon become world-famous,[170] and in 1913, Hideyo Noguchi proved the link between syphilis and paresis.[171] Furthermore, the introduction of European literary styles to Japan sparked a boom in new works of prose fiction. Characteristic authors of the period included Futabatei Shimei and Mori Ōgai,[172] although the most famous of the Meiji era writers was Natsume Sōseki,[173] who wrote satirical, autobiographical, and psychological novels[174] combining both the older and newer styles.[175] Ichiyō Higuchi, a leading female author, took inspiration from earlier literary models of the Edo period.[176]

Government institutions developed rapidly in response to the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, a grassroots campaign demanding greater popular participation in politics. The leaders of this movement included Itagaki Taisuke and Ōkuma Shigenobu.[177] Itō Hirobumi, the first Prime Minister of Japan, responded by writing the Meiji Constitution, which was promulgated in 1889. The new constitution established an elected lower house, the House of Representatives, but its powers were restricted. Only two percent of the population were eligible to vote, and legislation proposed in the House required the support of the unelected upper house, the House of Peers. Both the cabinet of Japan and the Japanese military were directly responsible not to the elected legislature but to the emperor.[178] Concurrently, the Japanese government also developed a form of Japanese nationalism under which Shinto became the state religion and the emperor was declared a living god.[179] Schools nationwide instilled patriotic values and loyalty to the emperor.[165]

Rise of imperialism and the military

Chinese generals surrendering to the Japanese in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895

In December 1871, a Ryukyuan ship was shipwrecked on Taiwan and the crew were massacred. In 1874, using the incident as a pretext, Japan launched a military expedition to Taiwan to assert their claims to the Ryukyu Islands. The expedition featured the first instance of the Japanese military ignoring the orders of the civilian government, as the expedition set sail after being ordered to postpone.[180] Yamagata Aritomo, who was born a samurai in the Chōshū Domain, was a key force behind the modernization and enlargement of the Imperial Japanese Army, especially the introduction of national conscription.[181] The new army was put to use in 1877 to crush the Satsuma Rebellion of discontented samurai in southern Japan led by the former Meiji leader Saigo Takamori.[182]

The Japanese military played a key role in Japan's expansion abroad. The government believed that Japan had to acquire its own colonies to compete with the Western colonial powers. After consolidating its control over Hokkaido (through the Hokkaidō Development Commission) and annexing the Ryukyu Kingdom (the "Ryūkyū Disposition"), it next turned its attention to China and Korea.[183] In 1894, Japanese and Chinese troops clashed in Korea, where they were both stationed to suppress the Donghak Rebellion. During the ensuing First Sino-Japanese War, Japan's highly motivated and well-led forces defeated the more numerous and better-equipped military of Qing China.[184] The island of Taiwan was thus ceded to Japan in 1895,[185] and Japan's government gained enough international prestige to allow Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu to renegotiate the "unequal treaties".[186] In 1902 Japan signed an important military alliance with the British.[187]

The Japanese Empire in 1939

Japan next clashed with Russia, which was expanding its power in Asia. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 ended with the dramatic Battle of Tsushima, which was another victory for Japan's military. Japan thus laid claim to Korea as a protectorate in 1905, followed by full annexation in 1910.[188]

Economic modernization and labor unrest

During the Meiji period, Japan underwent a rapid transition towards an industrial economy.[189] Both the Japanese government and private entrepreneurs adopted Western technology and knowledge to create factories capable of producing a wide range of goods.[190]

By the end of the period, the majority of Japan's exports were manufactured goods.[189] Some of Japan's most successful new businesses and industries constituted huge family-owned conglomerates called zaibatsu, such as Mitsubishi and Sumitomo.[191] The phenomenal industrial growth sparked rapid urbanization. The proportion of the population working in agriculture shrank from 75 percent in 1872 to 50 percent by 1920.[192]

Japan enjoyed solid economic growth at this time and most people lived longer and healthier lives. The population rose from 34 million in 1872 to 52 million in 1915.[193] Poor working conditions in factories led to growing labor unrest,[194] and many workers and intellectuals came to embrace socialist ideas.[195] The Meiji government responded with harsh suppression of dissent. Radical socialists plotted to assassinate the emperor in the High Treason Incident of 1910, after which the Tokkō secret police force was established to root out left-wing agitators.[196] The government also introduced social legislation in 1911 setting maximum work hours and a minimum age for employment.[197]

Taishō period (1912–1926)

During the short reign of Emperor Taishō, Japan developed stronger democratic institutions and grew in international power. The Taishō political crisis opened the period with mass protests and riots organized by Japanese political parties, which succeeded in forcing Katsura Tarō to resign as prime minister.[198] This and the rice riots of 1918 increased the power of Japan's political parties over the ruling oligarchy.[199] The Seiyūkai and Minseitō parties came to dominate politics by the end of the so-called "Taishō democracy" era.[200] The franchise for the House of Representatives had been gradually expanded since 1890,[201] and in 1925 universal male suffrage was introduced. However, in the same year the far-reaching Peace Preservation Law also passed, prescribing harsh penalties for political dissidents.[202]

Japan's participation in World War I on the side of the Allies sparked unprecedented economic growth and earned Japan new colonies in the South Pacific seized from Germany.[203] After the war Japan signed the Treaty of Versailles and enjoyed good international relations through its membership in the League of Nations and participation in international disarmament conferences.[204] The Great Kantō earthquake in September 1923 left over 100,000 dead, and combined with the resultant fires destroyed the homes of more than three million.[205]

The growth of popular prose fiction, which began during the Meiji period, continued into the Taishō period as literacy rates rose and book prices dropped.[206] Notable literary figures of the era included short story writer Ryūnosuke Akutagawa[207] and the novelist Haruo Satō. Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, described as "perhaps the most versatile literary figure of his day" by the historian Conrad Totman, produced many works during the Taishō period influenced by European literature, though his 1929 novel Some Prefer Nettles reflects deep appreciation for the virtues of traditional Japanese culture.[208] At the end of the Taishō period, Tarō Hirai, known by his penname Edogawa Ranpo, began writing popular mystery and crime stories.[207]

Shōwa period (1926–1989)

Emperor Hirohito's sixty-three-year reign from 1926 to 1989 is the longest in recorded Japanese history.[209] The first twenty years were characterized by the rise of extreme nationalism and a series of expansionist wars. After suffering defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by foreign powers for the first time in its history, and then re-emerged as a major world economic power.[210]

Manchurian Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War

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The Empire of Japan in 1937

Left-wing groups had been subject to violent suppression by the end of the Taishō period,[211] and radical right-wing groups, inspired by fascism and Japanese nationalism, rapidly grew in popularity.[212] The extreme right became influential throughout the Japanese government and society, notably within the Kwantung Army, a Japanese army stationed in China along the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railroad.[213] During the Manchurian Incident of 1931, radical army officers bombed a small portion of the South Manchuria Railroad and, falsely attributing the attack to the Chinese, invaded Manchuria. The Kwantung Army conquered Manchuria and set up the puppet government of Manchukuo there without permission from the Japanese government. International criticism of Japan following the invasion led to Japan withdrawing from the League of Nations.[214]

Prime Minister Tsuyoshi Inukai of the Seiyūkai Party attempted to restrain the Kwantung Army and was assassinated in 1932 by right-wing extremists. Because of growing opposition within the Japanese military and the extreme right to party politicians, who they saw as corrupt and self-serving, Inukai was the last party politician to govern Japan in the pre-World War II era.[214] In February 1936 young radical officers of the Imperial Japanese Army attempted a coup d'état. They assassinated many moderate politicians before the coup was suppressed.[215] In its wake the Japanese military consolidated its control over the political system and most political parties were abolished when the Imperial Rule Assistance Association was founded in 1940.[216]

Japanese experts inspect the scene of the 'railway sabotage' on South Manchurian Railway, leading to the Mukden Incident and the Japanese occupation of Manchuria.

Japan's expansionist vision grew increasingly bold. Many of Japan's political elite aspired to have Japan acquire new territory for resource extraction and settlement of surplus population.[217] These ambitions led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. After their victory in the Chinese capital, the Japanese military committed the infamous Nanjing Massacre. The Japanese military failed to defeat the Chinese government led by Chiang Kai-shek and the war descended into a bloody stalemate that lasted until 1945.[218] Japan's stated war aim was to establish the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, a vast pan-Asian union under Japanese domination.[219] Hirohito's role in Japan's foreign wars remains a subject of controversy, with various historians portraying him as either a powerless figurehead or an enabler and supporter of Japanese militarism.[220]

The United States opposed Japan's invasion of China and responded with increasingly stringent economic sanctions intended to deprive Japan of the resources to continue its war in China.[221] Japan reacted by forging an alliance with Germany and Italy in 1940, known as the Tripartite Pact, which worsened its relations with the US. In July 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands froze all Japanese assets when Japan completed its invasion of French Indochina by occupying the southern half of the country, further increasing tension in the Pacific.[222]

World War II

Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier Shōkaku preparing the attack on Pearl Harbor
The Empire of Japan at its peak in 1942:
  Territory (1870–1895)
  Acquisitions (1895–1930)
  Acquisitions (1930–1942)

In late 1941, Japan's government, led by Prime Minister and General Hideki Tojo, decided to break the US-led embargo through force of arms.[223] On December 7, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This brought the US into World War II on the side of the Allies. Japan then successfully invaded the Asian colonies of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, including the Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies.[224]

In the early stages of the war, Japan scored victory after victory. The tide began to turn against Japan following the Battle of Midway in June 1942 and the subsequent Battle of Guadalcanal, in which Allied troops wrested the Solomon Islands from Japanese control.[225] During this period the Japanese military was responsible for such war crimes as mistreatment of prisoners of war, massacres of civilians, and the use of chemical and biological weapons.[226] The Japanese military earned a reputation for fanaticism, often employing banzai charges and fighting almost to the last man against overwhelming odds.[227] In 1944 the Imperial Japanese Navy began deploying squadrons of kamikaze pilots who crashed their planes into enemy ships.[228]

Atomic cloud over Hiroshima, 1945

Life in Japan became increasingly difficult for civilians due to stringent rationing of food, electrical outages, and a brutal crackdown on dissent.[229] In 1944 the US Army captured the island of Saipan, which allowed the United States to begin widespread bombing raids on the Japanese mainland.[230] These destroyed over half of the total area of Japan's major cities.[231] The Battle of Okinawa, fought between April and June 1945, was the largest naval operation of the war and left 115,000 soldiers and 150,000 Okinawan civilians dead, suggesting that the planned invasion of mainland Japan would be even bloodier.[232] The Japanese superbattleship Yamato was sunk en route to aid in the Battle of Okinawa.[233]

However, on August 6, 1945, the US dropped an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, killing over 70,000 people. This was the first nuclear attack in history. On August 9 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchukuo and other territories, and Nagasaki was struck by a second atomic bomb, killing around 40,000 people.[234] The surrender of Japan was communicated to the Allies on August 14 and broadcast by Emperor Hirohito on national radio the following day.[235]

Occupation of Japan

General Douglas MacArthur and Emperor of Japan, Hirohito, at their first meeting, September 1945
US Secretary of State Dean Acheson signing the Treaty of Peace with Japan, September 8, 1951

Japan experienced dramatic political and social transformation under the Allied occupation in 1945–1952. US General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of Allied Powers, served as Japan's de facto leader and played a central role in implementing reforms, many inspired by the New Deal of the 1930s.[236]

The occupation sought to decentralize power in Japan by breaking up the zaibatsu, transferring ownership of agricultural land from landlords to tenant farmers,[237] and promoting labor unionism.[238] Other major goals were the demilitarization and democratization of Japan's government and society. Japan's military was disarmed,[239] its colonies were granted independence,[240] the Peace Preservation Law and Tokkō were abolished,[241] and the International Military Tribunal of the Far East tried war criminals.[242] The cabinet became responsible not to the Emperor but to the elected National Diet.[243] The Emperor was permitted to remain on the throne, but was ordered to renounce his claims to divinity, which had been a pillar of the State Shinto system.[244] Japan's new constitution came into effect in 1947 and guaranteed civil liberties, labor rights, and women's suffrage,[245] and through Article 9, Japan renounced its right to go to war with another nation.[246]

The San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951 officially normalized relations between Japan and the United States. The occupation ended in 1952, although the US continued to administer a number of the Ryukyu Islands.[247] In 1968, the Ogasawara Islands were returned from US occupation to Japanese sovereignty. Japanese citizens were allowed to return. Okinawa was the last to be returned in 1972.[248] The US continues to operate military bases throughout the Ryukyu Islands, mostly on Okinawa, as part of the US-Japan Security Treaty.[249]

Postwar growth and prosperity

Shigeru Yoshida was one of the longest serving PMs in Japanese history (1946–1947 and 1948–1954).

Shigeru Yoshida served as prime minister in 1946–1947 and 1948–1954, and played a key role in guiding Japan through the occupation.[250] His policies, known as the Yoshida Doctrine, proposed that Japan should forge a tight relationship with the United States and focus on developing the economy rather than pursuing a proactive foreign policy.[251] Yoshida was one of the longest serving prime ministers in Japanese history.[252] Yoshida's Liberal Party merged in 1955 into the new Liberal Democratic Party (LDP),[253] which went on to dominate Japanese politics for the remainder of the Shōwa period.[254]

Although the Japanese economy was in bad shape in the immediate postwar years, an austerity program implemented in 1949 by finance expert Joseph Dodge ended inflation.[255] The Korean War (1950–1953) was a major boon to Japanese business.[256] In 1949 the Yoshida cabinet created the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) with a mission to promote economic growth through close cooperation between the government and big business. MITI sought successfully to promote manufacturing and heavy industry,[257] and encourage exports.[258] The factors behind Japan's postwar economic growth included technology and quality control techniques imported from the West, close economic and defense cooperation with the United States, non-tariff barriers to imports, restrictions on labor unionization, long work hours, and a generally favorable global economic environment.[259] Japanese corporations successfully retained a loyal and experienced workforce through the system of lifetime employment, which assured their employees a safe job.[260]

By 1955, the Japanese economy had grown beyond prewar levels,[261] and by 1968 it had become the second largest capitalist economy in the world.[262] The GNP expanded at an annual rate of nearly 10% from 1956 until the 1973 oil crisis slowed growth to a still-rapid average annual rate of just over 4% until 1991.[263] Life expectancy rose and Japan's population increased to 123 million by 1990.[264] Ordinary Japanese people became wealthy enough to purchase a wide array of consumer goods. During this period, Japan became the world's largest manufacturer of automobiles and a leading producer of electronics.[265] Japan signed the Plaza Accord in 1985 to depreciate the US dollar against the yen and other currencies. By the end of 1987, the Nikkei stock market index had doubled and the Tokyo Stock Exchange became the largest in the world. During the ensuing economic bubble, stock and real-estate loans grew rapidly.[266]

Japan became a member of the United Nations in 1956 and further cemented its international standing in 1964, when it hosted the Olympic Games in Tokyo.[267] Japan was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War, though this alliance did not have unanimous support from the Japanese people. As requested by the United States, Japan reconstituted its army in 1954 under the name Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF), though some Japanese insisted that the very existence of the JSDF was a violation of Article 9 of Japan's constitution.[268] In 1960, the massive Anpo Protests saw hundreds of thousands of citizens take to the streets in opposition to the US-Japan Security Treaty.[269] Japan successfully normalized relations with the Soviet Union in 1956, despite an ongoing dispute over the ownership of the Kuril Islands,[270] and with South Korea in 1965, despite an ongoing dispute over the ownership of the islands of Liancourt Rocks.[271] In accordance with US policy, Japan recognized the Republic of China on Taiwan as the legitimate government of China after World War II, though Japan switched its recognition to the People's Republic of China in 1972.[272]

Among cultural developments, the immediate post-occupation period became a golden age for Japanese cinema.[273] The reasons for this include the abolition of government censorship, low film production costs, expanded access to new film techniques and technologies, and huge domestic audiences at a time when other forms of recreation were relatively scarce.[274]

Heisei period (1989–2019)

The capital Tokyo in 2010

Emperor Akihito's reign began upon the death of his father, Emperor Hirohito. The economic bubble popped in 1989, and stock and land prices plunged as Japan entered a deflationary spiral. Banks found themselves saddled with insurmountable debts that hindered economic recovery.[275] Stagnation worsened as the birthrate declined far below replacement level.[276] The 1990s are often referred to as Japan's Lost Decade.[277] Economic performance was frequently poor in the following decades and the stock market never returned to its pre-1989 highs.[278] Japan's system of lifetime employment largely collapsed and unemployment rates rose.[279] The faltering economy and several corruption scandals weakened the LDP's dominant political position. Japan was nevertheless governed by non-LDP prime ministers only in 1993–1996[280] and 2009–2012.[281]

Japan's dealing with its war legacy has strained international relations. China and Korea have found official apologies, such as those of the Emperor in 1990 and the Murayama Statement of 1995, inadequate or insincere.[282] Nationalist politics have exacerbated this, such as denial of the Nanjing Massacre and other war crimes,[283] revisionist history textbooks, which have provoked protests in East Asia,[284] and frequent visits by Japanese politicians to Yasukuni Shrine, where convicted war criminals are enshrined.[285]

Wreckage at a railway station destroyed during the 2011 earthquake and tsunami.

In spite of Japan's economic difficulties, this period also saw Japanese popular culture, including video games, anime, and manga, become worldwide phenomena, especially among young people.[286]

On March 11, 2011, one of the largest earthquakes recorded in Japan occurred in the northeast. The resulting tsunami damaged the nuclear facilities in Fukushima, which experienced a nuclear meltdown and severe radiation leakage.[287]

Reiwa period (2019–present)

Emperor Naruhito's reign began upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito, on May 1, 2019.[288]

In 2020, Tokyo was supposed to host the Summer Olympics for the second time since 1964. Japan will become the first Asian country to host the Olympics twice in the country. However, due to the global outbreak and economic impact of COVID-19 Pandemic, the Summer Olympics were ultimately postponed to 2021. The new date for the Olympics are scheduled from July 23 to August 8 2021.[289]

Social stratification in Japan became pronounced during the Yayoi period. Expanding trade and agriculture increased the wealth of society, which was increasingly monopolized by social elites.[290] By 600 AD, a class structure had developed which included court aristocrats, the families of local magnates, commoners, and slaves.[291] Over 90% were commoners, who included farmers, merchants, and artisans.[292] During the late Heian period, the governing elite consisted of three classes. The traditional aristocracy shared power with Buddhist monks and samurai,[292] though the latter became increasingly dominant in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods.[293] These periods witnessed the rise of the merchant class, which diversified into a greater variety of specialized occupations.[294]

Women initially held social and political equality with men,[291] and archaeological evidence suggests a prehistorical preference for female rulers in western Japan. Female Emperors appear in recorded history until the Meiji Constitution declared strict male-only ascension in 1889.[295] Chinese Confucian-style patriarchy was first codified in the 7th–8th centuries with the ritsuryō system,[296] which introduced a patrilineal family register with a male head of household.[297] Women until then had held important roles in government which thereafter gradually diminished, though even in the late Heian period women wielded considerable court influence.[295] Marital customs and many laws governing private property remained gender neutral.[298]

For reasons that are unclear to historians the status of women rapidly deteriorated from the fourteenth century and onwards.[299] Women of all social classes lost the right to own and inherit property and were increasingly viewed as inferior to men.[300] Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s further entrenched the status of men as dominant landholders.[301] During the US occupation following World War II , women gained legal equality with men,[302] but faced widespread workplace discrimination. A movement for women's rights led to the passage of an equal employment law in 1986, but by the 1990s women held only 10% of management positions.[303]

Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s designated all who cultivated the land as commoners, an act which granted effective freedom to most of Japan's slaves.[304]

Social structure of the Edo period

The Tokugawa shogunate rigidified long-existent class divisions,[305] placing most of the population into a Neo-Confucian hierarchy of four occupations, with the ruling elite at the top, followed by the peasants who made up 80% of the population, then artisans, and merchants at the bottom.[306] Court nobles,[41] clerics, outcasts, entertainers, and workers of the licensed quarters fell outside this structure.[307] Different legal codes applied to different classes, marriage between classes was prohibited, and towns were subdivided into different class areas.[305] The social stratification had little bearing on economic conditions: many samurai lived in poverty[307] and the wealth of the merchant class grew throughout the period as the commercial economy developed and urbanization grew.[308] The Edo-era social power structure proved untenable and gave way following the Meiji Restoration to one in which commercial power played an increasingly significant political role.[309]

Although all social classes were legally abolished at the start of the Meiji period,[164] income inequality greatly increased.[310] New economic class divisions were formed between capitalist business owners who formed the new middle class, small shopkeepers of the old middle class, the working class in factories, rural landlords, and tenant farmers.[311] The great disparities of income between the classes dissipated during and after World War II, eventually declining to levels that were among the lowest in the industrialized world.[310] Some postwar surveys indicated that up to 90% of Japanese self-identified as being middle class.[312]

Populations of workers in professions considered unclean, such as leatherworkers and those who handled the dead, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries into hereditary outcast communities.[313] These people, later called burakumin, fell outside the Edo-period class structure and suffered discrimination that lasted after the class system was abolished.[313] Though activism has improved the social conditions of those from burakumin backgrounds, discrimination in employment and education lingered into the 21st century.[313]

  • Bibliography of Japanese history
  • Economic history of Japan
  • Higashiyama period
  • Historiography of Japan
  • History of East Asia
  • History of Japanese art
  • History of Japanese foreign relations
    • Australia–Japan relations
    • Austria–Japan relations
    • Brazil–Japan relations
    • Canada–Japan relations
    • China–Japan relations
    • Foreign relations of Meiji Japan
    • France–Japan relations
    • Germany–Japan relations
    • Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 1930–1945
    • Greece–Japan relations
    • History of Japan–Korea relations
    • History of Sino-Japanese relations, China
    • India–Japan relations
    • Ireland–Japan relations
    • Israel–Japan relations
    • Italy–Japan relations
    • Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia
    • Japan–Mexico relations
    • Japan–Netherlands relations
    • Japan–Portugal relations
    • Japan–Russia relations
    • Japan–South Korea relations
    • Japan–Soviet Union relations
    • Japan–Spain relations
    • Japan–Turkey relations
    • Japan–United Kingdom relations
    • Japan–United States relations
  • History of manga
  • History of Tokyo
  • List of Emperors of Japan
  • List of Prime Ministers of Japan
  • Timeline of Japanese history
  • Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History, in Japanese
  • Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
  • Journal of Japanese Studies
  • Monumenta Nipponica, Japanese studies, in English
  • Social Science Japan Journal

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