La agricultura orgánica es un sistema agrícola que se originó a principios del siglo XX como reacción a las prácticas agrícolas que cambian rápidamente. La agricultura orgánica certificada representa 70 millones de hectáreas a nivel mundial, con más de la mitad de ese total en Australia . [1] En la actualidad, varias organizaciones continúan desarrollando la agricultura orgánica. Se define por el uso de fertilizantes de origen orgánico como abono compost , abono verde y harina de huesos y pone énfasis en técnicas como la rotación de cultivos y la siembra complementaria . Control biológico de plagas, se fomenta el cultivo mixto y el fomento de insectos depredadores. Los estándares orgánicos están diseñados para permitir el uso de sustancias de origen natural mientras prohíben o limitan estrictamente las sustancias sintéticas. [2] Por ejemplo, los pesticidas naturales como la piretrina y la rotenona están permitidos, mientras que los fertilizantes sintéticos y los pesticidas están generalmente prohibidos. Las sustancias sintéticas permitidas incluyen, por ejemplo, sulfato de cobre , azufre elemental e ivermectina . Organismos genéticamente modificados , nanomateriales , lodos de depuradora humana ,Están prohibidos los reguladores del crecimiento de las plantas , las hormonas y el uso de antibióticos en la ganadería . [3] [4] Los defensores de la agricultura orgánica afirman ventajas en materia de sostenibilidad , [5] [6] apertura , autosuficiencia , autonomía / independencia , [6] salud , seguridad alimentaria y seguridad alimentaria .
Los métodos agrícolas orgánicos están regulados internacionalmente y aplicados legalmente por muchas naciones, basándose en gran parte en los estándares establecidos por la Federación Internacional de Movimientos de Agricultura Orgánica (IFOAM), una organización coordinadora internacional para organizaciones de agricultura orgánica establecida en 1972. [7] Agricultura orgánica puede definirse como "un sistema agrícola integrado que lucha por la sostenibilidad, la mejora de la fertilidad del suelo y la diversidad biológica, mientras que, con raras excepciones, prohíbe los pesticidas sintéticos, antibióticos, fertilizantes sintéticos, organismos genéticamente modificados y hormonas de crecimiento". [8] [9] [10] [11]
Desde 1990, el mercado de alimentos orgánicos y otros productos ha crecido rápidamente, alcanzando los $ 63 mil millones en todo el mundo en 2012. [12] : 25 Esta demanda ha impulsado un aumento similar en las tierras agrícolas administradas orgánicamente que crecieron de 2001 a 2011 a una tasa de capitalización de 8,9. % anualmente. [13]
A partir de 2019, aproximadamente 72,300,000 hectáreas (179,000,000 acres) en todo el mundo se cultivaron orgánicamente, lo que representa aproximadamente el 1.5 por ciento del total de tierras agrícolas del mundo. [14]
Historia
La agricultura se practicó durante miles de años sin el uso de productos químicos artificiales. Los fertilizantes artificiales se crearon por primera vez a mediados del siglo XIX. Estos primeros fertilizantes eran baratos, potentes y fáciles de transportar a granel. Avances similares ocurrieron en pesticidas químicos en la década de 1940, lo que llevó a que la década se conociera como la "era de los pesticidas". [15] Estas nuevas técnicas agrícolas, aunque beneficiosas a corto plazo, tuvieron efectos secundarios graves a más largo plazo como la compactación del suelo , la erosión y la disminución de la fertilidad general del suelo , junto con preocupaciones de salud sobre los productos químicos tóxicos que ingresan al suministro de alimentos. [16] : 10 A fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX, los científicos de biología del suelo comenzaron a buscar formas de remediar estos efectos secundarios sin dejar de mantener una mayor producción.
En 1921, el fundador y pionero del movimiento orgánico Albert Howard y su esposa Gabrielle Howard , [17] [18] [19] consumados botánicos , fundaron un Instituto de Industria Vegetal para mejorar los métodos agrícolas tradicionales en la India. Entre otras cosas, trajeron implementos mejorados y métodos mejorados de cría de animales de su formación científica; luego, incorporando aspectos de los métodos tradicionales de la India, se desarrollaron protocolos para la rotación de cultivos, técnicas de prevención de la erosión y el uso sistemático de abonos y abonos. [20] Estimulado por estas experiencias de agricultura tradicional, cuando Albert Howard regresó a Gran Bretaña a principios de la década de 1930 [21] , comenzó a promulgar un sistema de agricultura orgánica . [22] [23] [24]
En 1924, Rudolf Steiner dio una serie de ocho conferencias sobre agricultura con un enfoque en las influencias de la luna, los planetas, los seres no físicos y las fuerzas elementales. [25] [26] Fueron detenidos en respuesta a una solicitud de agricultores adherentes que notaron condiciones degradadas del suelo y un deterioro en la salud y calidad de los cultivos y el ganado como resultado del uso de fertilizantes químicos. [27] Las conferencias se publicaron en noviembre de 1924; la primera traducción al inglés apareció en 1928 como The Agriculture Course . [28]
En julio de 1939, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer , autor del trabajo estándar sobre agricultura biodinámica ( Agricultura y jardinería biodinámicas ), [29] llegó al Reino Unido por invitación de Walter James, cuarto barón de Northbourne como presentador en la escuela de verano Betteshanger. y Conferencia sobre agricultura biodinámica en la granja de Northbourne en Kent. [30] Uno de los principales propósitos de la conferencia fue reunir a los proponentes de varios enfoques de la agricultura orgánica para que pudieran cooperar dentro de un movimiento más amplio. Howard asistió a la conferencia, donde conoció a Pfeiffer. [31] Al año siguiente, Northbourne publicó su manifiesto de agricultura orgánica, Look to the Land , en el que acuñó el término "agricultura orgánica". La conferencia Betteshanger ha sido descrita como el 'eslabón perdido' entre la agricultura biodinámica y otras formas de agricultura orgánica. [30]
En 1940 Howard publicó su An Agricultural Testament . En este libro adoptó la terminología de Northbourne de "agricultura orgánica". [32] El trabajo de Howard se extendió ampliamente y se hizo conocido como el "padre de la agricultura orgánica" por su trabajo en la aplicación de los conocimientos y principios científicos a varios métodos tradicionales y naturales. [16] : 45 En los Estados Unidos, JI Rodale , que estaba muy interesado tanto en las ideas de Howard como en la biodinámica, [19] fundó en la década de 1940 una granja orgánica en funcionamiento para ensayos y experimentación, The Rodale Institute y Rodale Press para Enseñar y promover métodos orgánicos para el público en general. Estos se convirtieron en influencias importantes en la expansión de la agricultura orgánica. Lady Eve Balfour (el Experimento Haughley ) realizó más trabajos en el Reino Unido y muchos otros en todo el mundo.
El término "ecoagricultura" fue acuñado en 1970 por Charles Walters , fundador de Acres Magazine , para describir la agricultura que no utiliza "moléculas artificiales de química de rescate tóxico", efectivamente otro nombre para la agricultura orgánica . [33]
El aumento de la conciencia ambiental en la población en general en los tiempos modernos ha transformado el movimiento orgánico originalmente impulsado por la oferta en uno impulsado por la demanda. Los precios de las primas y algunos subsidios gubernamentales atrajeron a los agricultores. En el mundo en desarrollo, muchos productores cultivan de acuerdo con métodos tradicionales que son comparables a la agricultura orgánica, pero no certificados, y que pueden no incluir los últimos avances científicos en agricultura orgánica. En otros casos, los agricultores del mundo en desarrollo se han convertido a métodos orgánicos modernos por razones económicas. [34]
Terminología
El uso de "orgánico" popularizado por Howard y Rodale se refiere más estrictamente al uso de materia orgánica derivada del abono vegetal y abonos animales para mejorar el contenido de humus de los suelos, basado en el trabajo de los primeros científicos del suelo que desarrollaron lo que entonces se llamaba " cultivo de humus ". Desde principios de la década de 1940, los dos campos han tendido a fusionarse. [35] [36]
Los agricultores biodinámicos, por otro lado, usaron el término "orgánico" para indicar que una granja debe ser vista como un organismo vivo, [24] : 17-19 [30] en el sentido de la siguiente cita:
"Una finca orgánica, propiamente hablando, no es aquella que usa ciertos métodos y sustancias y evita otros; es una finca cuya estructura se forma a imitación de la estructura de un sistema natural que tiene la integridad, la independencia y la benigna dependencia de un organismo"
- Wendell Berry , "El regalo de la buena tierra"
Basaron su trabajo en la agricultura alternativa de orientación espiritual de Steiner, que incluye varios conceptos esotéricos.
Métodos
"La agricultura orgánica es un sistema de producción que mantiene la salud de los suelos, los ecosistemas y las personas. Se basa en procesos ecológicos, biodiversidad y ciclos adaptados a las condiciones locales, en lugar del uso de insumos con efectos adversos. La agricultura orgánica combina tradición, innovación y ciencia para beneficiar el entorno compartido y promover relaciones justas y una buena calidad de vida para todos los involucrados ... "
- Federación Internacional de Movimientos de Agricultura Orgánica [37]
Los métodos de agricultura orgánica combinan el conocimiento científico de la ecología y algunas tecnologías modernas con prácticas agrícolas tradicionales basadas en procesos biológicos naturales. Los métodos de agricultura ecológica se estudian en el campo de la agroecología . Mientras que la agricultura convencional usa pesticidas sintéticos y fertilizantes purificados sintéticamente solubles en agua, los agricultores orgánicos están restringidos por regulaciones a usar pesticidas y fertilizantes naturales. Un ejemplo de pesticida natural es la piretrina , que se encuentra naturalmente en la flor del crisantemo . Los principales métodos de agricultura orgánica incluyen la rotación de cultivos , abonos verdes y compost , control biológico de plagas y cultivo mecánico . Estas medidas utilizan el entorno natural para mejorar la productividad agrícola: legumbres se plantan para fijar nitrógeno en el suelo, los insectos depredadores naturales se les anima, los cultivos se hacen girar a las plagas confundir y renuevan suelo, y materiales naturales tales como bicarbonato de potasio [38] y coberturas son utilizado para controlar enfermedades y malezas . Se excluyen las semillas y los animales genéticamente modificados .
Si bien lo orgánico es fundamentalmente diferente de lo convencional debido al uso de fertilizantes a base de carbono en comparación con fertilizantes sintéticos altamente solubles y al control biológico de plagas en lugar de pesticidas sintéticos, la agricultura orgánica y la agricultura convencional a gran escala no son completamente excluyentes. Muchos de los métodos desarrollados para la agricultura orgánica han sido tomados prestados por la agricultura más convencional. Por ejemplo, el Manejo Integrado de Plagas es una estrategia multifacética que utiliza varios métodos orgánicos de control de plagas siempre que sea posible, pero en la agricultura convencional podría incluir pesticidas sintéticos solo como último recurso. [39]
Diversidad de cultivos
La agricultura orgánica fomenta la diversidad de cultivos . La ciencia de la agroecología ha revelado los beneficios del policultivo (múltiples cultivos en el mismo espacio), que a menudo se emplea en la agricultura orgánica. [40] Plantar una variedad de cultivos de hortalizas apoya una gama más amplia de insectos beneficiosos, microorganismos del suelo y otros factores que se suman a la salud general de la granja. La diversidad de cultivos ayuda a que los entornos prosperen y protege a las especies de la extinción. [41]
Manejo del suelo
La agricultura orgánica se basa más en la descomposición natural de la materia orgánica que la granja convencional promedio, utilizando técnicas como abono verde y compostaje , para reemplazar los nutrientes extraídos del suelo por cultivos anteriores. Este proceso biológico, impulsado por microorganismos como las micorrizas y las lombrices de tierra , libera los nutrientes disponibles para las plantas durante la temporada de crecimiento. Los agricultores utilizan una variedad de métodos para mejorar la fertilidad del suelo, incluida la rotación de cultivos, el cultivo de cobertura, la labranza reducida y la aplicación de compost. Al reducir la labranza intensiva en combustible, se pierde menos materia orgánica del suelo a la atmósfera. Esto tiene un beneficio adicional de secuestro de carbono , que reduce los gases de efecto invernadero y ayuda a revertir el cambio climático. La reducción de la labranza también puede mejorar la estructura del suelo y reducir el potencial de erosión del suelo.
Las plantas necesitan una gran cantidad de nutrientes en diversas cantidades para florecer. Suministrar suficiente nitrógeno y, en particular, la sincronización, para que las plantas obtengan suficiente nitrógeno en el momento en que más lo necesitan, es un desafío para los agricultores orgánicos. [42] La rotación de cultivos y el abono verde (" cultivos de cobertura ") ayudan a proporcionar nitrógeno a través de las leguminosas (más precisamente, la familia Fabaceae ), que fijan el nitrógeno de la atmósfera mediante simbiosis con bacterias rizobianas . El cultivo intercalado , que a veces se usa para el control de insectos y enfermedades, también puede aumentar los nutrientes del suelo, pero la competencia entre la leguminosa y el cultivo puede ser problemática y se requiere un espaciado más amplio entre las hileras de cultivos. Los residuos de cultivos pueden ser arado de nuevo en el suelo, y diferentes plantas dejan diferentes cantidades de nitrógeno, potencialmente ayudar a la sincronización. [42] Los agricultores orgánicos también utilizan estiércol animal , ciertos fertilizantes procesados como harina de semillas y diversos polvos minerales como fosfato de roca y arena verde , una forma natural de potasio que proporciona potasio. En algunos casos , es posible que sea necesario modificar el pH . Las enmiendas naturales del pH incluyen la cal y el azufre , pero en los EE. UU. Algunos compuestos como el sulfato de hierro , el sulfato de aluminio , el sulfato de magnesio y los productos de boro soluble están permitidos en la agricultura orgánica. [43] : 43
Las granjas mixtas con ganado y cultivos pueden operar como granjas de ley , en las que la tierra gana fertilidad a través del cultivo de pastos forrajeros fijadores de nitrógeno como el trébol blanco o la alfalfa y produce cultivos comerciales o cereales cuando se establece la fertilidad. Las granjas sin ganado ("sin ganado") pueden tener más dificultades para mantener la fertilidad del suelo y pueden depender más de insumos externos como estiércol importado , así como leguminosas de grano y abonos verdes, aunque las leguminosas de grano pueden fijar una cantidad limitada de nitrógeno porque se cosechan. Las granjas hortícolas que cultivan frutas y verduras en condiciones protegidas a menudo dependen aún más de insumos externos. [42] El estiércol es muy voluminoso y, a menudo, no es rentable transportarlo a más de una corta distancia de la fuente. El estiércol para granjas orgánicas 'puede volverse escaso si un número considerable de granjas se maneja orgánicamente.
Manejo de malezas
El manejo orgánico de malezas promueve la supresión de malezas, en lugar de la eliminación de malezas, al mejorar la competencia de los cultivos y los efectos fitotóxicos sobre las malezas. [44] Los agricultores orgánicos integran tácticas culturales, biológicas, mecánicas, físicas y químicas para manejar las malezas sin herbicidas sintéticos .
Las normas orgánicas requieren la rotación de cultivos anuales, [45] lo que significa que no se puede cultivar un solo cultivo en el mismo lugar sin un cultivo diferente que intervenga. Las rotaciones de cultivos orgánicos con frecuencia incluyen cultivos de cobertura supresores de malezas y cultivos con ciclos de vida diferentes para desalentar las malezas asociadas con un cultivo en particular. [44] Se están realizando investigaciones para desarrollar métodos orgánicos para promover el crecimiento de microorganismos naturales que inhiben el crecimiento o la germinación de malezas comunes. [46]
Otras prácticas culturales utilizadas para mejorar la competitividad de los cultivos y reducir la presión de las malezas incluyen la selección de variedades de cultivos competitivos, la siembra de alta densidad, el espaciamiento estrecho entre hileras y la siembra tardía en suelos cálidos para estimular la rápida germinación de los cultivos . [44]
Las prácticas mecánicas y físicas de control de malezas utilizadas en las granjas orgánicas pueden agruparse en términos generales como: [47]
- Labranza : voltear el suelo entre cultivos para incorporar residuos de cultivos y enmiendas del suelo; eliminar el crecimiento de malezas existente y preparar un semillero para plantar; remover el suelo después de la siembra para matar las malas hierbas, incluido el cultivo de cultivos en hileras;
- Segar y cortar: eliminar el crecimiento superior de malezas;
- Deshierbe con llama y deshierbe térmico: uso del calor para matar las malas hierbas; y
- Mulching - Bloquear la aparición de malezas con materiales orgánicos, películas plásticas o telas para jardines . [48] Algunos críticos, citando el trabajo publicado en 1997 por David Pimentel de la Universidad de Cornell, [49] que describió una epidemia de erosión del suelo en todo el mundo, han expresado su preocupación de que la labranza contribuya a la epidemia de erosión. [50] La FAO y otras organizaciones han abogado por un enfoque de "labranza cero" tanto para la agricultura convencional como para la orgánica, y señalan en particular que las técnicas de rotación de cultivos utilizadas en la agricultura orgánica son excelentes enfoques de labranza cero. [50] [51] Un estudio publicado en 2005 por Pimentel y colegas [52] confirmó que "las rotaciones de cultivos y los cultivos de cobertura (abono verde) típicos de la agricultura orgánica reducen la erosión del suelo, los problemas de plagas y el uso de pesticidas".
Algunos productos químicos de origen natural están permitidos para uso herbicida. Estos incluyen ciertas formulaciones de ácido acético (vinagre concentrado), harina de gluten de maíz y aceites esenciales . También se han desarrollado algunos bioherbicidas selectivos basados en hongos patógenos . Sin embargo, en este momento, los herbicidas y bioherbicidas orgánicos juegan un papel menor en la caja de herramientas de control de malezas orgánicas. [47]
Las malezas se pueden controlar mediante el pastoreo. Por ejemplo, los gansos se han utilizado con éxito para desyerbar una variedad de cultivos orgánicos que incluyen algodón, fresas, tabaco y maíz, [53] reviviendo la práctica de criar gansos de parche de algodón , común en el sur de los Estados Unidos antes de la década de 1950. De manera similar, algunos cultivadores de arroz introducen patos y peces en los arrozales húmedos para comer tanto malezas como insectos. [54]
Controlando otros organismos
Los organismos, además de las malas hierbas, que causan problemas en las granjas incluyen artrópodos (por ejemplo, insectos, ácaros ), nematodos , hongos y bacterias . Las prácticas incluyen, pero no se limitan a:
- alentar a los insectos beneficiosos depredadores a controlar las plagas sirviéndoles plantas de vivero y / o un hábitat alternativo, generalmente en forma de protección , seto o banco de escarabajos ;
- fomentar los microorganismos beneficiosos;
- rotar los cultivos a diferentes lugares de un año a otro para interrumpir los ciclos de reproducción de las plagas;
- plantar cultivos complementarios y plantas repelentes de plagas que desalienten o desvíen las plagas;
- el uso de cubiertas de hileras para proteger los cultivos durante los períodos de migración de plagas;
- el uso de pesticidas y herbicidas biológicos ;
- el uso de semilleros viejos para germinar y destruir las malas hierbas antes de plantar; [55]
- usar saneamiento para eliminar el hábitat de plagas;
- el uso de trampas para insectos para monitorear y controlar las poblaciones de insectos; y
- utilizando barreras físicas, como cobertores de hileras .
Entre los ejemplos de insectos beneficiosos depredadores se incluyen los diminutos insectos piratas , los insectos de ojos grandes y , en menor medida, las mariquitas (que tienden a volar), todos los cuales se alimentan de una amplia gama de plagas. Las crisopas también son efectivas, pero tienden a volar. Las mantis religiosas tienden a moverse más lentamente y a comer menos. Las avispas parasitoides tienden a ser efectivas para sus presas seleccionadas, pero como todos los insectos pequeños, pueden ser menos efectivas al aire libre porque el viento controla su movimiento. Los ácaros depredadores son eficaces para controlar otros ácaros. [43] : 66–90
Los insecticidas de origen natural permitidos para su uso en granjas orgánicas incluyen Bacillus thuringiensis (una toxina bacteriana), piretro (un extracto de crisantemo), spinosad (un metabolito bacteriano), neem (un extracto de árbol) y rotenona (un extracto de raíz de leguminosa). Menos del 10% de los agricultores orgánicos utilizan estos pesticidas con regularidad; una encuesta encontró que solo el 5.3% de los productores de vegetales en California usan rotenona mientras que el 1.7% usa piretro . [56] : 26 Estos pesticidas no siempre son más seguros o respetuosos con el medio ambiente que los pesticidas sintéticos y pueden causar daños. [43] : 92 El criterio principal para los plaguicidas orgánicos es que son de origen natural, y algunas sustancias de origen natural han sido controvertidas. Los pesticidas naturales controvertidos incluyen rotenona , cobre , sulfato de nicotina y piretro [57] [58] La rotenona y el piretro son particularmente controvertidos porque actúan atacando el sistema nervioso, como la mayoría de los insecticidas convencionales. La rotenona es extremadamente tóxica para los peces [59] y puede inducir síntomas similares a la enfermedad de Parkinson en mamíferos. [60] [61] Aunque el piretro (piretrinas naturales) es más eficaz contra insectos cuando se usa con butóxido de piperonilo (que retarda la degradación de las piretrinas), [62] los estándares orgánicos generalmente no permiten el uso de esta última sustancia. [63] [64] [65]
Los fungicidas de origen natural permitidos para su uso en granjas orgánicas incluyen las bacterias Bacillus subtilis y Bacillus pumilus ; y el hongo Trichoderma harzianum . Son principalmente eficaces para las enfermedades que afectan a las raíces. El té de compost contiene una mezcla de microbios beneficiosos, que pueden atacar o competir con ciertos patógenos vegetales, [66] pero la variabilidad entre las formulaciones y los métodos de preparación puede contribuir a resultados inconsistentes o incluso al crecimiento peligroso de microbios tóxicos en los tés de compost. [67]
Algunos pesticidas de origen natural no están permitidos para su uso en granjas orgánicas. Estos incluyen sulfato de nicotina , arsénico y estricnina . [68]
Los pesticidas sintéticos permitidos para su uso en granjas orgánicas incluyen jabones insecticidas y aceites hortícolas para el manejo de insectos; y mezcla de Burdeos , hidróxido de cobre y bicarbonato de sodio para el manejo de hongos. [68] El sulfato de cobre y la mezcla de Burdeos (sulfato de cobre más cal), aprobados para uso orgánico en varias jurisdicciones, [63] [64] [68] pueden ser más problemáticos para el medio ambiente que algunos fungicidas sintéticos prohibidos en la agricultura orgánica. [69] [70] Se aplican preocupaciones similares al hidróxido de cobre. La aplicación repetida de sulfato de cobre o hidróxido de cobre como fungicida puede eventualmente resultar en la acumulación de cobre a niveles tóxicos en el suelo, [71] y las advertencias para evitar acumulaciones excesivas de cobre en el suelo aparecen en varios estándares orgánicos y en otros lugares. Las preocupaciones ambientales por varios tipos de biota surgen a tasas promedio de uso de tales sustancias para algunos cultivos. [72] En la Unión Europea, donde el reemplazo de fungicidas a base de cobre en la agricultura orgánica es una prioridad política, [73] la investigación está buscando alternativas para la producción orgánica. [74]
Ganado
La cría de ganado y aves de corral, para carne, lácteos y huevos, es otra actividad agrícola tradicional que complementa el cultivo. Las granjas orgánicas intentan proporcionar a los animales condiciones de vida naturales y alimento. La certificación orgánica verifica que el ganado se críe de acuerdo con las regulaciones orgánicas del USDA durante toda su vida. [75] Estas regulaciones incluyen el requisito de que todos los alimentos para animales deben ser certificados como orgánicos.
El ganado orgánico puede y debe ser tratado con medicamentos cuando está enfermo, pero no se pueden usar medicamentos para promover el crecimiento, su alimento debe ser orgánico y debe ser pasto. [76] : 19 y siguientes [77]
Además, los caballos y el ganado fueron una vez una característica básica de la granja que proporcionaba mano de obra, para acarrear y arar, fertilidad, a través del reciclaje de estiércol y combustible, en forma de alimento para los granjeros y otros animales. Si bien hoy en día, las operaciones de cultivo pequeñas a menudo no incluyen ganado, los animales domesticados son una parte deseable de la ecuación de la agricultura orgánica, especialmente para la verdadera sostenibilidad, la capacidad de una granja para funcionar como una unidad autorrenovable.
Modificación genética
Una característica clave de la agricultura ecológica es la exclusión de plantas y animales modificados genéticamente. El 19 de octubre de 1998, los participantes de la 12ª Conferencia Científica de IFOAM emitieron la Declaración de Mar del Plata , donde más de 600 delegados de más de 60 países votaron por unanimidad para excluir el uso de organismos genéticamente modificados en la producción de alimentos orgánicos y la agricultura.
Aunque la oposición al uso de cualquier tecnología transgénica en la agricultura orgánica es fuerte, los investigadores agrícolas Luis Herrera-Estrella y Ariel Alvarez-Morales continúan abogando por la integración de tecnologías transgénicas en la agricultura orgánica como el medio óptimo para la agricultura sostenible, particularmente en el mundo en desarrollo. [78] El agricultor orgánico Raoul Adamchak y la genetista Pamela Ronald escriben que muchas aplicaciones agrícolas de la biotecnología son consistentes con los principios orgánicos y han avanzado significativamente en la agricultura sostenible. [79]
Aunque los OGM están excluidos de la agricultura orgánica, existe la preocupación de que el polen de los cultivos modificados genéticamente esté penetrando cada vez más en las reservas de semillas orgánicas y heredadas , lo que dificulta, si no imposible, evitar que estos genomas ingresen al suministro de alimentos orgánicos. Las diferentes regulaciones entre países limitan la disponibilidad de OGM a ciertos países, como se describe en el artículo sobre la regulación de la liberación de organismos genéticamente modificados .
Herramientas
Los agricultores orgánicos utilizan una serie de herramientas agrícolas tradicionales para cultivar. Debido a los objetivos de sostenibilidad en la agricultura orgánica, los agricultores orgánicos intentan minimizar su dependencia de los combustibles fósiles . En el mundo en desarrollo, en las pequeñas granjas orgánicas, las herramientas normalmente se limitan a herramientas manuales y bombas de agua con motor diesel .
Estándares
Las normas regulan los métodos de producción y, en algunos casos, la producción final de la agricultura orgánica. Los estándares pueden ser voluntarios o legislados. Ya en la década de 1970, asociaciones privadas certificaron a los productores orgánicos. En la década de 1980, los gobiernos comenzaron a elaborar pautas de producción orgánica. En la década de 1990, comenzó una tendencia hacia estándares legislados, más notablemente con el reglamento ecológico de la UE de 1991 desarrollado para la Unión Europea , [80] que estableció estándares para 12 países, y un programa del Reino Unido de 1993. El programa de la UE fue seguido por un programa japonés en 2001, y en 2002 Estados Unidos creó el Programa Orgánico Nacional (NOP). [81] En 2007, más de 60 países regulan la agricultura orgánica ( IFOAM 2007: 11 ). En 2005, IFOAM creó los Principios de Agricultura Orgánica , una guía internacional para los criterios de certificación. [82] Normalmente, las agencias acreditan a los grupos de certificación en lugar de a las granjas individuales.
Los materiales de producción utilizados para la creación de alimentos orgánicos certificados por USDA requieren la aprobación de un certificador acreditado por NOP.
Compostaje
El uso de estiércol como fertilizante corre el riesgo de contaminar los alimentos con bacterias intestinales animales, incluidas las cepas patógenas de E. coli que han causado una intoxicación fatal por comer alimentos orgánicos. [83] Para combatir este riesgo, las normas orgánicas del USDA requieren que el estiércol se esterilice mediante compostaje termofílico a alta temperatura . Si se utiliza estiércol animal crudo, deben pasar 120 días antes de la cosecha si el producto final entra en contacto directo con el suelo. Para los productos que no entran en contacto directo con el suelo, deben transcurrir 90 días antes de la cosecha. [84]
En los EE. UU., La Ley de Producción de Alimentos Orgánicos de 1990 (OFPA, por sus siglas en inglés), según enmendada, especifica que una granja no puede ser certificada como orgánica si el abono que se usa contiene ingredientes sintéticos. La OFPA destaca los fertilizantes mezclados comercialmente [compost] y no permite el uso de ningún fertilizante [compost] que contenga materiales prohibidos. [85]
Ciencias económicas
La economía de la agricultura orgánica, un subcampo de la economía agrícola , abarca todo el proceso y los efectos de la agricultura orgánica en términos de la sociedad humana, incluidos los costos sociales , los costos de oportunidad , las consecuencias no deseadas , las asimetrías de información y las economías de escala .
La mano de obra, las emisiones de carbono y metano, el uso de energía, la eutrofización, la acidificación, la calidad del suelo, el efecto sobre la biodiversidad y el uso general de la tierra varían considerablemente entre granjas individuales y entre cultivos, lo que dificulta las comparaciones generales entre la economía de la agricultura orgánica y convencional. [86] [87]
En la Unión Europea, "los agricultores orgánicos reciben más subvenciones en el marco de las subvenciones agroambientales y de bienestar animal que los agricultores convencionales". [88]
Distribución geográfica de productores
Los mercados de productos orgánicos son más fuertes en América del Norte y Europa, que en 2001 se estima que tienen $ 6 y $ 8 mil millones, respectivamente, del mercado global de $ 20 mil millones. [56] : 6 A partir de 2007, Australasia tiene el 39% del total de tierras agrícolas orgánicas, incluidas las 11,800,000 hectáreas de Australia (29,000,000 acres), pero el 97 por ciento de esta tierra son extensos pastizales ( 2007: 35 ). Las ventas en EE. UU. Son 20 veces mayores. [56] : 7 Europa cultiva el 23 por ciento de las tierras agrícolas orgánicas mundiales (6,900,000 ha (17,000,000 acres)), seguida de América Latina y el Caribe con el 20% (6,400,000 ha (16,000,000 acres)). Asia tiene el 9,5 por ciento, mientras que América del Norte tiene el 7,2 por ciento. África tiene el 3 por ciento. [89]
Además de Australia, [90] los países con la mayor cantidad de tierras agrícolas orgánicas son Argentina (3,1 millones de hectáreas - 7,7 millones de acres), China (2,3 millones de hectáreas - 5,7 millones de acres) y Estados Unidos (1,6 millones de hectáreas - 4 millones de acres). Gran parte de las tierras agrícolas orgánicas de Argentina son pastos, como la de Australia ( 2007: 42 ). España, Alemania, Brasil (el mayor exportador agrícola del mundo), Uruguay e Inglaterra siguen a Estados Unidos en la cantidad de tierra orgánica ( 2007: 26 ).
In the European Union (EU25) 3.9% of the total utilized agricultural area was used for organic production in 2005. The countries with the highest proportion of organic land were Austria (11%) and Italy (8.4%), followed by the Czech Republic and Greece (both 7.2%). The lowest figures were shown for Malta (0.2%), Poland (0.6%) and Ireland (0.8%).[91][92] In 2009, the proportion of organic land in the EU grew to 4.7%. The countries with the highest share of agricultural land were Liechtenstein (26.9%), Austria (18.5%) and Sweden (12.6%).[93] 16% of all farmers in Austria produced organically in 2010. By the same year the proportion of organic land increased to 20%.[94] In 2005 168,000 ha (415,000 ac) of land in Poland was under organic management.[95] In 2012, 288,261 hectares (712,308 acres) were under organic production, and there were about 15,500 organic farmers; retail sales of organic products were EUR 80 million in 2011. As of 2012 organic exports were part of the government's economic development strategy.[96]
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, agricultural inputs that had previously been purchased from Eastern bloc countries were no longer available in Cuba, and many Cuban farms converted to organic methods out of necessity.[97] Consequently, organic agriculture is a mainstream practice in Cuba, while it remains an alternative practice in most other countries.[98][99] Cuba's organic strategy includes development of genetically modified crops; specifically corn that is resistant to the palomilla moth.[98]
Growth
In 2001, the global market value of certified organic products was estimated at US$20 billion. By 2002, this was US$23 billion and by 2015 more than US$43 billion.[100] By 2014, retail sales of organic products reached US$80 billion worldwide.[101] North America and Europe accounted for more than 90% of all organic product sales.[101] In 2018 Australia accounted for 54% of the world's certified organic land with the country recording more than 35,000,000 verified organic hectares.[102]
Organic agricultural land increased almost fourfold in 15 years, from 11 million hectares in 1999 to 43.7 million hectares in 2014.[101] Between 2013 and 2014, organic agricultural land grew by 500,000 hectares worldwide, increasing in every region except Latin America.[101] During this time period, Europe's organic farmland increased 260,000 hectares to 11.6 million total (+2.3%), Asia's increased 159,000 hectares to 3.6 million total (+4.7%), Africa's increased 54,000 hectares to 1.3 million total (+4.5%), and North America's increased 35,000 hectares to 3.1 million total (+1.1%).[101] As of 2014, the country with the most organic land was Australia (17.2 million hectares), followed by Argentina (3.1 million hectares), and the United States (2.2 million hectares).[101] Australia's organic land area has increased at a rate of 16.5% per annum for the past eighteen years.[102]
In 2013, the number of organic producers grew by almost 270,000, or more than 13%.[101] By 2014, there were a reported 2.3 million organic producers in the world.[101] Most of the total global increase took place in the Philippines, Peru, China, and Thailand.[101] Overall, the majority of all organic producers are in India (650,000 in 2013), Uganda (190,552 in 2014), Mexico (169,703 in 2013) and the Philippines (165,974 in 2014).[101]
In 2016, organic farming was responsible for producing over 1 million metric tonnes of bananas, over 800,000 metric tonnes of soybean, and just under half a million metric tonnes of coffee.[103]
Productivity
Studies comparing yields have had mixed results.[104] These differences among findings can often be attributed to variations between study designs including differences in the crops studied and the methodology by which results were gathered.
A 2012 meta-analysis found that productivity is typically lower for organic farming than conventional farming, but that the size of the difference depends on context and in some cases may be very small.[105] While organic yields can be lower than conventional yields, another meta-analysis published in Sustainable Agriculture Research in 2015, concluded that certain organic on-farm practices could help narrow this gap. Timely weed management and the application of manure in conjunction with legume forages/cover crops were shown to have positive results in increasing organic corn and soybean productivity.
Another meta-analysis published in the journal Agricultural Systems in 2011 analysed 362 datasets and found that organic yields were on average 80% of conventional yields. The author's found that there are relative differences in this yield gap based on crop type with crops like soybeans and rice scoring higher than the 80% average and crops like wheat and potato scoring lower. Across global regions, Asia and Central Europe were found to have relatively higher yields and Northern Europe relatively lower than the average.[106]
Long term studies
A study published in 2005 compared conventional cropping, organic animal-based cropping, and organic legume-based cropping on a test farm at the Rodale Institute over 22 years.[107] The study found that "the crop yields for corn and soybeans were similar in the organic animal, organic legume, and conventional farming systems". It also found that "significantly less fossil energy was expended to produce corn in the Rodale Institute’s organic animal and organic legume systems than in the conventional production system. There was little difference in energy input between the different treatments for producing soybeans. In the organic systems, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides were generally not used". As of 2013 the Rodale study was ongoing[108] and a thirty-year anniversary report was published by Rodale in 2012.[109]
A long-term field study comparing organic/conventional agriculture carried out over 21 years in Switzerland concluded that "Crop yields of the organic systems averaged over 21 experimental years at 80% of the conventional ones. The fertilizer input, however, was 34 – 51% lower, indicating an efficient production. The organic farming systems used 20 – 56% less energy to produce a crop unit and per land area this difference was 36 – 53%. In spite of the considerably lower pesticide input the quality of organic products was hardly discernible from conventional analytically and even came off better in food preference trials and picture creating methods"[110]
Profitability
In the United States, organic farming has been shown to be 2.7 to 3.8 times more profitable for the farmer than conventional farming when prevailing price premiums are taken into account.[111] Globally, organic farming is between 22 and 35 percent more profitable for farmers than conventional methods, according to a 2015 meta-analysis of studies conducted across five continents.[112]
The profitability of organic agriculture can be attributed to a number of factors. First, organic farmers do not rely on synthetic fertilizer and pesticide inputs, which can be costly. In addition, organic foods currently enjoy a price premium over conventionally produced foods, meaning that organic farmers can often get more for their yield.
The price premium for organic food is an important factor in the economic viability of organic farming. In 2013 there was a 100% price premium on organic vegetables and a 57% price premium for organic fruits. These percentages are based on wholesale fruit and vegetable prices, available through the United States Department of Agriculture's Economic Research Service.[113] Price premiums exist not only for organic versus nonorganic crops, but may also vary depending on the venue where the product is sold: farmers' markets, grocery stores, or wholesale to restaurants. For many producers, direct sales at farmers' markets are most profitable because the farmer receives the entire markup, however this is also the most time and labour-intensive approach.[114]
There have been signs of organic price premiums narrowing in recent years, which lowers the economic incentive for farmers to convert to or maintain organic production methods.[115] Data from 22 years of experiments at the Rodale Institute found that, based on the current yields and production costs associated with organic farming in the United States, a price premium of only 10% is required to achieve parity with conventional farming.[115] A separate study found that on a global scale, price premiums of only 5-7% percent were needed to break even with conventional methods.[112] Without the price premium, profitability for farmers is mixed.[56]:11
For markets and supermarkets organic food is profitable as well, and is generally sold at significantly higher prices than non-organic food.[116]
Energy efficiency
Compared to conventional agriculture, the energy efficiency of organic farming depends upon crop type and farm size.[117][118]
Two studies – both comparing organically- versus conventionally-farmed apples – declare contradicting results, one saying organic farming is more energy efficient, the other saying conventionally is more efficient.[118][119]
It has generally been found that the labour input per unit of yield was higher for organic systems compared with conventional production.[118]
Sales and marketing
Most sales are concentrated in developed nations. In 2008, 69% of Americans claimed to occasionally buy organic products, down from 73% in 2005. One theory for this change was that consumers were substituting "local" produce for "organic" produce.[120][121]
Distributors
The USDA requires that distributors, manufacturers, and processors of organic products be certified by an accredited state or private agency.[122] In 2007, there were 3,225 certified organic handlers, up from 2,790 in 2004.[123]
Organic handlers are often small firms; 48% reported sales below $1 million annually, and 22% between $1 and $5 million per year.[124] Smaller handlers are more likely to sell to independent natural grocery stores and natural product chains whereas large distributors more often market to natural product chains and conventional supermarkets, with a small group marketing to independent natural product stores.[123] Some handlers work with conventional farmers to convert their land to organic with the knowledge that the farmer will have a secure sales outlet. This lowers the risk for the handler as well as the farmer. In 2004, 31% of handlers provided technical support on organic standards or production to their suppliers and 34% encouraged their suppliers to transition to organic.[122] Smaller farms often join together in cooperatives to market their goods more effectively.
93% of organic sales are through conventional and natural food supermarkets and chains, while the remaining 7% of U.S. organic food sales occur through farmers' markets, foodservices, and other marketing channels.[125]
Direct-to-consumer sales
In the 2012 Census, direct-to-consumer sales equalled $1.3 billion, up from $812 million in 2002, an increase of 60 percent. The number of farms that utilize direct-to-consumer sales was 144,530 in 2012 in comparison to 116,733 in 2002.[126] Direct-to-consumer sales include farmers' markets, community supported agriculture (CSA), on-farm stores, and roadside farm stands. Some organic farms also sell products direct to retailer, direct to restaurant and direct to institution.[127] According to the 2008 Organic Production Survey, approximately 7% of organic farm sales were direct-to-consumers, 10% went direct to retailers, and approximately 83% went into wholesale markets. In comparison, only 0.4% of the value of convention agricultural commodities were direct-to-consumers.[128]
While not all products sold at farmer's markets are certified organic, this direct-to-consumer avenue has become increasingly popular in local food distribution and has grown substantially since 1994. In 2014, there were 8,284 farmer's markets in comparison to 3,706 in 2004 and 1,755 in 1994, most of which are found in populated areas such as the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast.[129]
Labour and employment
Organic production is more labour-intensive than conventional production.[130] On the one hand, this increased labour cost is one factor that makes organic food more expensive.[130] On the other hand, the increased need for labour may be seen as an "employment dividend" of organic farming, providing more jobs per unit area than conventional systems.[131] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report suggests that "[a]n increase in investment in green agriculture is projected to lead to growth in employment of about 60 per cent compared with current levels" and that "green agriculture investments could create 47 million additional jobs compared with BAU2 over the next 40 years."[132]
Much of the growth in women labour participation in agriculture is outside the "male dominated field of conventional agriculture". Operators in organic farming are 21% women, as opposed to 14% in farming in general.[133]
World's food security
In 2007 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) said that organic agriculture often leads to higher prices and hence a better income for farmers, so it should be promoted. However, FAO stressed that by organic farming one could not feed the current mankind, even less the bigger future population. Both data and models showed then that organic farming was far from sufficient. Therefore, chemical fertilizers were needed to avoid hunger.[134] Other analysis by many agribusiness executives, agricultural and environmental scientists, and international agriculture experts revealed the opinion that organic farming would not only increase the world's food supply, but might be the only way to eradicate hunger.[135]
FAO stressed that fertilizers and other chemical inputs can much increase the production, particularly in Africa where fertilizers are currently used 90% less than in Asia.[134] For example, in Malawi the yield has been boosted using seeds and fertilizers.[134] FAO also calls for using biotechnology, as it can help smallholder farmers to improve their income and food security.[136]
Also NEPAD, development organization of African governments, announced that feeding Africans and preventing malnutrition requires fertilizers and enhanced seeds.[137]
According to a 2012 study in ScienceDigest, organic best management practices shows an average yield only 13% less than conventional.[138] In the world's poorer nations where most of the world's hungry live, and where conventional agriculture's expensive inputs are not affordable by the majority of farmers, adopting organic management actually increases yields 93% on average, and could be an important part of increased food security.[135][139]
Capacity building in developing countries
Organic agriculture can contribute to ecological sustainability, especially in poorer countries.[140] The application of organic principles enables employment of local resources (e.g., local seed varieties, manure, etc.) and therefore cost-effectiveness. Local and international markets for organic products show tremendous growth prospects and offer creative producers and exporters excellent opportunities to improve their income and living conditions.[141]
Organic agriculture is knowledge intensive. Globally, capacity building efforts are underway, including localized training material, to limited effect. As of 2007, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements hosted more than 170 free manuals and 75 training opportunities online.[citation needed]
In 2008 the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) stated that "organic agriculture can be more conducive to food security in Africa than most conventional production systems, and that it is more likely to be sustainable in the long-term"[142] and that "yields had more than doubled where organic, or near-organic practices had been used" and that soil fertility and drought resistance improved.[143]
Millennium Development Goals
The value of organic agriculture (OA) in the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), particularly in poverty reduction efforts in the face of climate change, is shown by its contribution to both income and non-income aspects of the MDGs. These benefits are expected to continue in the post-MDG era. A series of case studies conducted in selected areas in Asian countries by the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) and published as a book compilation by ADB in Manila document these contributions to both income and non-income aspects of the MDGs. These include poverty alleviation by way of higher incomes, improved farmers' health owing to less chemical exposure, integration of sustainable principles into rural development policies, improvement of access to safe water and sanitation, and expansion of global partnership for development as small farmers are integrated in value chains.[144]
A related ADBI study also sheds on the costs of OA programs and set them in the context of the costs of attaining the MDGs. The results show considerable variation across the case studies, suggesting that there is no clear structure to the costs of adopting OA. Costs depend on the efficiency of the OA adoption programs. The lowest cost programs were more than ten times less expensive than the highest cost ones. However, further analysis of the gains resulting from OA adoption reveals that the costs per person taken out of poverty was much lower than the estimates of the World Bank,[145] based on income growth in general or based on the detailed costs of meeting some of the more quantifiable MDGs (e.g., education, health, and environment).[146]
Externalities
Agriculture imposes negative externalities upon society through public land and other public resource use, biodiversity loss, erosion, pesticides, nutrient pollution, subsidized water usage, subsidy payments and assorted other problems. Positive externalities include self-reliance, entrepreneurship, respect for nature, and air quality.[citation needed] Organic methods differ from conventional methods in the impacts of their respective externalities, dependent on implementation and crop type. Overall land use is generally higher for organic methods, but organic methods generally use less energy in production. [147][148] The analysis and comparison of externalities is complicated by whether the comparison is done using a per unit area measurement or per unit of production, and whether analysis is done on isolated plots or on farm units as a whole. [149]
Measurements of biodiversity are highly variable between studies, farms, and organism groups. "Birds, predatory insects, soil organisms and plants responded positively to organic farming, while non-predatory insects and pests did not. The positive effects of organic farming on abundance were prominent at the plot and field scales, but not for farms in matched landscapes."[150]
Other studies that have attempted to examine and compare conventional and organic systems of farming and have found that organic techniques reduce levels of biodiversity less than conventional systems do, and use less energy and produce less waste when calculated per unit area, although not when calculated per unit of output. "Farm comparisons show that actual (nitrate) leaching rates per hectare are up to 57% lower on organic than on conventional fields. However, the leaching rates per unit of output were similar or slightly higher." "On a per-hectare scale, the CO2 emissions are 40 - 60% lower in organic farming systems than in conventional ones, whereas on a per-unit output scale, the CO2 emissions tend to be higher in organic farming systems."[151][152]
In the U.K. uncompensated costs for 1996 reached 2,343 million British pounds or £208 per ha (£84.20/ac).[153]
A study of practices in the US published in 2005 concluded that cropland costs the economy approximately 5 to 16 billion dollars in external costs($30–96/ha – $12–39/ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars.[154] Both studies recommended reducing externalities. The 2000 review included reported pesticide poisonings but did not include speculative chronic health effects of pesticides, and the 2004 review relied on a 1992 estimate of the total impact of pesticides.
It has been proposed that organic agriculture can reduce the level of some negative externalities from (conventional) agriculture. Whether the benefits are private or public depends upon the division of property rights.[155]
Asuntos
A 2003 to 2005 investigation by the Cranfield University for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in the UK found that it is difficult to compare the Global warming potential, acidification and eutrophication emissions but "Organic production often results in increased burdens, from factors such as N leaching and N2O emissions", even though primary energy use was less for most organic products. N2O is always the largest global warming potential contributor except in tomatoes. However, "organic tomatoes always incur more burdens (except pesticide use)". Some emissions were lower "per area", but organic farming always required 65 to 200% more field area than non-organic farming. The numbers were highest for bread wheat (200+ % more) and potatoes (160% more).[156][157]
As of 2020 it seems that organic agriculture can help in mitigating climate change but only if used in certain ways.[158]
Environmental impact and emissions
Researchers at Oxford University analysed 71 peer-reviewed studies and observed that organic products are sometimes worse for the environment.[159] Organic milk, cereals, and pork generated higher greenhouse gas emissions per product than conventional ones but organic beef and olives had lower emissions in most studies.[159] Usually organic products required less energy, but more land.[159] Per unit of product, organic produce generates higher nitrogen leaching, nitrous oxide emissions, ammonia emissions, eutrophication, and acidification potential than conventionally grown produce.[160] Other differences were not significant.[160] The researchers concluded that public debate should consider various manners of employing conventional or organic farming, and not merely debate conventional farming as opposed to organic farming. They also sought to find specific solutions to specific circumstances.[160][clarification needed]
Proponents of organic farming have claimed that organic agriculture emphasizes closed nutrient cycles, biodiversity, and effective soil management providing the capacity to mitigate and even reverse the effects of climate change[161] and that organic agriculture can decrease fossil fuel emissions.[162] "The carbon sequestration efficiency of organic systems in temperate climates is almost double (575–700 kg carbon per ha per year – 510–625 lb/ac/an ) that of conventional treatment of soils, mainly owing to the use of grass clovers for feed and of cover crops in organic rotations."[163]
Critics of organic farming methods believe that the increased land needed to farm organic food could potentially destroy the rainforests and wipe out many ecosystems.[164][165]
Nutrient leaching
According to a 2012 meta-analysis of 71 studies, nitrogen leaching, nitrous oxide emissions, ammonia emissions, eutrophication potential and acidification potential were higher for organic products,[160] although in one study "nitrate leaching was 4.4–5.6 times higher in conventional plots than organic plots".[166] Excess nutrients in lakes, rivers, and groundwater can cause algal blooms, eutrophication, and subsequent dead zones. In addition, nitrates are harmful to aquatic organisms by themselves.[167]
Land use
The Oxford meta-analysis of 71 studies found that organic farming requires 84% more land for an equivalent amount of harvest, mainly due to lack of nutrients but sometimes due to weeds, diseases or pests, lower yielding animals and land required for fertility building crops.[160] While organic farming does not necessarily save land for wildlife habitats and forestry in all cases,[159] the most modern breakthroughs in organic are addressing these issues with success.[168][169][170]
Professor Wolfgang Branscheid says that organic animal production is not good for the environment, because organic chicken requires twice as much land as "conventional" chicken and organic pork a quarter more.[171] According to a calculation by Hudson Institute, organic beef requires three times as much land.[172] On the other hand, certain organic methods of animal husbandry have been shown to restore desertified, marginal, and/or otherwise unavailable land to agricultural productivity and wildlife.[173][174] Or by getting both forage and cash crop production from the same fields simultaneously, reduce net land use.[175]
SRI methods for rice production, without external inputs, have produced record yields on some farms,[176][177] but not others. [178]
Pesticides
In organic farming synthetic pesticides are generally prohibited. A chemical is said to be synthetic if it does not already exist in the natural world. But the organic label goes further and usually prohibit compounds that exist in nature if they are produced by chemical synthesis. So the prohibition is also about the method of production and not only the nature of the compound.
A non-exhaustive list of organic approved pesticides with their median lethal doses:
- Boric acid is used as an insecticide (LD50: 2660 mg/kg).
- Bromomethane is a gas that is still used in the nurseries of strawberry organic farming[179]
- Copper(II) sulfate is used as a fungicide and is also used in conventional agriculture (LD50 300 mg/kg). Conventional agriculture has the option to use the less toxic Mancozeb (LD50 4,500 to 11,200 mg/kg)
- Lime sulfur (aka calcium polysulfide) and sulfur are considered to be allowed, synthetic materials[180] (LD50: 820 mg/kg)
- Neem oil is used as an insect repellant in India;[181][182] since it contains azadirachtin its use is restricted in the UK and Europe.[183]
- Pyrethrin comes from chemicals extracted from flowers of the genus Pyrethrum (LD50 of 370 mg/kg). Its potent toxicity is used to control insects.
- Rotenone is a powerful insecticide that was used to control insects (LD50: 132 mg/kg). Despite the high toxicity of Rotenone to aquatic life and some links to Parkinson disease the compound is still allowed in organic farming as it is a naturally occurring compound.[184]
Food quality and safety
While there may be some differences in the amounts of nutrients and anti-nutrients when organically produced food and conventionally produced food are compared, the variable nature of food production and handling makes it difficult to generalize results, and there is insufficient evidence to make claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventional food.[185][186][187][188][189] Claims that organic food tastes better are not supported by evidence.[186][190]
Soil conservation
Supporters claim that organically managed soil has a higher quality[191] and higher water retention.[192] This may help increase yields for organic farms in drought years. Organic farming can build up soil organic matter better than conventional no-till farming, which suggests long-term yield benefits from organic farming.[193] An 18-year study of organic methods on nutrient-depleted soil concluded that conventional methods were superior for soil fertility and yield for nutrient-depleted soils in cold-temperate climates, arguing that much of the benefit from organic farming derives from imported materials that could not be regarded as self-sustaining.[194]
In Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations, geomorphologist David Montgomery outlines a coming crisis from soil erosion. Agriculture relies on roughly one meter of topsoil, and that is being depleted ten times faster than it is being replaced.[195] No-till farming, which some claim depends upon pesticides, is one way to minimize erosion. However, a 2007 study by the USDA's Agricultural Research Service has found that manure applications in tilled organic farming are better at building up the soil than no-till.[196][197]
Biodiversity
The conservation of natural resources and biodiversity is a core principle of organic production. Three broad management practices (prohibition/reduced use of chemical pesticides and inorganic fertilizers; sympathetic management of non-cropped habitats; and preservation of mixed farming) that are largely intrinsic (but not exclusive) to organic farming are particularly beneficial for farmland wildlife.[133] Using practices that attract or introduce beneficial insects, provide habitat for birds and mammals, and provide conditions that increase soil biotic diversity serve to supply vital ecological services to organic production systems. Advantages to certified organic operations that implement these types of production practices include: 1) decreased dependence on outside fertility inputs; 2) reduced pest-management costs; 3) more reliable sources of clean water; and 4) better pollination.[198]
Nearly all non-crop, naturally occurring[199] species observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic farming both by abundance and diversity.[200][201] An average of 30% more species inhabit organic farms.[202] Birds, butterflies, soil microbes, beetles, earthworms,[203][204] spiders, vegetation, and mammals are particularly affected. Lack of herbicides and pesticides improve biodiversity fitness and population density.[201] Many weed species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed pests.[205] Soil-bound organisms often benefit because of increased bacteria populations due to natural fertilizer such as manure, while experiencing reduced intake of herbicides and pesticides.[200] Increased biodiversity, especially from beneficial soil microbes and mycorrhizae have been proposed as an explanation for the high yields experienced by some organic plots, especially in light of the differences seen in a 21-year comparison of organic and control fields.[206]
Biodiversity from organic farming provides capital to humans. Species found in organic farms enhance sustainability by reducing human input (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides).[207]
The USDA's Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) published a Federal Register notice on 15 January 2016, announcing the National Organic Program (NOP) final guidance on Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation for Certified Organic Operations. Given the broad scope of natural resources which includes soil, water, wetland, woodland and wildlife, the guidance provides examples of practices that support the underlying conservation principles and demonstrate compliance with USDA organic regulations § 205.200.[198] The final guidance provides organic certifiers and farms with examples of production practices that support conservation principles and comply with the USDA organic regulations, which require operations to maintain or improve natural resources.[198] The final guidance also clarifies the role of certified operations (to submit an OSP to a certifier), certifiers (ensure that the OSP describes or lists practices that explain the operator's monitoring plan and practices to support natural resources and biodiversity conservation), and inspectors (onsite inspection) in the implementation and verification of these production practices.[208]
A wide range of organisms benefit from organic farming, but it is unclear whether organic methods confer greater benefits than conventional integrated agri-environmental programs.[200] Organic farming is often presented as a more biodiversity-friendly practice, but the generality of the beneficial effects of organic farming is debated as the effects appear often species- and context-dependent, and current research has highlighted the need to quantify the relative effects of local- and landscape-scale management on farmland biodiversity.[209] There are four key issues when comparing the impacts on biodiversity of organic and conventional farming: (1) It remains unclear whether a holistic whole-farm approach (i.e. organic) provides greater benefits to biodiversity than carefully targeted prescriptions applied to relatively small areas of cropped and/or non-cropped habitats within conventional agriculture (i.e. agri-environment schemes); (2) Many comparative studies encounter methodological problems, limiting their ability to draw quantitative conclusions; (3) Our knowledge of the impacts of organic farming in pastoral and upland agriculture is limited; (4) There remains a pressing need for longitudinal, system-level studies in order to address these issues and to fill in the gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of organic farming, before a full appraisal of its potential role in biodiversity conservation in agroecosystems can be made.[210]
Opposition to labour standards
Organic agriculture is often considered to be more socially just and economically sustainable for farmworkers than conventional agriculture. However, there is little social science research or consensus as to whether or not organic agriculture provides better working conditions than conventional agriculture.[211] As many consumers equate organic and sustainable agriculture with small-scale, family-owned organizations it is widely interpreted that buying organic supports better conditions for farmworkers than buying with conventional producers.[212] Organic agriculture is generally more labour-intensive due to its dependence on manual practices for fertilization and pest removal and relies heavily upon hired, non-family farmworkers rather than family members. Although illnesses from synthetic inputs pose less of a risk, hired workers still fall victim to debilitating musculoskeletal disorders associated with agricultural work. The USDA certification requirements outline growing practices and ecological standards but do nothing to codify labour practices. Independent certification initiatives such as the Agricultural Justice Project, Domestic Fair Trade Working Group, and the Food Alliance have attempted to implement farmworker interests but because these initiatives require voluntary participation of organic farms, their standards cannot be widely enforced.[213] Despite the benefit to farmworkers of implementing labour standards, there is little support among the organic community for these social requirements. Many actors of the organic industry believe that enforcing labour standards would be unnecessary,[212] unacceptable,[213] or unviable due to the constraints of the market.[211]
Apoyo regional a la agricultura ecológica
China
The Chinese government, especially the local government, has provided various supports for the development of organic agriculture since the 1990s. Organic farming has been recognized by local governments for its potential in promoting sustainable rural development.[214] It is common for local governments to facilitate land access of agribusinesses by negotiating land leasing with local farmers. The government also establishes demonstration organic gardens, provides training for organic food companies to pass certifications, subsidizes organic certification fees, pest repellent lamps, organic fertilizer and so on. The government has also been playing an active role in marketing organic products through organizing organic food expos and branding supports.[215]
India
In India, in 2016, the northern state of Sikkim achieved its goal of converting to 100% organic farming.[216][217][218][219][220] Other states of India, including Kerala,[221][222] Mizoram, Goa, Rajasthan, and Meghalaya, have also declared their intentions to shift to fully organic cultivation.[220]
The South Indian state Andhra Pradesh is also promoting organic farming, especially Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) which is a form of regenerative agriculture.[223]
As of 2018, India has the largest number of organic farmers in the world and constitutes more than 30% of the organic farmers globally.[224] India has 835,000 certified organic producers.[225]
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic has successfully converted a large amount of its banana crop to organic.[220] The Dominican Republic accounts for 55% of the world's certified organic bananas.[220]
Thailand
In Thailand, the Institute for Sustainable Agricultural Communities (ISAC) was established in 1991 to promote organic farming (among other sustainable agricultural practices). The national target via the National Plan for Organic Farming is to attain, by 2021, 1.3 million rai of organically farmed land. Another target is for 40% of the produce from these farmlands to be consumed domestically.[226]
Much progress has been made:[227][228][226]
- Many organic farms have sprouted, growing produce ranging from mangosteen to stinky bean
- Some of the farms have also established education centres to promote and share their organic farming techniques and knowledge
- In Chiang Mai Province, there are 18 organic markets (ISAC-linked)
United States
The United States Department of Agriculture Rural Development (USDARD) was created in 1994 as a subsection of the USDA that implements programs to stimulate growth in rural communities.[229] One of the programs that the USDARD created provided grants to farmers who practiced organic farming through the Organic Certification Cost Share Program (OCCSP).[230] During the 21st century, the United States has continued to expand its reach in the organic foods market, doubling the number of organic farms in the U.S. in 2016 when compared to 2011.[231] Employment on organic farms offers potentially large numbers of jobs for people, and this may better manage the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Moreover, sustainable forestry, fishing, and mining, and other conservation oriented activities provide larger numbers of jobs than more fossil fuel and mechanized work.
- Organic Farming has grown by 3.53 million acres in the U.S. from 2000 to 2011.[232]
- In 2016, California had 2,713 organic farms, which makes California the largest producer of organic goods in the U.S.[231]
- 4 percent of food sales in the U.S. are of organic goods.[233]
Ver también
- Advance sowing
- Agroecology
- Biodynamic agriculture
- Biointensive
- Biological pest control
- Certified Naturally Grown
- Do Nothing Farming
- French intensive gardening
- Holistic management (agriculture)
- List of organic food topics
- List of organic gardening and farming topics
- List of companion plants
- List of pest-repelling plants
- List of beneficial weeds
- Natural Farming
- No-till farming
- Organic clothing
- Organic farming by country
- Organic Farming Digest
- Organic movement
- Permaculture
- Organic food culture
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Otras lecturas
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enlaces externos
- Organic Farming at Curlie
- Organic Eprints. A database of research in organic food and farming.
- Organic Agriculture. eOrganic Community of Practice with eXtension: America's Land Grant University System and Partners.