Coordenadas : 40 ° N 127 ° E / 40 ° N 127 ° E
Corea del Norte , [c] oficialmente la República Popular Democrática de Corea ( RPDC ), [d] es un país del este de Asia , que constituye la parte norte de la península de Corea . Limita con China y Rusia al norte, en los ríos Yalu (Amnok) y Tumen ; limita con Corea del Sur al sur en la Zona Desmilitarizada de Corea . Su frontera occidental está formada por la Bahía de Corea y el Mar Amarillo , mientras que su frontera oriental está definida por el Mar de Japón.. Corea del Norte, como su contraparte del sur, afirma ser el gobierno legítimo de toda la península y las islas adyacentes . Pyongyang es la capital del país y la ciudad más grande.
República Popular Democrática de Corea 조선 민주주의 인민 공화국 ( coreano ) Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk | |
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La tierra controlada por la RPDC se muestra en verde oscuro; la tierra reclamada pero no controlada se muestra en verde claro. | |
Capital y ciudad más grande | Pyongyang 39 ° 2′N 125 ° 45′E / 39.033 ° N 125.750 ° E |
Lenguajes oficiales | Coreano ( Munhwaŏ ) [1] |
Guión oficial | Chosŏn'gŭl [2] |
Religión | Ateísmo de estado |
Demonym (s) | |
Gobierno | República Unitaria Juche unipartidista bajo una dictadura totalitaria [3] [4] [5] [6] |
• Secretario General del WPK | Kim Jong-un [a] |
• Presidente de la SAC | Kim Jong-un |
• Presidente del Comité Permanente de SPA | Choe Ryong-hae [b] |
• Primer Vicepresidente de la SAC | Choe Ryong-hae |
• Vicepresidente de la SAC | Pak Pong-ju |
• Primer Ministro de Gabinete | Kim Tok-hun |
• Presidente de la SPA | Pak Thae-canción |
Legislatura | Asamblea Popular Suprema |
Formación | |
• Administración soviética | 3 de octubre de 1945 |
• 1er gobierno provisional. | 8 de febrero de 1946 |
• 2º gobierno provisional. | 22 de febrero de 1947 |
• Establecimiento de la RPDC | 9 de septiembre de 1948 |
• Constitución actual | 27 de diciembre de 1972 |
• Admitido en la ONU | 17 de septiembre de 1991 |
• Declaración de Panmunjom | 27 de abril de 2018 |
Área | |
• Total | 120.540 km 2 (46.540 millas cuadradas) [7] ( 97º ) |
• Agua (%) | 0,11 |
Población | |
• Estimación 2018 | 25.549.604 [8] [9] ( 55º ) |
• Censo de 2008 | 24.052.231 [10] |
• Densidad | 212 / km 2 (549,1 / millas cuadradas) ( 45 ° ) |
PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2014 |
• Total | $ 40 mil millones [11] |
• Per cápita | $ 1.800 [12] |
PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2017 |
• Total | $ 30 mil millones [13] [14] |
• Per cápita | $ 1,300 [14] |
Divisa | Won del pueblo coreano (₩) ( KPW ) |
Zona horaria | UTC +9 ( hora de Pyongyang [15] ) |
Formato de fecha |
|
Lado de conducción | derecho |
Código de llamada | +850 [16] |
Código ISO 3166 | KP |
TLD de Internet | .kp [17] |
República Popular Democrática de Corea | |
Nombre coreano | |
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Hancha | 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國 |
Romanización revisada | Joseon Minjujuui Inmin Gonghwaguk |
McCune – Reischauer | Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk |
Corea del Norte | ||||||
Nombre de Corea del Sur | ||||||
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Hangul | 북 한 | |||||
Hanja | 北韓 | |||||
| ||||||
Nombre de Corea del Norte | ||||||
Chosŏn'gŭl | 조선 | |||||
Hancha | 朝鮮 | |||||
|
En 1910, Corea fue anexada por el Japón imperial . En 1945, después de la rendición japonesa al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , Corea se dividió en dos zonas a lo largo del paralelo 38 , con el norte ocupado por la Unión Soviética y el sur ocupado por Estados Unidos . Las negociaciones sobre la reunificación fracasaron y, en 1948, se formaron gobiernos separados: la República Popular Democrática de Corea socialista en el norte y la Primera República capitalista de Corea en el sur. La formación de la RPDC provino de varios gobiernos provisionales : la República Popular de Corea (PRK), la Administración Civil Soviética (SCA), el Comité Popular Provisional de Corea del Norte y el Comité Popular de Corea del Norte . La Guerra de Corea comenzó en 1950, con una invasión de Corea del Norte, y duró hasta 1953. El Acuerdo de Armisticio de Corea provocó un alto el fuego y estableció una zona desmilitarizada (DMZ), pero no se firmó ningún tratado de paz formal .
Según el artículo 1 de la constitución estatal , Corea del Norte es un " estado socialista independiente ". [e] [19] Se celebra elecciones , a pesar de que se han descrito por observadores independientes como un simulacro de elecciones , ya que Corea del Norte es un totalitaria dictadura , [3] [4] [5] con un elaborado culto a la personalidad en torno a la dinastía Kim : Il-sung , Jong-il y el actual líder Jong-un . El Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea , dirigido por un miembro de la familia gobernante, es el partido dominante y dirige el Frente Democrático para la Reunificación de Corea , del cual todos los funcionarios políticos deben ser miembros.
Según el artículo 3 de la constitución, Juche es la ideología oficial de Corea del Norte. [19] Los medios de producción son propiedad del Estado a través de empresas estatales y granjas colectivizadas . La mayoría de los servicios, como la atención médica , la educación , la vivienda y la producción de alimentos, están subsidiados o financiados por el estado. De 1994 a 1998, Corea del Norte sufrió una hambruna que provocó la muerte de entre 240.000 y 420.000 personas, y la población sigue sufriendo desnutrición.
Corea del Norte sigue Songun , o la política de " primero militar ", para su Ejército Popular de Corea . Que posee armas nucleares , y es el país con el mayor número de personal militar y paramilitar , con un total de 9.495 millones de activo , de reserva y paramilitares personal, o aproximadamente el 37% de su población. Su ejército en servicio activo de 1,21 millones de soldados es el cuarto más grande del mundo, y consta del 4,7% de su población. Una investigación de 2014 de las Naciones Unidas sobre los abusos de los derechos humanos en Corea del Norte concluyó que "la gravedad, la escala y la naturaleza de estas violaciones revelan un estado que no tiene ningún paralelo en el mundo contemporáneo", con Amnistía Internacional y Human Rights Watch. sosteniendo puntos de vista similares. [20] [21] [22] [23] El gobierno de Corea del Norte niega estos abusos. [24] [25] [26] No obstante, además de ser miembro de las Naciones Unidas desde 1991, Corea del Norte también es miembro del Movimiento de Países No Alineados , el G77 y el Foro Regional de la ASEAN .
Nombres
El nombre Corea se deriva del nombre Goryeo (también escrito Koryŏ ). El nombre Goryeo en sí fue utilizado por primera vez por el antiguo reino de Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), que fue una de las grandes potencias en el este de Asia durante su tiempo, [27] [28] [29] [30] gobernando la mayor parte de la península de Corea , Manchuria , partes del Lejano Oriente ruso [31] y partes de Mongolia Interior , [32] bajo Gwanggaeto el Grande . [33] El reino de Goryeo del siglo X sucedió a Goguryeo, [34] [35] [36] [37] y así heredó su nombre, que fue pronunciado por los comerciantes persas visitantes como "Corea". [38] La ortografía moderna de Corea apareció por primera vez a finales del siglo XVII en los escritos de viajes de Hendrick Hamel, de la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales . [39]
Después de la división del país en Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur, las dos partes utilizaron términos diferentes para referirse a Corea: Chosun o Joseon (조선) en Corea del Norte y Hanguk (한국) en Corea del Sur. En 1948, Corea del Norte adoptó la República Popular Democrática de Corea (en coreano : 조선 민주주의 인민 공화국 , Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk ;listen ) como su nuevo nombre legal. En el resto del mundo, debido a que el gobierno controla la parte norte de lapenínsula de Corea, comúnmente se le llamaCorea del Nortepara distinguirla de Corea del Sur, que se llama oficialmenteRepública de Coreaen inglés. Ambos gobiernos se consideran el gobierno legítimo de todaCorea. [40] [41] Por esta razón, la gente no se considera a sí misma como 'norcoreanos' sino como coreanos en el mismo país dividido que sus compatriotas en el sur y se desalienta a los visitantes extranjeros de usar el término anterior. [42]
Historia
Establecimiento
Después de la Primera Guerra Sino-Japonesa y la Guerra Ruso-Japonesa , Corea fue ocupada por Japón de 1910 a 1945. Los grupos de resistencia coreanos conocidos como Dongnipgun (Ejército de Liberación) operaron a lo largo de la frontera entre China y Corea, luchando en guerrillas contra las fuerzas japonesas. Algunos de ellos participaron en acciones aliadas en China y partes del sudeste asiático . Uno de los líderes guerrilleros fue el comunista Kim Il-sung , quien luego se convirtió en el primer líder de Corea del Norte.
Después de la rendición japonesa al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en 1945, la península de Corea se dividió en dos zonas a lo largo del paralelo 38 , con la mitad norte de la península ocupada por la Unión Soviética y la mitad sur por Estados Unidos . Las negociaciones sobre la reunificación fracasaron. El general soviético Terentii Shtykov recomendó el establecimiento de la Autoridad Civil Soviética en octubre de 1945 y apoyó a Kim Il-sung como presidente del Comité Popular Provisional para Corea del Norte , establecido en febrero de 1946. En septiembre de 1946, los ciudadanos surcoreanos se levantaron contra los Aliados. Gobierno militar. En abril de 1948, un levantamiento de los isleños de Jeju fue aplastado violentamente. El Sur declaró su condición de Estado en mayo de 1948 y dos meses después, el ardiente anticomunista Syngman Rhee [43] se convirtió en su gobernante. La República Popular Democrática de Corea se estableció en el Norte el 9 de septiembre de 1948. Shtykov fue el primer embajador soviético, mientras que Kim Il-sung se convirtió en primer ministro.
Las fuerzas soviéticas se retiraron del Norte en 1948 y la mayoría de las fuerzas estadounidenses se retiraron del Sur en 1949. El embajador Shtykov sospechaba que Rhee planeaba invadir el Norte y simpatizaba con el objetivo de Kim de unificar Corea bajo el socialismo. Los dos presionaron con éxito a Joseph Stalin para que apoyara una guerra rápida contra el Sur, que culminó con el estallido de la Guerra de Corea. [44] [45] [46] [47]
guerra coreana
El ejército de Corea del Norte invadió el Sur el 25 de junio de 1950 y rápidamente invadió la mayor parte del país. El Mando de las Naciones Unidas (UNC) se estableció posteriormente tras el reconocimiento por parte del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU de la agresión de Corea del Norte contra Corea del Sur. La moción fue aprobada porque la Unión Soviética , un aliado cercano de Corea del Norte y miembro del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU, estaba boicoteando a la ONU por su reconocimiento de la República de China en lugar de la República Popular China . [48] La UNC, dirigida por Estados Unidos, intervino para defender el Sur y rápidamente avanzó hacia Corea del Norte. A medida que se acercaban a la frontera con China, las fuerzas chinas intervinieron en nombre de Corea del Norte, volviendo a cambiar el equilibrio de la guerra. Los combates terminaron el 27 de julio de 1953, con un armisticio que restableció aproximadamente las fronteras originales entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur, pero no se firmó ningún tratado de paz. [49] Aproximadamente 3 millones de personas murieron en la Guerra de Corea, con un número de víctimas civiles proporcional más alto que la Segunda Guerra Mundial o la Guerra de Vietnam , lo que lo convierte quizás en el conflicto más mortífero de la era de la Guerra Fría. [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] Tanto en términos per cápita como absolutos, Corea del Norte fue el país más devastado por la guerra, que resultó en la muerte de aproximadamente un 12-15% de los norcoreanos. población ( c. 10 millones), "una cifra cercana o superior a la proporción de ciudadanos soviéticos muertos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial ", según Charles K. Armstrong . [55] Como resultado de la guerra, casi todos los edificios importantes de Corea del Norte fueron destruidos. [56] [57] Algunos se han referido al conflicto como una guerra civil, con otros factores involucrados. [58]
Una zona desmilitarizada fuertemente vigilada (DMZ) todavía divide la península, y un sentimiento anticomunista y anti-Corea del Norte permanece en Corea del Sur. Desde la guerra, Estados Unidos ha mantenido una fuerte presencia militar en el Sur, que el gobierno de Corea del Norte describe como una fuerza de ocupación imperialista. [59] Afirma que la Guerra de Corea fue causada por Estados Unidos y Corea del Sur. [60]
Desarrollos de posguerra
La paz relativa entre el sur y el norte después del armisticio fue interrumpida por escaramuzas fronterizas, secuestros de celebridades e intentos de asesinato. Corea del Norte fracasó en varios intentos de asesinato de líderes surcoreanos, como en 1968 , 1974 y el atentado de Rangún en 1983; Se encontraron túneles debajo de la DMZ y las tensiones estallaron por el incidente del asesinato con hacha en Panmunjom en 1976. [61] Durante casi dos décadas después de la guerra, los dos estados no buscaron negociar entre sí. En 1971, comenzaron a llevarse a cabo contactos secretos de alto nivel que culminaron en la Declaración Conjunta Norte-Sur del 4 de julio de 1972 que estableció los principios para trabajar hacia la reunificación pacífica. Las conversaciones finalmente fracasaron porque en 1973, Corea del Sur declaró su preferencia de que las dos Coreas buscaran membresías separadas en organizaciones internacionales. [62]
Durante el incidente de la facción de agosto de 1956 , Kim Il-sung resistió con éxito los esfuerzos de la Unión Soviética y China para deponerlo a favor de los coreanos soviéticos o de la facción pro china Yan'an . [63] [64] Las últimas tropas chinas se retiraron del país en octubre de 1958, que es el consenso como la última fecha en la que Corea del Norte se independizó efectivamente. Algunos estudiosos creen que el incidente de agosto de 1956 demostró la independencia. [63] [64] [65] Corea del Norte permaneció estrechamente alineada con China y la Unión Soviética, y la división chino-soviética permitió a Kim enfrentarse a los poderes entre sí. [66] Corea del Norte buscó convertirse en líder del Movimiento de Países No Alineados y enfatizó la ideología del Juche para distinguirlo tanto de la Unión Soviética como de China. [67] En la formulación de políticas de Estados Unidos, Corea del Norte fue considerada entre las Naciones Cautivas . [68]
La recuperación de la guerra se vio frenada por una hambruna masiva en 1954-55. Los funcionarios locales habían exagerado el tamaño de la cosecha en un 50-70%. Después de que el gobierno central tomó su parte, el hambre amenazó a muchos campesinos; alrededor de 800.000 murieron. Además, se resistió la colectivización; muchos agricultores mataron a su ganado en lugar de entregarlo a la granja colectiva. Otra hambruna en 1994-98 mató a 2,8 millones. [69]
La industria fue el sector favorecido. En 1957, la producción industrial alcanzó los niveles de 1949. En 1959, las relaciones con Japón habían mejorado un poco y Corea del Norte comenzó a permitir la repatriación de ciudadanos japoneses en el país. El mismo año, Corea del Norte revaluó el won norcoreano , que tenía un valor mayor que su contraparte surcoreana. Hasta la década de 1960, el crecimiento económico era más alto que en Corea del Sur, y el PIB per cápita de Corea del Norte era igual al de su vecino del sur en 1976. [70] Sin embargo, en la década de 1980, la economía había comenzado a estancarse; comenzó su largo declive en 1987 y colapsó casi por completo después de la disolución de la Unión Soviética en 1991, cuando de repente se detuvo toda la ayuda soviética. [71]
Un estudio interno de la CIA reconoció varios logros del gobierno de Corea del Norte en la posguerra: atención compasiva para los huérfanos de guerra y los niños en general, una mejora radical en la condición de la mujer, vivienda gratuita, atención médica gratuita y estadísticas de salud, particularmente en la esperanza de vida y la infancia. mortalidad que era comparable incluso a las naciones más avanzadas hasta la hambruna de Corea del Norte . [72] La esperanza de vida en el norte era de 72 antes de la hambruna, que era sólo marginalmente más baja que en el sur. [73] El país alguna vez se jactó de un sistema de salud comparativamente desarrollado; Antes de la hambruna, la Corea del Norte tenía una red de casi 45.000 médicos de familia con unos 800 hospitales y 1.000 clínicas. [74]
Post Guerra Fría
En 1992, cuando la salud de Kim Il-sung comenzó a deteriorarse, Kim Jong-il poco a poco comenzó a hacerse cargo de varias tareas estatales. Kim Il-sung murió de un ataque cardíaco en 1994 , y Kim Jong-il declaró un período de duelo nacional de tres años antes de anunciar oficialmente su posición como nuevo líder. [75]
Corea del Norte prometió detener su desarrollo de armas nucleares bajo el Marco Acordado , negoció con el presidente estadounidense Bill Clinton y firmó en 1994. Sobre la base de la Nordpolitik , Corea del Sur comenzó a comprometerse con Corea del Norte como parte de su Política del Sol . [76] [77]
Kim Jong-il instituyó una política llamada Songun , o "primero militar". Existe mucha especulación sobre el uso de esta política como estrategia para fortalecer a las fuerzas armadas y desalentar los intentos de golpe. [78]
Las inundaciones de mediados de la década de 1990 exacerbaron la crisis económica, dañaron gravemente los cultivos y la infraestructura y provocaron una hambruna generalizada que el gobierno no pudo reducir, lo que provocó la muerte de entre 240.000 y 420.000 personas. En 1996, el gobierno aceptó la ayuda alimentaria de la ONU. [79]
Siglo 21
El entorno internacional cambió con la elección del presidente estadounidense George W. Bush en 2001. Su administración rechazó la Política del Sol de Corea del Sur y el Marco Acordado. El gobierno de Estados Unidos trató a Corea del Norte como un estado canalla , mientras que Corea del Norte redobló sus esfuerzos para adquirir armas nucleares para evitar el destino de Irak . [80] [81] [82] El 9 de octubre de 2006, Corea del Norte anunció que había realizado su primera prueba de armas nucleares . [83] [84]
El presidente estadounidense, Barack Obama, adoptó una política de "paciencia estratégica", resistiéndose a hacer tratos con Corea del Norte. [85] Las tensiones con Corea del Sur y Estados Unidos aumentaron en 2010 con el hundimiento del buque de guerra surcoreano Cheonan [86] y el bombardeo de la isla Yeonpyeong por Corea del Norte . [87] [88]
El 17 de diciembre de 2011, Kim Jong-il murió de un ataque cardíaco . Su hijo menor, Kim Jong-un, fue anunciado como su sucesor. [89] Frente a la condena internacional, Corea del Norte continuó desarrollando su arsenal nuclear, posiblemente incluyendo una bomba de hidrógeno y un misil capaz de llegar a Estados Unidos. [90]
A lo largo de 2017, tras la asunción de la presidencia de Estados Unidos por Donald Trump , aumentaron las tensiones entre Estados Unidos y Corea del Norte, y hubo una retórica intensificada entre los dos, con Trump amenazando con "fuego y furia" [91] y Corea del Norte amenazando con poner a prueba misiles que aterrizarían cerca de Guam . [92] Las tensiones disminuyeron sustancialmente en 2018 y se desarrolló una distensión. [93] Se llevó a cabo una serie de cumbres entre Kim Jong-un de Corea del Norte, el presidente Moon Jae-in de Corea del Sur y el presidente Trump. [94] Han pasado 3 años, 6 meses desde la última prueba de misiles balísticos intercontinentales de Corea del Norte.
Geografía
Corea del Norte ocupa la porción norte de la península de Corea , que se encuentra entre las latitudes 37 ° y 43 ° N y las longitudes 124 ° y 131 ° E . Cubre un área de 120,540 kilómetros cuadrados (46,541 millas cuadradas). [7] Al oeste están el Mar Amarillo y la Bahía de Corea , y al este se encuentra Japón al otro lado del Mar de Japón .
Los primeros visitantes europeos a Corea comentaron que el país parecía "un mar en un fuerte vendaval" debido a las numerosas cadenas montañosas sucesivas que atraviesan la península. [95] Alrededor del 80 por ciento de Corea del Norte se compone de montañas y tierras altas, separadas por valles profundos y estrechos. Todas las montañas de la península de Corea con elevaciones de 2.000 metros (6.600 pies) o más se encuentran en Corea del Norte. El punto más alto de Corea del Norte es la montaña Paektu , una montaña volcánica con una elevación de 2.744 metros (9.003 pies) sobre el nivel del mar. [95] Considerado un lugar sagrado por los norcoreanos, el monte Paektu tiene un significado en la cultura coreana y ha sido incorporado en el elaborado folclore y la personalidad de culto alrededor de la dinastía Kim. [96] Por ejemplo, la canción "Iremos al monte Paektu" canta en alabanza a Kim Jong-un y describe un viaje simbólico a la montaña. Otras cordilleras prominentes son la Cordillera Hamgyong en el extremo noreste y las Montañas Rangrim , que se encuentran en la parte centro-norte de Corea del Norte. El monte Kumgang en la cordillera de Taebaek , que se extiende hasta Corea del Sur, es famoso por su belleza escénica. [95]
Las llanuras costeras son amplias en el oeste y discontinuas en el este. La gran mayoría de la población vive en las llanuras y tierras bajas. Según un informe del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente en 2003, los bosques cubren más del 70 por ciento del país, principalmente en pendientes pronunciadas. [97] Corea del Norte obtuvo una puntuación media del Índice de Integridad del Paisaje Forestal de 2019 de 8.02 / 10, ubicándose en el puesto 28 a nivel mundial de 172 países. [98] El río más largo es el río Amnok (Yalu), que fluye a lo largo de 790 kilómetros (491 millas). [99] El país contiene tres ecorregiones terrestres: bosques caducifolios de Corea central , bosques mixtos de las montañas de Changbai y bosques mixtos de Manchuria . [100]
Clima
Corea del Norte experimenta una combinación de clima continental y un clima oceánico , [97] [101] pero la mayor parte del país experimenta un clima continental húmedo dentro del esquema de clasificación climática de Köppen . Los inviernos traen un clima despejado intercalado con tormentas de nieve como resultado de los vientos del norte y noroeste que soplan desde Siberia . [101] El verano tiende a ser, con mucho, la época más calurosa, húmeda y lluviosa del año debido a los vientos monzónicos del sur y sureste que transportan aire húmedo del Océano Pacífico . Aproximadamente el 60 por ciento de toda la precipitación ocurre de junio a septiembre. [101] La primavera y el otoño son estaciones de transición entre el verano y el invierno. Las temperaturas máximas y mínimas promedio diarias para Pyongyang son -3 y -13 ° C (27 y 9 ° F) en enero y 29 y 20 ° C (84 y 68 ° F) en agosto. [101]
divisiones administrativas
Mapa | Nombre | Chosŏn'gŭl | Asiento administrativo | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pyongyang Razón Nampo Pyongan del Sur North Hwanghae South Hwanghae Kangwon South Hamgyong North Hamgyong Ryanggang Chagang Pyongan del Norte Kaesong porcelana Corea del Sur Mar Amarillo (Mar Occidental de Corea) Bahía de Corea Mar de Japón (Mar del Este de Corea) | Ciudad capital ( chikhalsi ) | ||||
1 | Pyongyang | 평양 직할시 | ( Chung-guyok ) | ||
Ciudad especial ( teukbyeolsi ) | |||||
2 | Razón | 라선 특별시 | ( Rajin-guyok ) | ||
Provincias ( hacer ) | |||||
3 | Pyongan del Sur | 평안 남도 | Pyongsong | ||
4 | Pyongan del Norte | 평안 북도 | Sinuiju | ||
5 | Chagang | 자강도 | Kanggye | ||
6 | South Hwanghae | 황해남도 | Haeju | ||
7 | North Hwanghae | 황해북도 | Sariwon | ||
8 | Kangwon | 강원도 | Wonsan | ||
9 | South Hamgyong | 함경남도 | Hamhung | ||
10 | North Hamgyong | 함경북도 | Chongjin | ||
11 | Ryanggang | 량강 도 | Hyesan |
Gobierno y políticas
Corea del Norte funciona como un estado de partido único altamente centralizado . Según su constitución de 2016 , es un estado revolucionario y socialista autodenominado "guiado en sus actividades por la idea Juche y la idea Songun". [102] Además de la constitución, Corea del Norte se rige por los Diez Principios para el Establecimiento de un Sistema Ideológico Monolítico (también conocido como los "Diez Principios del Sistema de Ideología Única") que establece estándares para la gobernanza y una guía para los comportamientos de los norcoreanos. [103] El Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea (WPK), dirigido por un miembro de la dinastía Kim, [104] tiene un estimado de 3.000.000 de miembros y domina todos los aspectos de la política norcoreana. Tiene dos organizaciones satélites, el Partido Socialdemócrata Coreano y el Partido Chondoísta Chongu [105], que participan en el Frente Democrático para la Reunificación de la Patria dirigido por el WPK, del que todos los funcionarios políticos deben ser miembros. [106]
Kim Jong-un de la dinastía Kim es el actual Líder Supremo o Suryeong de Corea del Norte. [107] Dirige todas las estructuras de gobierno principales: es Secretario General del Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea , Presidente de la Comisión de Asuntos Estatales y Comandante Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas . [108] [109] Su abuelo Kim Il-sung , fundador y líder de Corea del Norte hasta su muerte en 1994, es el " presidente eterno " del país , [110] mientras que su padre, Kim Jong-il, que sucedió a Kim Il-sung como el líder fue anunciado "Secretario General Eterno" y "Presidente Eterno de la Comisión de Defensa Nacional" después de su muerte en 2011. [108]
Según la Constitución de Corea del Norte , oficialmente hay tres ramas principales del gobierno. La primera de ellas es la Comisión de Asuntos Estatales (SAC), que actúa como "el órgano supremo de orientación nacional de la soberanía estatal". [111] [112] Su función es deliberar y decidir la labor de construcción de defensa del Estado, incluidas las principales políticas del Estado; y llevar a cabo las instrucciones del presidente de la comisión, Kim Jong-Un.
El poder legislativo está en manos de la Asamblea Popular Suprema (SPA) unicameral . Sus 687 miembros son elegidos cada cinco años por sufragio universal , [113] aunque las elecciones han sido descritas por los observadores externos como un simulacro de elecciones . [114] [115] Las sesiones de la Asamblea Popular Suprema son convocadas por el Presidium de la SPA, cuyo presidente ( Choe Ryong-hae desde 2019) representa al estado en las relaciones con países extranjeros. Los diputados eligen formalmente al presidente, los vicepresidentes y los miembros del Presidium y participan en las actividades de la legislatura designadas constitucionalmente: aprobar leyes, establecer políticas internas y externas, nombrar miembros del gabinete, revisar y aprobar el plan económico estatal, entre otros. [116] La propia SPA no puede iniciar ninguna legislación independientemente de los órganos estatales o del partido. Se desconoce si alguna vez ha criticado o enmendado los proyectos de ley presentados, y las elecciones se basan en una lista única de candidatos aprobados por el WPK que se presentan sin oposición. [117]
El poder ejecutivo recae en el Gabinete de Corea del Norte , que ha sido encabezado por el primer ministro Kim Dok-hun desde el 14 de agosto de 2020. [118] El primer ministro representa al gobierno y funciona de forma independiente. Su autoridad se extiende a dos viceprimeros ministros, 30 ministros , dos presidentes de comisiones del gabinete, el secretario jefe del gabinete, el presidente del Banco Central , el director de la Oficina Central de Estadísticas y el presidente de la Academia de Ciencias . Un ministerio número 31, el Ministerio de las Fuerzas Armadas Populares , está bajo la jurisdicción de la Comisión de Asuntos Estatales. [119]
Corea del Norte, como su contraparte del sur, afirma ser el gobierno legítimo de toda la península de Corea y las islas adyacentes. [120] A pesar de su título oficial como "República Popular Democrática de Corea", algunos observadores han descrito el sistema político de Corea del Norte como una monarquía absoluta [121] [122] [123] o una "dictadura hereditaria". [124] También se ha descrito como una dictadura estalinista . [125] [126] [127] [128]
Ideología política
La ideología Juche es la piedra angular del trabajo del partido y del funcionamiento del gobierno. Es visto por la línea oficial de Corea del Norte como una encarnación de la sabiduría de Kim Il-sung, una expresión de su liderazgo y una idea que proporciona "una respuesta completa a cualquier pregunta que surja en la lucha por la liberación nacional". [129] Juche se pronunció en diciembre de 1955 en un discurso titulado Sobre la eliminación del dogmatismo y el formalismo y el establecimiento del Juche en el trabajo ideológico para enfatizar una revolución centrada en Corea. [129] Sus principios básicos son la autosuficiencia económica, la autosuficiencia militar y una política exterior independiente. Las raíces del Juche se componían de una compleja mezcla de factores, incluido el culto a la personalidad centrado en Kim Il-sung, el conflicto con los disidentes pro-soviéticos y pro-chinos, y la lucha de siglos de Corea por la independencia. [130] El Juche se incorporó a la constitución en 1972. [131] [132]
El Juche fue inicialmente promovido como una "aplicación creativa" del marxismo-leninismo , pero a mediados de la década de 1970, la propaganda estatal lo describió como "el único pensamiento científico ... y la estructura teórica revolucionaria más efectiva que conduce al futuro de los comunistas. sociedad". Juche finalmente reemplazó por completo al marxismo-leninismo en la década de 1980, [133] y en 1992 las referencias a este último se omitieron en la constitución. [134] La constitución de 2009 eliminó las referencias al comunismo y elevó la política de Songun en primer lugar militar, al tiempo que confirmaba explícitamente la posición de Kim Jong-il. [135] Sin embargo, la constitución conserva referencias al socialismo. [136] Los conceptos de autosuficiencia de Juche han evolucionado con el tiempo y las circunstancias, pero aún proporcionan la base para la espartana austeridad, el sacrificio y la disciplina exigidos por el partido. [137] El académico Brian Reynolds Myers ve la ideología actual de Corea del Norte como un nacionalismo étnico coreano similar al estatismo en el Japón Shōwa y al fascismo europeo . [138] [139] [140]
Dinastía kim
Corea del Norte está gobernada por la dinastía Kim, que en Corea del Norte se conoce como el linaje del Monte Paektu . Es un linaje de tres generaciones que desciende del primer líder del país , Kim Il-sung . Kim desarrolló un culto a la personalidad estrechamente vinculado a la filosofía estatal de Juche , que luego pasó a sus sucesores: su hijo Kim Jong-il y su nieto Kim Jong-un . En 2013, este linaje se hizo explícito cuando la cláusula 2 del artículo 10 de los Diez Principios Fundamentales del Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea, recientemente editados, declaró que el partido y la revolución deben ser llevados "eternamente" por el "linaje del Monte Paektu". [141]
Según New Focus International , el culto a la personalidad, particularmente en torno a Kim Il-sung, ha sido crucial para legitimar la sucesión hereditaria de la familia. [142] El control que ejerce el gobierno de Corea del Norte sobre muchos aspectos de la cultura de la nación se utiliza para perpetuar el culto a la personalidad que rodea a Kim Il-sung, [143] y Kim Jong-il. [144] Mientras visitaba Corea del Norte en 1979, el periodista Bradley Martin escribió que casi toda la música, el arte y la escultura que observó glorificaban al "Gran Líder" Kim Il-sung, cuyo culto a la personalidad se estaba extendiendo a su hijo, "Estimado Líder". " Kim Jong-il. [145]
Las afirmaciones de que la dinastía ha sido divinizada son impugnadas por el investigador de Corea del Norte, BR Myers : "Nunca se han atribuido poderes divinos a ninguno de los dos Kim. De hecho, el aparato de propaganda en Pyongyang en general ha tenido cuidado de no hacer afirmaciones que vayan directamente en contra a la experiencia de los ciudadanos o al sentido común ". [146] Explica además que la propaganda estatal describió a Kim Jong-il como alguien cuya experiencia radicaba en asuntos militares y que la hambruna de la década de 1990 fue causada en parte por desastres naturales fuera del control de Kim Jong-il. [147]
La canción " No Motherland Without You ", cantada por el coro del ejército de Corea del Norte, fue creada especialmente para Kim Jong-il y es una de las melodías más populares del país. Kim Il-sung todavía es venerado oficialmente como el " presidente eterno " de la nación . Varios puntos de referencia en Corea del Norte se nombran para Kim Il-sung , incluyendo la Universidad Kim Il-sung , Kim Estadio Il Sung , y Kim Il Sung Square . Se ha citado a los desertores diciendo que las escuelas norcoreanas deifican tanto al padre como al hijo. [148] Kim Il-sung rechazó la noción de que había creado un culto a su alrededor y acusó a quienes sugirieron esto de " faccionalismo ". [149] Tras la muerte de Kim Il-sung, los norcoreanos se postraron y lloraron ante una estatua de bronce de él en un evento organizado; [150] escenas similares fueron transmitidas por la televisión estatal luego de la muerte de Kim Jong-il. [151]
Los críticos sostienen que el culto a la personalidad de Kim Jong-il fue heredado de su padre. Kim Jong-il fue a menudo el centro de atención a lo largo de la vida cotidiana. Su cumpleaños es uno de los días festivos más importantes del país . En su 60 cumpleaños (según su fecha oficial de nacimiento), se llevaron a cabo celebraciones masivas en todo el país. [152] El culto a la personalidad de Kim Jong-il, aunque significativo, no era tan extenso como el de su padre. Un punto de vista es que el culto a la personalidad de Kim Jong-il fue únicamente por respeto a Kim Il-sung o por temor al castigo por no rendir homenaje, [153] mientras que las fuentes del gobierno de Corea del Norte lo consideran un verdadero culto a los héroes. [154]
El alcance del culto a la personalidad que rodea a Kim Jong-il y Kim Il-sung quedó ilustrado el 11 de junio de 2012 cuando una colegiala norcoreana de 14 años se ahogó mientras intentaba rescatar retratos de los dos de una inundación. [155]
El 10 de enero de 2021, Kim Jong-un fue elegido formalmente como Secretario General en el 8º Congreso del gobernante Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea , heredando el título de su difunto padre Kim Jong-il , quien murió en 2011 [156].
Relaciones Extranjeras
Como resultado de su aislamiento, a veces se conoce a Corea del Norte como el " reino ermitaño ", un término que originalmente se refería al aislacionismo en la última parte de la dinastía Joseon . [157] Inicialmente, Corea del Norte tenía relaciones diplomáticas solo con otros países comunistas, e incluso hoy, la mayoría de las embajadas extranjeras acreditadas ante Corea del Norte están ubicadas en Beijing en lugar de Pyongyang . [158] En las décadas de 1960 y 1970, siguió una política exterior independiente, estableció relaciones con muchos países en desarrollo y se unió al Movimiento de Países No Alineados . A finales de la década de 1980 y en la de 1990, su política exterior se vio sumida en la confusión con el colapso del bloque soviético . Sufriendo una crisis económica, cerró varias de sus embajadas. Al mismo tiempo, Corea del Norte trató de entablar relaciones con los países desarrollados de libre mercado. [159]
Corea del Norte se unió a las Naciones Unidas en 1991 junto con Corea del Sur. Corea del Norte también es miembro del Movimiento de Países No Alineados , el G77 y el Foro Regional de la ASEAN . [160]
North Korea enjoys a close relationship with China which is often called North Korea's closest ally.[161][162] The relations were strained in the last few years because of China's concerns about North Korea's nuclear program. However, the relations have started to improve again and been increasingly close especially after Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party visited North Korea in April 2019.[163]
As of 2015[update], North Korea had diplomatic relations with 166 countries and embassies in 47 countries.[159] However, owing to the human rights and political situation, North Korea does not have diplomatic relations with Argentina, Botswana,[164] Estonia, France,[165] Iraq, Israel, Japan, Taiwan,[166] and the United States.[f][167][168] As of September 2017, France and Estonia are the last two European countries that do not have an official relationship with North Korea.[169] North Korea continues to have strong ties with its socialist southeast Asian allies in Vietnam and Laos, as well as with Cambodia.[170]
North Korea was previously designated a state sponsor of terrorism[171] because of its alleged involvement in the 1983 Rangoon bombing and the 1987 bombing of a South Korean airliner.[172] On 11 October 2008, the United States removed North Korea from its list of states that sponsor terrorism after Pyongyang agreed to cooperate on issues related to its nuclear program.[173] North Korea was re-designated a state sponsor of terrorism by the U.S. under the Trump administration on 20 November 2017.[174] The kidnapping of at least 13 Japanese citizens by North Korean agents in the 1970s and the 1980s has affected North Korea's relationship with Japan.[175]
US President Donald Trump met with Kim in Singapore on 12 June 2018. An agreement was signed between the two countries endorsing the 2017 Panmunjom Declaration signed by North and South Korea, pledging to work towards denuclearizing the Korean Peninsula.[176] They met in Hanoi from 27 to 28 February 2019, but failed to achieve an agreement.[177] On 30 June 2019, Trump met with Kim along with Moon Jae-in at the Korean DMZ.[178]
Inter-Korean relations
The Korean Demilitarized Zone with South Korea remains the most heavily fortified border in the world.[179] Inter-Korean relations are at the core of North Korean diplomacy and have seen numerous shifts in the last few decades. North Korea's policy is to seek reunification without what it sees as outside interference, through a federal structure retaining each side's leadership and systems. In 1972, the two Koreas agreed in principle to achieve reunification through peaceful means and without foreign interference.[180] On 10 October 1980, then North Korean leader Kim Il-sung proposed a federation between North and South Korea named the Democratic Federal Republic of Korea in which the respective political systems would initially remain.[181] However, relations remained cool well until the early 1990s, with a brief period in the early 1980s when North Korea offered to provide flood relief to its southern neighbor.[182] Although the offer was initially welcomed, talks over how to deliver the relief goods broke down and none of the promised aid ever crossed the border.[183] The two countries also organized a reunion of 92 separated families.[184]
The Sunshine Policy instituted by South Korean president Kim Dae-jung in 1998 was a watershed in inter-Korean relations. It encouraged other countries to engage with the North, which allowed Pyongyang to normalize relations with a number of European Union states and contributed to the establishment of joint North-South economic projects. The culmination of the Sunshine Policy was the 2000 Inter-Korean summit, when Kim Dae-jung visited Kim Jong-il in Pyongyang.[185] Both North and South Korea signed the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration, in which both sides promised to seek peaceful reunification.[186] On 4 October 2007, South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun and Kim Jong-il signed an eight-point peace agreement.[187] However, relations worsened when South Korean president Lee Myung-bak adopted a more hard-line approach and suspended aid deliveries pending the de-nuclearization of the North. In 2009, North Korea responded by ending all of its previous agreements with the South.[188] It deployed additional ballistic missiles[189] and placed its military on full combat alert after South Korea, Japan and the United States threatened to intercept a Unha-2 space launch vehicle.[190] The next few years witnessed a string of hostilities, including the alleged North Korean involvement in the sinking of South Korean warship Cheonan,[86] mutual ending of diplomatic ties,[191] a North Korean artillery attack on Yeonpyeong Island,[192] and growing international concern over North Korea's nuclear program.[193]
In May 2017, Moon Jae-in was elected President of South Korea with a promise to return to the Sunshine Policy.[194] In February 2018, a détente developed at the Winter Olympics held in South Korea.[93] In April, South Korean President Moon Jae-in and Kim Jong-un met at the DMZ, and, in the Panmunjom Declaration, pledged to work for peace and nuclear disarmament.[195] In September, at a joint news conference in Pyongyang, Moon and Kim agreed upon turning the Korean Peninsula into a "land of peace without nuclear weapons and nuclear threats".[196]
Law enforcement and internal security
North Korea has a civil law system based on the Prussian model and influenced by Japanese traditions and communist legal theory.[197] Judiciary procedures are handled by the Supreme Court (the highest court of appeal), provincial or special city-level courts, people's courts and special courts. People's courts are at the lowest level of the system and operate in cities, counties and urban districts, while different kinds of special courts handle cases related to military, railroad or maritime matters.[198]
Judges are theoretically elected by their respective local people's assemblies, but in practice they are appointed by the Workers' Party of Korea. The penal code is based on the principle of nullum crimen sine lege (no crime without a law), but remains a tool for political control despite several amendments reducing ideological influence.[198] Courts carry out legal procedures related to not only criminal and civil matters, but also political cases as well.[199] Political prisoners are sent to labor camps, while criminal offenders are incarcerated in a separate system.[200]
The Ministry of People's Security (MPS) maintains most law enforcement activities. It is one of the most powerful state institutions in North Korea and oversees the national police force, investigates criminal cases and manages non-political correctional facilities.[201] It handles other aspects of domestic security like civil registration, traffic control, fire departments and railroad security.[202] The State Security Department was separated from the MPS in 1973 to conduct domestic and foreign intelligence, counterintelligence and manage the political prison system. Political camps can be short-term reeducation zones or "kwalliso" (total control zones) for lifetime detention.[203] Camp 15 in Yodok[204] and Camp 18 in Bukchang[205] have been described in detailed testimonies.[206]
The security apparatus is very extensive,[207] exerting strict control over residence, travel, employment, clothing, food and family life.[208] Security forces employ mass surveillance. It is believed they tightly monitor cellular and digital communications.[209]
Human rights
North Korea is widely accused of having perhaps the worst human rights record in the world.[20] A 2014 UN inquiry into human rights in North Korea concluded that, "The gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world".[21] North Koreans have been referred to as "some of the world's most brutalized people" by Human Rights Watch, because of the severe restrictions placed on their political and economic freedoms.[22][23] The North Korean population is strictly managed by the state and all aspects of daily life are subordinated to party and state planning. Employment is managed by the party on the basis of political reliability, and travel is tightly controlled by the Ministry of People's Security.[211]
Amnesty International reports of severe restrictions on the freedom of association, expression and movement, arbitrary detention, torture and other ill-treatment resulting in death, and executions.[212]
The State Security Department extrajudicially apprehends and imprisons those accused of political crimes without due process.[213] People perceived as hostile to the government, such as Christians or critics of the leadership,[214] are deported to labor camps without trial,[215] often with their whole family and mostly without any chance of being released.[216]
Based on satellite images and defector testimonies, Amnesty International estimates that around 200,000 prisoners are held in six large political prison camps,[214][217] where they are forced to work in conditions approaching slavery.[218] Supporters of the government who deviate from the government line are subject to reeducation in sections of labor camps set aside for that purpose. Those who are deemed politically rehabilitated may reassume responsible government positions on their release.[219]
North Korean defectors[220] have provided detailed testimonies on the existence of the total control zones where abuses such as torture, starvation, rape, murder, medical experimentation, forced labor, and forced abortions have been reported.[206] On the basis of these abuses, as well as persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, forcible transfer of populations, enforced disappearance of persons and forced starvation, the United Nations Commission of Inquiry has accused North Korea of crimes against humanity.[221][222][223] The International Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea (ICNK) estimates that over 10,000 people die in North Korean prison camps every year.[224]
According to Human Rights Watch, which cites interviews with defectors, North Korean women are routinely subjected to sexual violence, unwanted sexual contact, and rape. Men in positions of power, including police, high-ranking officials, market supervisors, and guards can abuse women at will and are not prosecuted for it. It happens so often that it is accepted as a routine part of life. Women assume they can not do anything about it. The only ones with protection are those whose husbands or fathers are themselves in positions of power.[225]
The North Korean government rejects the human rights abuse claims, calling them "a smear campaign" and a "human rights racket" aimed at government change.[226][227][228] In a 2014 report to the UN, North Korea dismissed accusations of atrocities as "wild rumors".[24] The official state media, KCNA, responded with an article that included homophobic insults against the author of the human rights report, Michael Kirby, calling him "a disgusting old lecher with a 40-odd-year-long career of homosexuality ... This practice can never be found in the DPRK boasting of the sound mentality and good morals ... In fact, it is ridiculous for such gay [sic] to sponsor dealing with others' human rights issue."[25][26] The government, however, admitted some human rights issues related to living conditions and stated that it is working to improve them.[228]
According to Amnesty International, citizens in North Korea are denied freedom of movement including the right to leave the country[229] at will and its government denies access to international human rights observers.[230]
While there is consensus in regards to human human rights abuses being committed in North Korea it is extremely difficult to gauge the full extent due to many defectors testimonies falling apart and the fact that defectors are incentivized through cash payments in return for interviews. Depending on the quality of the information the payments range from $50–500.[231]
Militar
The Korean People's Army (KPA) has 1,106,000 active and 8,389,000 reserve and paramilitary troops, making it the largest military institution in the world.[232] With an active duty army of 1.21 million, consisting of 4.7% of its population, the KPA is the fourth largest military force in the world after China, the United States and India.[233] About 20 percent of men aged 17–54 serve in the regular armed forces,[233] and approximately one in every 25 citizens is an enlisted soldier.[234][235] The KPA has five branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Special Operations Force, and Rocket Force. Command of the Korean People's Army lies in both the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and the independent State Affairs Commission. The Ministry of People's Armed Forces is subordinated to the latter.[236]
Of all KPA branches, the Ground Force is the largest. It has approximately one million personnel divided into 80 infantry divisions, 30 artillery brigades, 25 special warfare brigades, 20 mechanized brigades, 10 tank brigades and seven tank regiments.[237] They are equipped with 3,700 tanks, 2,100 armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles,[238] 17,900 artillery pieces, 11,000 anti-aircraft guns[239] and some 10,000 MANPADS and anti-tank guided missiles.[240] Other equipment includes 1,600 aircraft in the Air Force and 1,000 vessels in the Navy.[241] North Korea has the largest special forces and the largest submarine fleet in the world.[242]
North Korea possesses nuclear weapons,[234][243] but the strength of its arsenal is uncertain. In January 2018, estimates of North Korea's nuclear arsenal ranged between 15 and 60 bombs, probably including hydrogen bombs.[90] Delivery capabilities[244] are provided by the Rocket Force, which has some 1,000 ballistic missiles with a range of up to 11,900 km (7,400 mi).[245]
According to a 2004 South Korean assessment, North Korea possesses a stockpile of chemical weapons estimated to amount to 2,500–5,000 tons, including nerve, blister, blood, and vomiting agents, as well as the ability to cultivate and produce biological weapons including anthrax, smallpox, and cholera.[246][247] Because of its nuclear and missile tests, North Korea has been sanctioned under United Nations Security Council resolutions 1695 of July 2006, 1718 of October 2006, 1874 of June 2009, 2087 of January 2013,[248] and 2397 in December 2017.
The military faces some issues limiting its conventional capabilities, including obsolete equipment, insufficient fuel supplies and a shortage of digital command and control assets due to other countries being banned from selling weapons to it by the UN sanctions. To compensate for these deficiencies, the KPA has deployed a wide range of asymmetric warfare technologies like anti-personnel blinding lasers,[249] GPS jammers,[250][251] midget submarines and human torpedoes,[252] stealth paint,[253] and cyberwarfare units.[254] In 2015, North Korea was estimated as having 6,000 sophisticated computer security personnel.[255] KPA units have allegedly attempted to jam South Korean military satellites.[256]
Much of the equipment is engineered and produced by a domestic defense industry. Weapons are manufactured in roughly 1,800 underground defense industry plants scattered throughout the country, most of them located in Chagang Province.[257] The defense industry is capable of producing a full range of individual and crew-served weapons, artillery, armored vehicles, tanks, missiles, helicopters, surface combatants, submarines, landing and infiltration craft, Yak-18 trainers and possibly co-production of jet aircraft.[207] According to official North Korean media, military expenditures for 2010 amount to 15.8 percent of the state budget.[258] The U.S. State Department has estimated that North Korea's military spending averaged 23% of its GDP from 2004 to 2014, the highest level in the world.[259]
According to Military Watch Magazine's military strength list, DPR Korea has the sixth most powerful military, placing it in the "Tier 2" military powers group.[260]
Sociedad
Demographics
Population[8][9] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Year | Million | ||
1950 | 10.5 | ||
2000 | 22.9 | ||
2018 | 25.5 |
With the exception of a small Chinese community and a few ethnic Japanese, North Korea's 25,549,604[8][9] people are ethnically homogeneous.[261] Demographic experts in the 20th century estimated that the population would grow to 25.5 million by 2000 and 28 million by 2010, but this increase never occurred due to the North Korean famine.[262] It began in 1995, lasted for three years and resulted in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 North Koreans.[79]
International donors led by the United States initiated shipments of food through the World Food Program in 1997 to combat the famine.[263] Despite a drastic reduction of aid under the George W. Bush administration,[264] the situation gradually improved: the number of malnourished children declined from 60% in 1998[265] to 37% in 2006[266] and 28% in 2013.[267] Domestic food production almost recovered to the recommended annual level of 5.37 million tons of cereal equivalent in 2013,[268] but the World Food Program reported a continuing lack of dietary diversity and access to fats and proteins.[269] By the mid-2010s national levels of severe wasting an indication of famine-like conditions were lower than in other low-income countries and about on par with developing nations in the Pacific and East Asia. Children’s health and nutrition is significantly better on a number of indicators than in many other Asian countries.[270]
The famine had a significant impact on the population growth rate, which declined to 0.9% annually in 2002.[262] It was 0.5% in 2014.[271] Late marriages after military service, limited housing space and long hours of work or political studies further exhaust the population and reduce growth.[262] The national birth rate is 14.5 births per year per 1,000 population.[272] Two-thirds of households consist of extended families mostly living in two-room units. Marriage is virtually universal and divorce is extremely rare.[273]
Health
North Korea has a life expectancy of 72.3 years in 2019, according to HDR 2020.[274] While North Korea is classified as a low-income country, the structure of North Korea's causes of death (2013) is unlike that of other low-income countries.[275] Instead, it is closer to worldwide averages, with non-communicable diseases—such as cardiovascular disease and cancers—accounting for 84 percent of the total deaths in 2016.[276]
According to the World Bank report of 2016 (based on WHO's estimate), only 9.5% of the total deaths recorded in North Korea are attributed to communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal and nutrition conditions, a figure which is slightly lower than that of South Korea (10.1%) and one fifth of other low-income countries (50.1%) but higher than that of high income countries (6.7%).[277] Only one out of ten leading causes of overall deaths in North Korea is attributed to communicable diseases (lower respiratory infection), a disease which is reported to have declined by six percent since 2007.[278]
In 2013, cardiovascular disease as a single disease group was reported as the largest cause of death in North Korea.[275] The three major causes of death in North Korea are stroke, COPD and Ischaemic heart disease.[278] Non-communicable diseases risk factors in North Korea include high rates of urbanization, an aging society, and high rates of smoking and alcohol consumption amongst men.[275]
Maternal mortality is lower than other low-income countries, but significantly higher than South Korea and other high income countries, at 89 per 100,000 live births.[279] In 2008 child mortality was estimated to be 45 per 1,000 this is much better than other economically comparable countries, Chad for example had a child mortality rate of 120 per 1,000, this is despite the fact that Chad was most likely wealthier than North Korea at the time.[73]
Healthcare Access and Quality Index, calculated by IHME, was reported to stand at 62.3, much lower than that of South Korea.[280]
According to a 2003 report by the United States Department of State, almost 100% of the population has access to water and sanitation.[281] 80% of the population had access to improved sanitation facilities in 2015.[282]
North Korea has the highest number of doctors per capita amongst low-income countries, with 3.7 physicians per 1,000 people, a figure which is also significantly higher than that of South Korea, according to WHO's data.[283]
Conflicting reports between Amnesty and WHO have emerged where the Amnesty report claimed that North Korea had an inadequate health care system. On the contrary, the Director of the World Health Organization claimed that North Korea's healthcare system was considered the envy of the developing world and had "no lack of doctors and nurses".[284]
A free universal insurance system is in place.[285] Quality of medical care varies significantly by region[286] and is often low, with severe shortages of equipment, drugs and anesthetics.[287] According to WHO, expenditure on health per capita is one of the lowest in the world.[287] Preventive medicine is emphasized through physical exercise and sports, nationwide monthly checkups and routine spraying of public places against disease. Every individual has a lifetime health card which contains a full medical record.[288]
Education
The 2008 census listed the entire population as literate.[273] An 11-year free, compulsory cycle of primary and secondary education is provided in more than 27,000 nursery schools, 14,000 kindergartens, 4,800 four-year primary and 4,700 six-year secondary schools.[265] 77% of males and 79% of females aged 30–34 have finished secondary school.[273] An additional 300 universities and colleges offer higher education.[265]
Most graduates from the compulsory program do not attend university but begin their obligatory military service or proceed to work in farms or factories instead. The main deficiencies of higher education are the heavy presence of ideological subjects, which comprise 50% of courses in social studies and 20% in sciences,[289] and the imbalances in curriculum. The study of natural sciences is greatly emphasized while social sciences are neglected.[290] Heuristics is actively applied to develop the independence and creativity of students throughout the system.[291] The study of Russian and English was made compulsory in upper middle schools in 1978.[292]
Language
North Korea shares the Korean language with South Korea, although some dialectal differences exist within both Koreas.[265] North Koreans refer to their Pyongyang dialect as munhwaŏ ("cultured language") as opposed to the dialects of South Korea, especially the Seoul dialect or p'yojun'ŏ ("standard language"), which are viewed as decadent because of its use of loanwords from Chinese and European languages (particularly English).[293] Words of Chinese, Manchu or Western origin have been eliminated from munhwa along with the usage of Chinese hancha characters.[293] Written language uses only the chosŏn'gŭl (Hangul) phonetic alphabet, developed under Sejong the Great (1418–1450).[294]
Religion
Officially, North Korea is an atheist state.[295][296] There are no known official statistics of religions in North Korea. According to Religious Intelligence in 2007, 64% of the population are irreligious, 16% practice Korean shamanism, 14% practice Chondoism, 4% are Buddhist, and 2% are Christian.[297] Freedom of religion and the right to religious ceremonies are constitutionally guaranteed, but religions are restricted by the government.[298][299] Amnesty International has expressed concerns about religious persecution in North Korea.[229]
Buddhism and Confucianism still influence spirituality.[300] Chondoism ("Heavenly Way") is an indigenous syncretic belief combining elements of Korean shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism and Catholicism that is officially represented by the WPK-controlled Chondoist Chongu Party.[301]
The Open Doors mission, a Protestant-group based in the United States and founded during the Cold War-era, claims the most severe persecution of Christians in the world occurs in North Korea.[302] Four state-sanctioned churches exist, but critics claim these are showcases for foreigners.[303][304]
Formal ranking of citizens' loyalty
According to North Korean documents and refugee testimonies,[305] all North Koreans are sorted into groups according to their Songbun, an ascribed status system based on a citizen's assessed loyalty to the government. Based on their own behavior and the political, social, and economic background of their family for three generations as well as behavior by relatives within that range, Songbun is allegedly used to determine whether an individual is trusted with responsibility, given opportunities,[306] or even receives adequate food.[305][307]
Songbun allegedly affects access to educational and employment opportunities and particularly whether a person is eligible to join North Korea's ruling party.[306] There are 3 main classifications and about 50 sub-classifications. According to Kim Il-sung, speaking in 1958, the loyal "core class" constituted 25% of the North Korean population, the "wavering class" 55%, and the "hostile class" 20%.[305] The highest status is accorded to individuals descended from those who participated with Kim Il-sung in the resistance against Japanese occupation before and during World War II and to those who were factory workers, laborers, or peasants in 1950.[308]
While some analysts believe private commerce recently changed the Songbun system to some extent,[309] most North Korean refugees say it remains a commanding presence in everyday life.[305] The North Korean government claims all citizens are equal and denies any discrimination on the basis of family background.[310]
Economía
North Korea has maintained one of the most closed and centralized economies in the world since the 1940s.[311] For several decades, it followed the Soviet pattern of five-year plans with the ultimate goal of achieving self-sufficiency. Extensive Soviet and Chinese support allowed North Korea to rapidly recover from the Korean War and register very high growth rates. Systematic inefficiency began to arise around 1960, when the economy shifted from the extensive to the intensive development stage. The shortage of skilled labor, energy, arable land and transportation significantly impeded long-term growth and resulted in consistent failure to meet planning objectives.[312] The major slowdown of the economy contrasted with South Korea, which surpassed the North in terms of absolute GDP and per capita income by the 1980s.[313] North Korea declared the last seven-year plan unsuccessful in December 1993 and thereafter stopped announcing plans.[314]
The loss of Eastern Bloc trading partners and a series of natural disasters throughout the 1990s caused severe hardships, including widespread famine. By 2000, the situation improved owing to a massive international food assistance effort, but the economy continues to suffer from food shortages, dilapidated infrastructure and a critically low energy supply.[315] In an attempt to recover from the collapse, the government began structural reforms in 1998 that formally legalized private ownership of assets and decentralized control over production.[316] A second round of reforms in 2002 led to an expansion of market activities, partial monetization, flexible prices and salaries, and the introduction of incentives and accountability techniques.[317] Despite these changes, North Korea remains a command economy where the state owns almost all means of production and development priorities are defined by the government.[315]
North Korea has the structural profile of a relatively industrialized country[318] where nearly half of the Gross Domestic Product is generated by industry[319] and human development is at medium levels.[320] Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP is estimated at $40 billion,[11] with a very low per capita value of $1,800.[12] In 2012, Gross national income per capita was $1,523, compared to $28,430 in South Korea.[321] The North Korean won is the national currency, issued by the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.[322] The economy has been developing dramatically in recent years despite sanctions. According to the Sejong Institute these changes have been "astonishing".[323]
The economy is heavily nationalized.[324] Food and housing are extensively subsidized by the state; education and healthcare are free;[285] and the payment of taxes was officially abolished in 1974.[325] A variety of goods are available in department stores and supermarkets in Pyongyang,[326] though most of the population relies on small-scale jangmadang markets.[327][328] In 2009, the government attempted to stem the expanding free market by banning jangmadang and the use of foreign currency,[315] heavily devaluing the won and restricting the convertibility of savings in the old currency,[287] but the resulting inflation spike and rare public protests caused a reversal of these policies.[329] Private trade is dominated by women because most men are required to be present at their workplace, even though many state-owned enterprises are non-operational.[330]
Industry and services employ 65%[331] of North Korea's 12.6 million labor force.[332] Major industries include machine building, military equipment, chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing and tourism.[333] Iron ore and coal production are among the few sectors where North Korea performs significantly better than its southern neighbor—it produces about 10 times larger amounts of each resource.[334] Using ex-Romanian drilling rigs, several oil exploration companies have confirmed significant oil reserves in the North Korean shelf of the Sea of Japan, and in areas south of Pyongyang.[citation needed] The agricultural sector was shattered by the natural disasters of the 1990s.[335] Its 3,500 cooperatives and state farms[336] were moderately successful until the mid-1990s[337] but now experience chronic fertilizer and equipment shortages. Rice, corn, soybeans and potatoes are some of the primary crops.[315] A significant contribution to the food supply comes from commercial fishing and aquaculture.[315] Tourism has been a growing sector for the past decade.[338] North Korea has been aiming to increase the number of foreign visitors through projects like the Masikryong Ski Resort.[339]
Foreign trade surpassed pre-crisis levels in 2005 and continues to expand.[340][341] North Korea has a number of special economic zones (SEZs) and Special Administrative Regions where foreign companies can operate with tax and tariff incentives while North Korean establishments gain access to improved technology.[342] Initially four such zones existed, but they yielded little overall success.[343] The SEZ system was overhauled in 2013 when 14 new zones were opened and the Rason Special Economic Zone was reformed as a joint Chinese-North Korean project.[344] The Kaesong Industrial Region is a special economic zone where more than 100 South Korean companies employ some 52,000 North Korean workers.[345] As of August 2017[update], China is the biggest trading partner of North Korea outside inter-Korean trade, accounting for more than 84% of the total external trade ($5.3 billion) followed by India at 3.3% share ($205 million).[346] In 2014, Russia wrote off 90% of North Korea's debt and the two countries agreed to conduct all transactions in rubles.[347] Overall, external trade in 2013 reached a total of $7.3 billion (the highest amount since 1990[348]), while inter-Korean trade dropped to an eight-year low of $1.1 billion.[349]
Infrastructure and Transport
North Korea's energy infrastructure is obsolete and in disrepair. Power shortages are chronic and would not be alleviated even by electricity imports because the poorly maintained grid causes significant losses during transmission.[351][352] Coal accounts for 70% of primary energy production, followed by hydroelectric power with 17%.[353] The government under Kim Jong-un has increased emphasis on renewable energy projects like wind farms, solar parks, solar heating and biomass.[354] A set of legal regulations adopted in 2014 stressed the development of geothermal, wind and solar energy along with recycling and environmental conservation.[354][355] North Korea's long-term objective is to curb fossil fuel usage and reach an output of 5 million kilowatts from renewable sources by 2044, up from its current total of 430,000 kilowatts from all sources. Wind power is projected to satisfy 15% of the country's total energy demand under this strategy.[356]
North Korea also strives to develop its own civilian nuclear program. These efforts are under much international dispute due to their military applications and concerns about safety.[357]
Transport infrastructure includes railways, highways, water and air routes, but rail transport is by far the most widespread. North Korea has some 5,200 kilometers of railways mostly in standard gauge which carry 80% of annual passenger traffic and 86% of freight, but electricity shortages undermine their efficiency.[353] Construction of a high-speed railway connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang and Sinuiju with speeds exceeding 200 km/h was approved in 2013.[358] North Korea connects with the Trans-Siberian Railway through Rajin.[358]
Road transport is very limited—only 724 kilometers of the 25,554 kilometer road network are paved,[359] and maintenance on most roads is poor.[360] Only 2% of the freight capacity is supported by river and sea transport, and air traffic is negligible.[353] All port facilities are ice-free and host a merchant fleet of 158 vessels.[361] Eighty-two airports[362] and 23 helipads[363] are operational and the largest serve the state-run airline, Air Koryo.[353] Cars are relatively rare,[364] but bicycles are common.[365][366] There is only one international airport—Pyongyang International Airport—serviced by Russia and China (see List of Public Airports in North Korea)
Science and technology
R&D efforts are concentrated at the State Academy of Sciences, which runs 40 research institutes, 200 smaller research centers, a scientific equipment factory and six publishing houses.[367] The government considers science and technology to be directly linked to economic development.[368][369] A five-year scientific plan emphasizing IT, biotechnology, nanotechnology, marine and plasma research was carried out in the early 2000s.[368] A 2010 report by the South Korean Science and Technology Policy Institute identified polymer chemistry, single carbon materials, nanoscience, mathematics, software, nuclear technology and rocketry as potential areas of inter-Korean scientific cooperation. North Korean institutes are strong in these fields of research, although their engineers require additional training and laboratories need equipment upgrades.[370]
Under its "constructing a powerful knowledge economy" slogan, the state has launched a project to concentrate education, scientific research and production into a number of "high-tech development zones". International sanctions remain a significant obstacle to their development.[371] The Miraewon network of electronic libraries was established in 2014 under similar slogans.[372]
Significant resources have been allocated to the national space program, which is managed by the National Aerospace Development Administration (formerly managed by the Korean Committee of Space Technology until April 2013)[373][374] Domestically produced launch vehicles and the Kwangmyŏngsŏng satellite class are launched from two spaceports, the Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground and the Sohae Satellite Launching Station. After four failed attempts, North Korea became the tenth spacefaring nation with the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2 in December 2012, which successfully reached orbit but was believed to be crippled and non-operational.[375][376] It joined the Outer Space Treaty in 2009[377] and has stated its intentions to undertake crewed and Moon missions.[374] The government insists the space program is for peaceful purposes, but the United States, Japan, South Korea and other countries maintain that it serves to advance military ballistic missile programs.[378]
On 7 February 2016, North Korea successfully launched a long-range rocket, supposedly to place a satellite into orbit. Critics believe that the real purpose of the launch was to test a ballistic missile. The launch was strongly condemned by the UN Security Council.[379][380][381] A statement broadcast on Korean Central Television said that a new Earth observation satellite, Kwangmyongsong-4, had successfully been put into orbit less than 10 minutes after lift-off from the Sohae space center in North Phyongan province.[379]
Usage of communication technology is controlled by the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications. An adequate nationwide fiber-optic telephone system with 1.18 million fixed lines[382] and expanding mobile coverage is in place.[16] Most phones are installed for senior government officials and installation requires written explanation why the user needs a telephone and how it will be paid for.[383] Cellular coverage is available with a 3G network operated by Koryolink, a joint venture with Orascom Telecom Holding.[384] The number of subscribers has increased from 3,000 in 2002[385] to almost two million in 2013.[384] International calls through either fixed or cellular service are restricted, and mobile Internet is not available.[384]
Internet access itself is limited to a handful of elite users and scientists. Instead, North Korea has a walled garden intranet system called Kwangmyong,[386] which is maintained and monitored by the Korea Computer Center.[387] Its content is limited to state media, chat services, message boards,[386] an e-mail service and an estimated 1,000–5,500 websites.[388] Computers employ the Red Star OS, an operating system derived from Linux, with a user shell visually similar to that of OS X.[388] On 19 September 2016, a TLDR project noticed the North Korean Internet DNS data and top-level domain was left open which allowed global DNS zone transfers. A dump of the data discovered was shared on GitHub.[17][389]
On 8 July 2020, the CNN reported that satellite imagery showed activity at a North Korean facility, which was suspected by researchers of being utilized for building nuclear warheads. The images were captured by Planet Labs and analyzed by experts at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies.[390]
Room 39 and the "Royal Court" economy
According to high-level North Korean defectors, since the 1970s, revenue accumulated through foreign currency, revenue which is wholly separate from the official economic organs of the state, is of economic significance. The scale of its significance remains unknown and is a closely guarded secret, however. More recently, this foreign currency is said to have been also derived from the over 100,000 North Korean migrant workers sent around the world, and who contribute the lionshare of their income to this "Royal Court" fund. Other banking, trade and financial ventures (many of which are illicit) are also said to be significant contributors. The fund is reported to be primarily tasked with providing the capital needed to develop the country's military technology (above all else, its nuclear weapons program), as well as contributing to a system of "gift giving" for the country's political, military and business elite.[391]
Cultura
Despite a historically strong Chinese influence, Korean culture has shaped its own unique identity.[392] It came under attack during the Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945, when Japan enforced a cultural assimilation policy. Koreans were forced to learn and speak Japanese, adopt the Japanese family name system and Shinto religion, and were forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places.[393]
After the peninsula was divided in 1945, two distinct cultures formed out of the common Korean heritage. North Koreans have little exposure to foreign influence.[394] The revolutionary struggle and the brilliance of the leadership are some of the main themes in art. "Reactionary" elements from traditional culture have been discarded and cultural forms with a "folk" spirit have been reintroduced.[394]
Korean heritage is protected and maintained by the state.[395] Over 190 historical sites and objects of national significance are cataloged as National Treasures of North Korea, while some 1,800 less valuable artifacts are included in a list of Cultural Assets. The Historic Sites and Monuments in Kaesong and the Complex of Koguryo Tombs are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[396]
Art
Visual arts are generally produced in the esthetics of Socialist realism.[397] North Korean painting combines the influence of Soviet and Japanese visual expression to instill a sentimental loyalty to the system.[398] All artists in North Korea are required to join the Artists' Union, and the best among them can receive an official license to portray the leaders. Portraits and sculptures depicting Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il and Kim Jong-un are classed as "Number One works".[397]
Most aspects of art have been dominated by Mansudae Art Studio since its establishment in 1959. It employs around 1,000 artists in what is likely the biggest art factory in the world where paintings, murals, posters and monuments are designed and produced.[399] The studio has commercialized its activity and sells its works to collectors in a variety of countries including China, where it is in high demand.[398] Mansudae Overseas Projects is a subdivision of Mansudae Art Studio that carries out construction of large-scale monuments for international customers.[399] Some of the projects include the African Renaissance Monument in Senegal,[400] and the Heroes' Acre in Namibia.[401]
World Heritage
In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Goguryeo tumulus is registered on the World Heritage list of UNESCO. These remains were registered as the first World Heritage property of North Korea in the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC) in July 2004. There are 63 burial mounds in the tomb group, with clear murals preserved. The burial customs of the Goguryeo culture have influenced Asian civilizations beyond Korea, including Japan.[402]
Music
The government emphasized optimistic folk-based tunes and revolutionary music throughout most of the 20th century.[394] Ideological messages are conveyed through massive orchestral pieces like the "Five Great Revolutionary Operas" based on traditional Korean ch'angguk.[403] Revolutionary operas differ from their Western counterparts by adding traditional instruments to the orchestra and avoiding recitative segments.[404] Sea of Blood is the most widely performed of the Five Great Operas: since its premiere in 1971, it has been played over 1,500 times,[405] and its 2010 tour in China was a major success.[404] Western classical music by Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Stravinsky and other composers is performed both by the State Symphony Orchestra and student orchestras.[406]
Pop music appeared in the 1980s with the Pochonbo Electronic Ensemble and Wangjaesan Light Music Band.[407] Improved relations with South Korea following the 2000 inter-Korean summit caused a decline in direct ideological messages in pop songs, but themes like comradeship, nostalgia and the construction of a powerful country remained.[408] In 2014, the all-girl Moranbong Band was described as the most popular group in the country.[409] North Koreans also listen to K-pop which spreads through illegal markets.[410][411]
Literature
All publishing houses are owned by the government or the WPK because they are considered an important tool for propaganda and agitation.[412] The Workers' Party of Korea Publishing House is the most authoritative among them and publishes all works of Kim Il-sung, ideological education materials and party policy documents.[413] The availability of foreign literature is limited, examples being North Korean editions of Indian, German, Chinese and Russian fairy tales, Tales from Shakespeare, some works of Bertolt Brecht and Erich Kästner,[398] and the Harry Potter series.[414]
Kim Il-sung's personal works are considered "classical masterpieces" while the ones created under his instruction are labeled "models of Juche literature". These include The Fate of a Self-Defense Corps Man, The Song of Korea and Immortal History, a series of historical novels depicting the suffering of Koreans under Japanese occupation.[394][403] More than four million literary works were published between the 1980s and the early 2000s, but almost all of them belong to a narrow variety of political genres like "army-first revolutionary literature".[415]
Science fiction is considered a secondary genre because it somewhat departs from the traditional standards of detailed descriptions and metaphors of the leader. The exotic settings of the stories give authors more freedom to depict cyberwarfare, violence, sexual abuse and crime, which are absent in other genres. Sci-fi works glorify technology and promote the Juche concept of anthropocentric existence through depictions of robotics, space exploration and immortality.[416]
Media
Government policies towards film are no different than those applied to other arts—motion pictures serve to fulfill the targets of "social education". Some of the most influential films are based on historic events (An Jung-geun shoots Itō Hirobumi) or folk tales (Hong Gildong).[403] Most movies have predictable propaganda story lines which make cinema an unpopular entertainment; viewers only see films that feature their favorite actors.[417] Western productions are only available at private showings to high-ranking Party members,[418] although the 1997 film Titanic is frequently shown to university students as an example of Western culture.[419] Access to foreign media products is available through smuggled DVDs and television or radio broadcasts in border areas.[420] Western films like The Interview, Titanic, and Charlie's Angels are just a few films that have been smuggled across the borders of North Korea, allowing for access to the North Korean citizens.[421][422]
North Korean media are under some of the strictest government control in the world. The censorship in North Korea encompasses all the information produced by the media. Monitored heavily by government officials, the media is strictly used to reinforce ideals approved by the government.[423] There is no freedom of press in North Korea as all the media is controlled and filtered through governmental censors.[423] Freedom of the press in 2017 was 180th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' annual Press Freedom Index.[424] According to Freedom House, all media outlets serve as government mouthpieces, all journalists are party members and listening to foreign broadcasts carries the threat of a death penalty.[425] The main news provider is the Korean Central News Agency. All 12 major newspapers and 20 periodicals, including Rodong Sinmun, are published in the capital.[426]
There are three state-owned TV stations. Two of them broadcast only on weekends and the Korean Central Television is on air every day in the evenings.[427] Uriminzokkiri and its associated YouTube and Twitter accounts distribute imagery, news and video issued by government media.[428] The Associated Press opened the first Western all-format, full-time bureau in Pyongyang in 2012.[429]
Media coverage of North Korea has often been inadequate as a result of the country's isolation. Stories like Kim Jong-un undergoing surgery to look like his grandfather, executing his ex-girlfriend or feeding his uncle to a pack of hungry dogs have been circulated by foreign media as truth despite the lack of a credible source.[430] Many of the claims originate from the South Korean right-wing newspaper The Chosun Ilbo.[431] Max Fisher of The Washington Post has written that "almost any story [on North Korea] is treated as broadly credible, no matter how outlandish or thinly sourced".[432] Occasional deliberate disinformation on the part of North Korean establishments further complicates the issue.[430]
Cuisine
Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in southern Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, it has gone through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.[433] Rice dishes and kimchi are staple Korean food. In a traditional meal, they accompany both side dishes (panch'an) and main courses like juk, pulgogi or noodles. Soju liquor is the best-known traditional Korean spirit.[434]
North Korea's most famous restaurant, Okryu-gwan, located in Pyongyang, is known for its raengmyeon cold noodles.[435] Other dishes served there include gray mullet soup with boiled rice, beef rib soup, green bean pancake, sinsollo and dishes made from terrapin.[436][437] Okryu-gwan sends research teams into the countryside to collect data on Korean cuisine and introduce new recipes.[435] Some Asian cities host branches of the Pyongyang restaurant chain where waitresses perform music and dance.[438]
Sports
Most schools have daily practice in association football, basketball, table tennis, gymnastics, boxing and others. The DPR Korea League is popular inside the country and its games are often televised.[417] The national football team, Chollima, competed in the FIFA World Cup in 2010, when it lost all three matches against Brazil, Portugal and Ivory Coast.[439] Its 1966 appearance was much more successful, seeing a surprise 1–0 victory over Italy and a quarter final loss to Portugal by 3–5.[440] A national team represents the nation in international basketball competitions as well. In December 2013, former American basketball professional Dennis Rodman visited North Korea to help train the national team after he developed a friendship with Kim Jong-un.[441]
North Korea's first appearance in the Olympics came in 1964. The 1972 Olympics saw its summer games debut and five medals, including one gold. With the exception of the boycotted Los Angeles and Seoul Olympics, North Korean athletes have won medals in all summer games since then.[442] Weightlifter Kim Un-guk broke the world record of the Men's 62 kg category at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London.[443] Successful Olympians receive luxury apartments from the state in recognition for their achievements.[444]
The Arirang Festival has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the biggest choreographic event in the world.[445] Some 100,000 athletes perform rhythmic gymnastics and dances while another 40,000 participants create a vast animated screen in the background. The event is an artistic representation of the country's history and pays homage to Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il.[445][446] Rungrado 1st of May Stadium, the largest stadium in the world with its capacity of 150,000, hosts the Festival.[446][447] The Pyongyang Marathon is another notable sports event. It is an IAAF Bronze Label Race where amateur runners from around the world can participate.[448]
Between 2010 and 2019, North Korea has imported 138 purebred horses from Russia at cost of over $584,000.[449]
Ver también
- Index of North Korea–related articles
- Outline of North Korea
- Bibliography of North Korea
Notas
- ^ Kim Jong-un holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of the Workers' Party, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, President of the State Affairs Commission and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.
- ^ Choe Ryong-hae represents North Korea internationally. The Presidency was written out of the constitution in 1998. Kim Il-sung, who died in 1994, was declared "eternal President" in its preamble.
- ^ Korean: 조선/朝鮮, MR: Chosŏn; literally 북조선/北朝鮮, MR: Pukchosŏn, or 북한/北韓 RR: Bukhan in South Korean usage.
- ^ Also abbreviated DPR Korea and Korea, DPR; Korean: 조선민주주의인민공화국/朝鮮民主主義人民共和國, Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk
- ^ The constitution of the DPRK, Article 1, states that "The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is an independent socialist State representing the interests of all the Korean people."[18]
- ^ In spite of the United States' recognition of South Korea de jure, Sweden acts as its protecting power.
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With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including the Chinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), the Vietnam War (2 million), and the Pol Pot genocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).
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Fuentes
- "Country Profile: North Korea" (PDF). Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. July 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
- Armstrong, Charles K. "North Korea in 2016." Asian Survey 57.1 (2017): 119–27. abstract
- French, Paul (2007). North Korea: The Paranoid Peninsula: A Modern History (Second ed.). London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84277-905-7.
- Hayes, Peter, and Roger Cavazos. "North Korea in 2015." Asian Survey 56.1 (2016): 68–77. abstract
- Hayes, Peter, and Roger Cavazos. "North Korea in 2014." Asian Survey 55.1 (2015): 119–31. abstract; also full text online
- Jackson, Van (2016). Rival Reputations: Coercion and Credibility in US–North Korea Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-13331-0., covers 1960s to 2010.
- Jackson, Van. "Deterring a Nuclear-Armed Adversary in a Contested Regional Order: The 'Trilemma' of US–North Korea Relations." Asia Policy 23.1 (2017): 97–103. online
- Lee, Hong Yung. "North Korea in 2013: Economy, Executions, and Nuclear Brinksmanship." Asian Survey 54.1 (2014): 89–100. online
- Martin, Bradley K. (2004). Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-0-312-32322-6.
- Myers, Brian Reynolds (2011). The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters. Melville House. ISBN 978-1933633916.
- "North Korea – A Country Study" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies. 2009.
- Ryang, Sonia (2013). "The North Korean Homeland of Koreans in Japan". In Ryang, Sonia (ed.). Koreans in Japan: Critical Voices from the Margin. London: Routledge. pp. 32–54. ISBN 978-1-136-35305-5.
- Yonhap News Agency, ed. (2003). North Korea Handbook. Yonhap T'ongsin. ISBN 978-0-7656-1004-1.
enlaces externos
Government websites
- KCNA – website of the Korean Central News Agency
- Naenara – the official North Korean governmental portal Naenara
- DPRK Foreign Ministry – official north Korean foreign ministry website
- The Pyongyang Times – official foreign language newspaper of the DPRK
General websites
- North Korea at Curlie
- Official website of the DPR of Korea – Administered by the Korean Friendship Association
- 38North
- North Korea profile at BBC News
- North Korea – link collection (University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries GovPubs)
- NKnews – a news agency covering North Korean topics.
- Friend.com.kp – website of the Committee for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries
- Korea Education Fund
- Rodong Sinmun – the newspaper of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea Rodong Sinmun
- Uriminzokkiri
- DPRK Portal
- United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights – Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea