La Catedral Basílica Patriarcal de San Marcos (en italiano : Basilica Cattedrale Patriarcale di San Marco ), comúnmente conocida como Basílica de San Marcos (en italiano : Basilica di San Marco ; veneciana : Baxéłega de San Marco ), es la iglesia catedral de la Arquidiócesis Católica Romana de Venecia , norte de Italia . Es la más famosa de las iglesias de la ciudad y uno de los ejemplos más conocidos de la arquitectura italo-bizantina. Se encuentra en el extremo este de la Piazza San Marco , adyacente y conectada al Palacio Ducal.. Originalmente fue la capilla del Doge, y ha sido la catedral de la ciudad solo desde 1807, cuando se convirtió en la sede del Patriarca de Venecia , [1] arzobispo de la Arquidiócesis Católica Romana de Venecia , anteriormente en San Pietro di Castello . [2]
Basílica de San Marcos | |
---|---|
Catedral Patriarcal Basílica de San Marcos | |
Basilica Cattedrale Patriarcale di San Marco ( italiano ) | |
45 ° 26′04 ″ N 12 ° 20′23 ″ E / 45.43444 ° N 12.33972 ° ECoordenadas : 45 ° 26′04 ″ N 12 ° 20′23 ″ E / 45.43444 ° N 12.33972 ° E | |
Localización | Venecia |
País | Italia |
Denominación | católico romano |
Sitio web | Basílica de San Marcos |
Historia | |
Estado | Catedral , basílica menor |
Dedicación anterior | 1084, 1093, 1102 |
Consagrado | 1117 |
Arquitectura | |
Estilo | Italo-bizantino [ cita requerida ] y gótico |
Revolucionario | 978 |
Terminado | 1092 |
Especificaciones | |
Largo | 76,5 metros (251 pies) |
Ancho | 62,5 metros (205 pies) |
Numero de domos | 5 |
Altura de la cúpula (exterior) | 43 metros (141 pies) |
Altura de la cúpula (interior) | 28,15 metros (92,4 pies) |
Administración | |
Archidiócesis | Patriarcado de Venecia |
La estructura del edificio se remonta a finales del siglo XI, y la influencia más probable en su arquitectura y diseño es Hagia Sophia. [3] Se ha trabajado mucho para embellecer esto, y la famosa fachada principal tiene un techo ornamentado que es principalmente gótico . Los mosaicos de fondo dorado que ahora cubren casi todas las áreas superiores del interior tardaron siglos en completarse. En el siglo XIII, la altura exterior de las cúpulas se incrementó enormemente mediante tambores huecos levantados sobre un armazón de madera y cubiertos con metal; los originales son menos profundos, como se puede ver en el interior. [4] Este cambio hace que las cúpulas sean visibles desde la plaza.
Muchos de sus ricos artefactos y reliquias fueron saqueados de Constantinopla en la Cuarta Cruzada en 1204 EC, incluidos muchos artefactos de Hagia Sophia . [5] La famosa Madonna Nicopeia, también conocida como el icono de la Virgen Nicopeia, fue saqueada del Monasterio de Stoudios y fue uno de los iconos más preciosos de la ciudad, llevado a la batalla por varios emperadores bizantinos. El icono fue llevado a Venecia por Enrico Dandolo (m. 1205 d. C.) y el altar de la Virgen Nicopeia permanece en la Basílica de San Marcos hasta el día de hoy. Para los venecianos, el icono era un símbolo de que Dios había transferido Su bendición de Constantinopla a Venecia por conquista militar. [6] [7] [8] [9]
Por su diseño opulento, mosaicos dorados y su condición de símbolo de la riqueza y el poder venecianos, desde el siglo XI el edificio se conoce con el sobrenombre de Chiesa d'Oro (Iglesia de oro). [10] Alcanza un sentimiento oriental de exotismo, tiene todos los elementos del estilo veneciano del arte renacentista, sigue siendo único y esencialmente un producto de trabajadores italianos de todo tipo. [11]
Historia
Construcción más temprana
El primer San Marcos fue un edificio junto al Palacio Ducal , encargado por el dux en 828. Con una profusión de cúpulas y más de 8000 metros cuadrados de mosaicos luminosos, la basílica de Venecia es inolvidable. Fue fundada en el siglo IX para albergar el cadáver de San Marcos después de que astutos comerciantes venecianos lo sacaran de contrabando de Egipto en un barril de grasa de cerdo. Cuando el edificio original se incendió, Venecia reconstruyó la basílica con su propia imagen cosmopolita del Campanile de San Marcos (campanario). La iglesia fue incendiada en una rebelión en 976, cuando la población encerró a Pietro IV Candiano en el interior para matarlo, y fue restaurada o reconstruida en 978. No se sabe nada seguro de la forma de estas primeras iglesias. Quizás a partir de 1063 [12] se construyó la actual basílica . La consagración se registra de diversas maneras en 1084–85, 1093 (la fecha que se toma con más frecuencia), 1102 y 1117, probablemente reflejando una serie de consagraciones de diferentes partes. [13] El tamaño de la iglesia se incrementó en todas las direcciones, especialmente hacia el norte y el sur, y las cúpulas de madera fueron reemplazadas por ladrillos, lo que requirió el engrosamiento de las paredes que se conservaron. [14]
En 1094 el cuerpo considerado tradicionalmente como el de San Marcos fue redescubierto en un pilar por Vitale Faliero , entonces dux . [15] El edificio también incorpora una torre baja (que ahora alberga el Tesoro de San Marcos), que algunos creen que fue parte del Palacio Ducal original. La Pala d'Oro ordenada a Constantinopla se instaló en el altar mayor en 1105. [16] En 1106 la iglesia, y especialmente sus mosaicos, fueron dañados por un grave incendio en esa parte de la ciudad; No está del todo claro si los mosaicos sobrevivientes en el interior son anteriores a esto, aunque hay algunas obras del siglo XI que sobreviven en el porche principal. [17] Las principales características de la estructura actual estaban todas en su lugar para entonces, a excepción del nártex o pórtico, y la fachada .
La forma básica de la iglesia tiene una mezcla de rasgos italianos y bizantinos, en particular "el tratamiento del brazo oriental como la terminación de un edificio basilicano con ábside principal y dos capillas laterales en lugar de como un brazo igual de una estructura verdaderamente centralizada". [18] En la primera mitad del siglo XIII se construyeron el nártex y la nueva fachada, la mayoría de los mosaicos se completaron y las cúpulas se cubrieron con segundas cúpulas mucho más altas de madera cubierta de plomo para integrarse con la arquitectura gótica. del Palacio Ducal rediseñado.
Como ocurre con la mayoría de los edificios venecianos, la estructura principal está construida en ladrillo, con los arcos decorados con terracota moldeada o ladrillo, con columnas de piedra, capiteles, molduras horizontales y algunos otros detalles. La mayor parte del ladrillo permanece en su lugar, pero cubierto, excepto en algunos lugares. [19]
Construcción posterior
La estructura básica del edificio no se ha modificado mucho. Su decoración ha cambiado mucho con el tiempo, aunque la impresión general del interior con un deslumbrante despliegue de tierra de oro mosaicos en todos los techos y paredes superiores sigue siendo el mismo. La estructura original sin adornos probablemente se habría visto muy diferente, pero es probable que siempre se pretendiera una decoración gradual. [20] Los siglos siguientes, especialmente el período posterior a la conquista veneciana de Constantinopla en la Cuarta Cruzada de 1204 y el siglo XIV, contribuyeron a su adorno, con muchos elementos traídos de espolas de edificios antiguos o bizantinos, como mosaicos, columnas , capiteles o frisos . [21] Los escultores venecianos de otros capiteles y frisos copiaron el estilo bizantino con tanta eficacia que algunos de sus trabajos sólo pueden distinguirse con dificultad. [22] Gradualmente, el ladrillo exterior se cubrió con revestimientos y tallas de mármol , algunos mucho más antiguos que el edificio en sí, [23] como la estatua de los Cuatro Tetrarcas (abajo).
Las últimas adiciones estructurales incluyen el cierre del Baptisterio y la Capilla de San Isidor (1300), las tallas en la fachada superior y la Sacristía (1400), y el cierre de la Capilla Zen (1500).
Función y administración
Durante el siglo XIII, el énfasis de la función de la iglesia parece haber cambiado de ser la capilla privada del Doge a la de una "iglesia estatal", con un mayor poder para los procuradores. Fue el lugar de las grandes ceremonias públicas del estado, como la instalación y entierros de los dux, aunque a medida que se agotaba el espacio y aumentaba la demanda de tumbas más grandiosas, a partir del siglo XV Santi Giovanni e Paolo se convirtió en el lugar habitual de enterramiento. La función de la basílica siguió siendo la misma hasta 1807, después del final de la República de Venecia , cuando la basílica finalmente quedó sujeta al obispo local , el Patriarca de Venecia , aunque desde el siglo XII había tenido un trono allí, frente al dux. . [24] La transferencia de la sede fue ordenada por Napoleón durante su período de control de Venecia. [25] Antes de esto, la catedral de Venecia de 1451 era la mucho menos grandiosa San Pietro di Castello .
Los procuradores , un órgano importante de la República de Venecia , estaban a cargo de la administración; [ cita requerida ] sus asientos eran la Procuratie , en la Plaza de San Marcos. Todos los trabajos de construcción y restauración fueron dirigidos por los protos : grandes arquitectos como Jacopo Sansovino y Baldassarre Longhena ocuparon la oficina. [ cita requerida ] El propio dogo nombró a un grupo especial de clérigos dirigido por el primero . [ cita requerida ] Procuradores y protos todavía existen y realizan las mismas tareas para el Patriarcado.
Exterior
The exterior of the west facade of the basilica is divided in three registers: lower, upper, and domes. In the lower register of the façade, five round-arched portals, enveloped by polychrome marble columns, open into the narthex through bronze-fashioned doors.
The upper level of mosaics in the lunettes of the lateral ogee arches has scenes from the Life of Christ (all post-Renaissance replacements) culminating in a 19th-century replacement Last Judgment lower down over the main portal that replaced a damaged one with the same subject (during the centuries many mosaics had to be replaced inside and outside the basilica, but subjects were rarely changed).
Mosaics with scenes showing the history of the relics of Saint Mark from right to left fill the lunettes of the lateral portals; the first on the left is the only one on the façade still surviving from the 13th century. The formal subject is the Deposition of the Relics, but it is probably depicted as the crowd leaving San Marco after the ceremonial installation of a new doge. The four bronze horses are shown in their place on the façade. We can for once get a good idea of the original compositions of the mosaics from paintings and other depictions, especially Gentile Bellini's very large Procession in Piazza San Marco in the Gallerie dell'Accademia.[26]
The stone sculpture is relatively limited at the lower level, where a forest of columns and patterned marble slabs are the main emphases. It includes relatively narrow bands of Romanesque work on the portals, richly carved borders of foliage mixed with figures to the ogee arches and other elements, and large shallow relief saints between the arches. Along the roofline, by contrast, there is a line of statues, many in their own small pavilions, culminating in Saint Mark flanked by six angels in the centre, above a large gilded winged lion (his symbol, and that of Venice).
In the upper register, from the top of ogee arches, statues of Theological and Cardinal Virtues, four Warrior Saints, Constantine, Demetrius, George, Theodosius and St Mark[27] watch over the city. Above the large central window of the façade, under St Mark, the Winged Lion (his symbol) holds the book quoting "Pax Tibi Marce Evangelista Meus" (Peace to you Mark my evangelist) . In the centre of the balcony the famous bronze horses face the square.
On the railing at the southwestern corner of the balcony is an imperial porphyry head, possibly of Justinian, traditionally known as Carmagnola.
Horses of Saint Mark-Lysippos
The Horses of Saint Mark were installed on the balcony above the portal of the basilica in about 1254. They date to Classical Antiquity, though their date remains a matter of debate, and presumably were originally the team pulling a quadriga chariot, probably containing an emperor. By some accounts they once adorned the Arch of Trajan[clarification needed].
The horses were long displayed at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, and in 1204 Doge Enrico Dandolo sent them back to Venice as part of the loot sacked from Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade.
They were taken to Paris by Napoleon in 1797 but returned to Venice in 1815. They were moved temporarily to the Palazzo Venezia in Rome during the first World War for safekeeping. During World War II, they were hidden in Praglia Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Teolo. After a long restoration, since the 1970s the copper mercury-gilded originals have been kept in St Mark's Museum inside the basilica and the horses now on the facade of the cathedral are bronze replicas.
The Tetrarchs
In an attempt to stabilise the Roman Empire after the crisis of the third century, the Emperor Diocletian imposed a new Imperial office structure: a four co-emperor ruling plan called The Tetrarchy. The famous porphyry statue of the Four Tetrarchs represents the interdependence of the four rulers. It was taken from Constantinople, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and set into the south-west corner of the basilica (the above-mentioned low tower) at the level of the Piazza San Marco. Part of the missing foot of one of the figures was discovered in Istanbul (near the Bodrum Mosque) in the 1960s, where it is still on display, clarifying the original location of the work.[citation needed]
Narthex or porch
By the 13th century, the narthex or porch embraced the western arm of the basilica on the three sides; when it was first built is uncertain but was probably the 13th century. Later the southern part was closed to obtain the Baptistery (14th century) and the Zen Chapel (16th century).[28]
The narthex prepares the visitors' eyes for the atmosphere of the gilded interior, just as the Old Testament stories represented in its 13th-century mosaic ceiling prepare them for the New Testament decoration in the interior. The main subjects are Genesis and the life of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, and Moses.[29] It has long been recognised that the compositions are very close to those of the Cotton Genesis, an important 4th- or 5th-century Greek luxury illuminated manuscript copy of the Book of Genesis, now in the British Library, though very badly damaged in a fire of 1731. About a hundred of the 359 miniatures in the manuscript are used. It is presumed that this reached Venice after the Fourth Crusade.[30]
On the wall above and at the sides of the main doorway are the Four Evangelists and saints, 11th-century mosaics, the oldest in the building, that decorated the old facade to St Mark's even before the narthex was built.[31]
Interior
The interior is based on a Greek cross, with each arm divided into three naves with a dome of its own as well as the main dome above the crossing. The dome above the crossing and the western dome are bigger than the other three. This is based on the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.
The marble floor (12th century, but underwent many restorations) is entirely tessellated in geometric patterns and animal designs. One particular panel in the pavement shows two cocks carrying a trussed-up fox,[32] has been interpreted politically by some, as a reference to the French conquest of Milan in the Italian Wars.[33] Others see it as a sacred symbol of the faithful wish for immortality, with the victory of the cross, and "analogous to the hope of resurrection, the victory of the soul over death".[34] The techniques used were opus sectile and opus tessellatum.
The lower register of walls and pillars is completely covered with polychrome marble slabs. The transition between the lower and the upper register is delimited all around the basilica by passageways which largely substituted the former galleries.
Mosaics
Unlike most Italian churches, San Marco never made the transition to fresco wall paintings around the 13th century, and continued to add mosaics until the 19th century. This was probably partly due to a wish to support the local Murano glass industry, which supplied the tesserae, and also to Venetian conservatism.[35]
The upper levels of the interior are completely covered with bright mosaics covering an area of about 8000 m2. The great majority use the traditional background of gold glass tesserae, creating the shimmering overall effect. Unfortunately, the Doge retained a workshop of mosaicists until the late 18th century, and in the 19th century contracted a mosaic workshop run by the Salviati glassmaking firm, and the majority of the medieval mosaics have been "restored" by removing and resetting, usually with a considerable loss of quality, so that "only about one-third of the mosaic surface can be regarded as original".[36]
The earliest surviving work, in the main porch, perhaps dates to as early as 1070, and was probably by a workshop that had left Constantinople in the mid-11th century and worked at Torcello Cathedral.[37] They are in "a fairly pure Byzantine style" but in succeeding phases of work Byzantine influence reflecting the latest style of the capital was reduced by stages, disappearing altogether by about the 1130s, after which the style was Italian in essentials, reflecting "a change from a colonial to a local art".[38] The main period of decoration was the 12th century, a period of deteriorating relations between Venice and Byzantium, but very little is known about the process or how it was affected by politics.[39]
The main work on the interior mosaics was apparently complete by the 1270s, with work on the atrium continuing into the 1290s. After that the St Marks workshop seems to have been disbanded, so that when a fire in 1419 caused serious damage, the only Venetian capable of the work had just died and the Signoria of Florence had to be asked for help; they sent Paolo Uccello.[40] Initially the restorations tried to retain the medieval compositions and replicate a medieval style, but from 1509 the policy changed and further work was in contemporary styles. From the 1520s a series of Venetian painters were able to get commissions for the replacement of undamaged areas in what was considered to be superior modern style, until from 1610 a number of conservation-minded decrees attempted to restrain the process.[41]
The large and complicated programme of the decoration centres on the seated large Christ Pantocrator in the main apse (now a 15th-century recreation) above patron saints of Venice. The East dome over the high altar has a bust of Christ in the centre surrounded by standing prophets and the Virgin Mary, with the Four Evangelists in the pendentives. A large and comprehensive cycle of the Life of Christ occupies much of the roof, with usually extensive coverage for the Middle Ages of his miracles, originally shown in 29 scenes in the transepts. It includes the Ascension of Christ in the central dome and Pentecost in the west dome. The centre is an etimasia ("empty throne") with book and dove, with the twelve apostles seated round the outer rims, with flames on their heads and rays connecting them to the central throne. Below the apostles pairs of figures representing the "nations", with tituli, stand between the windows. Similar images are found in the Chludov Psalter and elsewhere.[42]
As well as the miracles the transepts contain cycles of the Life of the Virgin before and during the Infancy of Christ. As well as many saints, church fathers, virtues and angels, there are scenes from the lives of Saints Mark, Clement, Peter, and John (with many scenes in post-Renaissance versions). The west wall has a 13th-century deesis below a Last Judgement in the vault, and a huge Tree of Jesse was added to the end wall of the north transept in 1548.[43]
The origin of the iconography of the Old Testament cycle in the porch in the Cotton Genesis manuscript has been described above; similar relationships have been traced for parts of the interior mosaics, in particular with the cycle of the Life of the Virgin and Infancy of Christ sharing a common Byzantine model with a fresco cycle in the cathedral at the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov in Russia.[44]
As mentioned above, restorations and replacements were often necessary thereafter, or done even when not necessary, and great painters such as Paolo Uccello, Andrea del Castagno, Paolo Veronese, Jacopo Tintoretto and his son Domenico were among those who produced the designs for the mosaicists. Titian and the Padovanino prepared the cartoons for the sacristy, built in the late 15th century. Other mosaics decorate the Baptistery, the Mascoli Chapel, St Isidor Chapel and the Zen Chapel, which has scenes from the life of St Mark, perhaps from the 1270s, and among the latest work of the original programme to be done.[45]
In 2017, it was completed the mapping of all the mosaics surfaces of the Basilica through photogrammetry and orthophotos. It was realized a web navigable path providing 2D and 3D high resolution images, ordered into a continuous plane of light, devoid of any shadow zone.[46]
The presbytery
The eastern arm has a raised presbytery with a crypt beneath. The presbytery is separated by an altar screen formed by eight red marble columns crowned with a high Crucifix and statues by Pier Paolo and Jacobello Dalle Masegne, masterpiece of Gothic sculpture (late 14th century). Behind the screen, marble banisters with Sansovino's bronze statues of the Evangelists and Paliari's of the Four Doctors mark the access to the high altar, which contains St Mark's relics. Above the high altar is a canopy ("ciborium") on columns decorated with fine reliefs. The altarpiece is the famous Pala d'Oro, a masterpiece of Byzantine craftsmanship, originally designed for an antependium. This masterpiece incorporates 1,300 pearls, 300 sapphires, 300 emeralds, and 400 garnets. They are all original and highly polished, unfaceted gems. The original altar frontal is now in the treasury. The choir stalls are embellished with inlay by Fra Sebastiano Schiavone, and above them on both sides are three reliefs by Sansovino.
Behind the presbytery are the sacristy and a 15th-century church consecrated to St Theodore (the first patron saint of Venice) where is displayed a painting (Child's Adoration) by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.
The treasury
The treasury contains what is now a unique collection of Byzantine portable objects in metalwork, enamel and hardstone carving, most looted from Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade (although there was a serious fire in the treasury in 1231), with probably a new influx after the "Franks" were expelled in 1261.[47] Thereafter most objects were made locally, though there are also important Islamic works, especially in rock crystal, and some from Northern Europe. Selections have toured internationally.
The treasury is in the basilica until today; the [48] objects in an inventory ordered by the Austrians in 1816, many in materials that could not be recycled for cash.[49] The group of Byzantine hardstone vessels in various semi-precious stones is by the most important to survive.[50] A glass situla or bucket carved with Bacchic figures been dated to either the 4th or 7th centuries.[51]
The 6th-century "throne-reliquary" in rather crudely carved alabaster, the Sedia di San Marco, was moved from the high altar to the Treasury in 1534. It would only fit a bishop with a slight figure, and has a large compartment for relics below the seat. It may have functioned as a "throne-lectern" or resting place for a gospel book, making actual the hetoimasia ("empty throne") images with open books that are found in art of the period.[52]
The treasury "now houses the best single collection of Byzantine metalwork, and particularly of enameling, that survives", including two imperial chalices of antique sardonyx with Byzantine gold and enamel mounts, marked "Romanos", the name of four emperors.[53]
Right transept
On the right of the screen is the platform from which the newly elected doge appeared. In the left aisle are St Clement's chapel and the Holy Host altar. Here is the pillar where St Mark's relics were rediscovered in 1094, as depicted in the interesting mosaics of the right aisle (where the entrance to St Mark's Treasure is).
Left transept
On the left of the screen is the platform for readings from Scripture; on the right aisle are St Peter's chapel and the Madonna Nicopeia, a venerated Byzantine icon. On the northern side are St Isidor's chapel and the Mascoli chapel.
Música
The spacious interior of the building with its multiple choir lofts was the inspiration for the development of a Venetian polychoral style among the composers appointed maestro di cappella at the choir of St Mark's. The style was first developed by a foreigner, Adrian Willaert, and was continued by Italian organists and composers: Andrea Gabrieli, his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli, and Claudio Monteverdi. Their music took advantage of the spacious architecture and led to the development of polychoral and antiphonal textures. An example of this technique is found in In Ecclesiis by Giovanni Gabrieli.
En el discurso científico
One of the most well-known and widely cited[54] papers in biology is "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme".[55] It is based on an analogy between the beautifully decorated spandrels spaced around the domes in the basilica, which sit on four arches (technically, the structures are pendentives rather than spandrels), and various biological traits and features. The authors, Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin, argue that the spandrels are the inevitable spaces that exist when a dome is placed above arches rather than design elements and that many biological traits are similarly the side effects of functional traits rather than adaptive traits in themselves.
Ver también
- Italian Gothic architecture
- History of Medieval Arabic and Western European domes
- John Wharlton Bunney
- Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy
- San Marco Fractal
Notas
- ^ Demus, 1
- ^ "Basilica di San Marco". Archived from the original on 5 March 2015. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ "Basilica di San Marco". www.genegillminiatures.com. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ Howard, 19–21; [[:File:A history of architecture in Italy from the time of Constantine to the dawn of the renaissance (1901) (14597449730).jpg|Elevation drawing showing the dome structure
- ^ "HISTORY OF HAGIA SOPHIA CHURCH IN CONSTANTINOPLE". Greek City Times. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ Barcham, William L.; Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista (1989). The Religious Paintings of Giambattista Tiepolo: Piety and Tradition in Eighteenth-century Venice. Clarendon Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-19-817501-8. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ Belting, Hans (1994). Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art. University of Chicago Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-226-04215-2. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ "San Mark's Nicopeia loot from Constantinople 1204 - Hagia Sophia History". www.pallasweb.com. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ "Madonna Nicopeia". Save Venice Inc. | Dedicated to preserving the artistic heritage of Venice. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ Fodor's Italy 2011. Random House Digital, Inc. 31 May 2011. p. 190. ISBN 9780307928528.
- ^ Howard, 28
- ^ "Navigation path". www.basilicasanmarco.it. Archived from the original on 5 March 2015. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ Demus, 3
- ^ Howard, 19–22
- ^ "Recovery". basilicasanmarco.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
- ^ Demus, 3
- ^ Demus, 5, 15–19
- ^ Demus, 5
- ^ Howard, 24
- ^ Howard, 27
- ^ Demus, 6; Howard, 25
- ^ Howard, 26
- ^ Howard, 26–27
- ^ Demus, 1–2
- ^ Buckton, 68
- ^ Demus, 183–187
- ^ "The Gothic Crowning". basilicasanmarco.it. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
- ^ Demus, 127
- ^ Demus, Chapter 18
- ^ Demus, 155–157
- ^ Demus, 15–19
- ^ "Venice Basilica San Marco interior 07 Mural 2 cocks carrying a fox". Flickr. May 1996. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ Sanderson, David; Chambers, Jennifer; Fletcher, Brian S. Pullan (2001). Venice: A Documentary History, 1450–1630. Renaissance Society of America. p. 397. ISBN 9780802084248.
- ^ The Theme of Cockfighting in Burgundian Romanesque Sculpture, Ilene H. Forsyth – Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr., 1978), pp. 252–282 – Publisher: Medieval Academy of America
- ^ Howard, 16
- ^ Demus, 6–11, 10 quoted
- ^ Demus, 15–19
- ^ Demus, 37–38, 189 (quoted)
- ^ Demus, 5–6
- ^ Demus, 6–7
- ^ Demus, 7–9
- ^ Demus, 55–57, and plate 13; also Parani, 196. See here for further details]
- ^ Demus, 10–11 for summary, full coverage in later chapters.
- ^ Dodwell, 186
- ^ Demus, 179–182
- ^ Adami, Andrea; Fassi, Francesco; Fregonese, Luigi; Piana, Mario (20 July 2018). "Image-based techniques for the survey in the St Mark's Basilica in Venice". Virtual Archaeology Review. Spanish Society of Virtual Archaeology. 9 (19): 16–17. doi:10.4995/var. ISSN 1989-9947. OCLC 1138331883. Archived from the original on 7 August 2019 – via archive.is.
- ^ Buckton, 65–66, 73–75
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ^ Buckton, 67
- ^ Buckton, 73–75
- ^ Buckton, 77–78
- ^ Buckton, 98–105
- ^ Buckton, 105
- ^ "Google Scholar". Scholar.google.ca. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ Gould, S.J.; Lewontin, R.C. (1979). "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 205 (1161): 581–598. Bibcode:1979RSPSB.205..581G. doi:10.1098/rspb.1979.0086. PMID 42062. S2CID 2129408.
Referencias
- Buckton, David, et al., The Treasury of San Marco Venice, 1984, Metropolitan Museum of Art, (fully available online or as PDF from the MMA)
- Demus, Otto. The Mosaic Decoration of San Marco Venice (1 volume version, edited by Herbert L. Kessler), University of Chicago Press, 1988, ISBN 0226142922
- Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the West, 800–1200, 1993, Yale UP, ISBN 0300064934
- Guida D'Italia del Touring Club Italiano–Venezia (in Italian) (3rd ed.). Milano: Touring Club Italiano. 2007. ISBN 978-8836543472.
- Howard, Deborah (2004), The Architectural History of Venice (2nd edn), Yale UP, ISBN 978-0300090291
- St. Marco (Video). DjustD. 15 June 2010. Archived from the original on 25 December 2012.
- Vianello, Sabina (1993). Le Chiese Di Venezia (in Italian). Milano: Electa. ISBN 978-8843540488.
- Vio, Ettore (2001). Lo Splendore Di San Marco (in Italian). Rimini: Idea Libri. ISBN 978-8870827279.
Elena Ene D-Vasilescu, “The church of San Marco in the [Byzantine] eleventh century”, Mirabilia, vol. 31/2 (2020), pp. 695-740; https://www.revistamirabilia.com › pdfs › 29._vasilescu_0.pdf.
enlaces externos
- Official website
- St. Mark's Museum
- Satellite image from Google Maps
- The Nicopeia Icon of San Marco
- San Marco, Byzantium, and the Myths of Venice" PDF of parts (71 pages) of book, Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Symposia and Colloquia, "Introduction" and "Refashioning Byzantium in Venice, ca. 1200–1400"