Envy

Envy (from Latin invidia) is an emotion which occurs when a person lacks another's superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the other lacked it.^[1]

Aristotle defined envy as pain at the sight of another's good fortune, stirred by "those who have what we ought to have".^[2] Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness.^[3] Recent research considered the conditions under which it occurs, how people deal with it, and whether it can inspire people to emulate those they envy.^[4][5]

Some languages, such as Dutch, distinguish between "benign envy" (benijden in Dutch) and "malicious envy" (afgunst), pointing to the possibility that there are two subtypes of envy.^[4] Research shows that malicious envy is an unpleasant emotion that causes the envious person to want to bring down the better-off even at their own cost, while benign envy involves recognition of other's being better-off, but causes the person to aspire to be as good.^[6] Benign envy is still a negative emotion in the sense that it feels unpleasant.^[7][8] According to researchers, benign envy can provide emulation, improvement motivation, positive thoughts about the other person, and admiration.^[9] This type of envy, if dealt with correctly, can positively affect a person's future by motivating them to be a better person and to succeed.^[10][11]

There is some discussion on whether the subtypes should be seen as distinct forms of envy, as some argue that the action tendencies (to damage someone else's position for malicious envy and to improve one's own position for benign envy) are not part of how the emotion is defined, while others think action tendencies are an integral part of an emotion.^[12] Those that do not think subtypes of envy exist argue that the situation affects how envy leads to behavior; while those that do think subtypes exist think that the situation affects which subtype of envy is experienced.^[12]

One theory that helps explain envy and its effects on human behavior is the socioevolutionary theory. Based upon Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of evolution by natural selection, modern socioevolutionary theory predicts that humans behave in ways that enhance the reproduction of their genes. Consistent with envy being a motivation, it may boost attention and memory.^[13] Based on a model of evolved responses to those who are better off, Sznycer has argued that envy increases support for economic redistribution.^[14]

Often, envy involves a motive to "outdo or undo the rival's advantages".^[15] In part, this type of envy may be based on materialistic possessions rather than psychological states. Basically, people find themselves experiencing an overwhelming emotion due to someone else owning or possessing desirable items that they do not. Feelings of envy in this situation would occur in the forms of emotional pain, a lack of self-worth, and a lowered self-esteem and well-being.

Portrait of a demented woman or The monomaniac of jealousy (also named The Hyena of la Salpêtrière), by Théodore Géricault, c. 1819–1822, Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon

Invidia, allegorical painting by Giotto di Bondone, ca. 1305-1306

Hieronymus Bosch, The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things (Invidia)