La Historia de Virginia comienza con la documentación de los primeros exploradores españoles que llegaron a la zona en el siglo XVI, cuando estaba ocupada principalmente por pueblos algonquianos , iroqueses y siouanos . En 1607, comenzó la colonización inglesa permanente en Virginia con Jamestown . La colonia de la Compañía de Virginia buscaba oro pero fracasó y los colonos apenas podían alimentarse. La hambruna durante el duro invierno de 1609 obligó a los colonos a comer cuero de sus ropas y botas y a recurrir al canibalismo . [1] La colonia casi fracasa hasta que el tabacosurgió como una exportación rentable. Se cultivó principalmente en plantaciones, utilizando principalmente sirvientes contratados para el trabajo manual intensivo involucrado. Después de 1662, la colonia convirtió la esclavitud negra en una casta racial hereditaria. En 1750, los principales cultivadores de cultivos comerciales eran esclavos de África Occidental . Si bien las plantaciones prosperaron debido a la gran demanda de tabaco, la mayoría de los colonos blancos criarían a sus familias en granjas de subsistencia. La guerra con las naciones indias de Virginia había sido un factor constante durante el siglo XVII. Después de 1700, hubo un conflicto continuo con los nativos al este de las Alleghenies, especialmente en la Guerra Francesa e India (1754-1763), cuando las tribus se aliaron con los franceses. [2] Los condados más occidentales, incluidos Wise y Washington, solo se volvieron seguros con la muerte de Bob Benge en 1794.
La Colonia de Virginia se convirtió en la colonia británica más rica y poblada de América del Norte, con una Asamblea General elegida. La colonia estaba dominada por ricos plantadores que también controlaban la Iglesia Anglicana establecida . Los predicadores bautistas y metodistas trajeron el Gran Despertar , dieron la bienvenida a miembros negros y llevaron a muchas iglesias evangélicas y racialmente integradas. Los plantadores de Virginia tuvieron un papel importante en la obtención de la independencia y en el desarrollo de los ideales demócratas-republicanos de Estados Unidos. Fueron importantes en la Declaración de Independencia , redactaron la Convención Constitucional (y preservaron la protección de la trata de esclavos) y establecieron la Declaración de Derechos . El estado de Kentucky se separó de Virginia en 1792. Cuatro de los primeros cinco presidentes de Estados Unidos eran virginianos: George Washington , el "padre de su país"; y después de 1800, "La dinastía de Virginia" de presidentes durante 24 años: Thomas Jefferson , James Madison y James Monroe .
Durante la primera mitad del siglo XIX, los precios del tabaco bajaron y las tierras tabacaleras perdieron gran parte de su fertilidad. Los plantadores adoptaron la agricultura mixta, con énfasis en el trigo y el ganado, que requería menos mano de obra. Las Constituciones de 1830 y 1850 expandieron el sufragio pero no igualaron la distribución de hombres blancos en todo el estado. La población creció lentamente de 700.000 en 1790, a 1 millón en 1830, a 1,2 millones en 1860. Virginia fue el estado más grande que se unió a los Estados Confederados de América en 1861. Se convirtió en el principal escenario de guerra en la Guerra Civil Americana . Los unionistas en Virginia Occidental crearon el estado separado de Virginia Occidental . La economía de Virginia fue devastada durante la guerra e interrumpida en la era de la Reconstrucción , cuando fue administrada como Distrito Militar Número Uno. Los primeros signos de recuperación se observaron en el cultivo de tabaco y la industria tabaquera relacionada, seguidos de la minería del carbón y la creciente industrialización. En 1883, los demócratas blancos conservadores recuperaron el poder en el gobierno estatal, poniendo fin a la Reconstrucción e implementando las leyes de Jim Crow . La Constitución de 1902 obstaculizó a muchos votantes blancos pobres y privó efectivamente del derecho al voto a los negros hasta la legislación federal de derechos civiles de mediados de la década de 1960.
Desde principios hasta mediados del siglo XX, el estado estuvo dominado por la Organización Byrd , con el dominio de los condados rurales alineados en una máquina del partido demócrata. Su control se rompió por su fallida Resistencia Masiva a la integración escolar. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la economía del estado prosperó, con una nueva base industrial y urbana. Un sistema de colegios comunitarios en todo el estado se desarrolló durante la década de 1960. El primer gobernador afroamericano de Estados Unidos desde la Reconstrucción fue Douglas Wilder de Virginia en 1990. Desde finales del siglo XX, la economía contemporánea se ha diversificado más en industrias de alta tecnología y negocios relacionados con la defensa. La cambiante demografía de Virginia hace que las votaciones estén muy divididas en las elecciones nacionales, pero en general sigue siendo conservadora en la política estatal.
Prehistoria
Durante miles de años antes de la llegada de los ingleses, varias sociedades de pueblos indígenas habitaron la parte del Nuevo Mundo posteriormente designada por los ingleses como " Virginia ". La investigación arqueológica e histórica realizada por la antropóloga Helen C. Rountree y otros ha establecido 3.000 años de asentamiento en gran parte de Tidewater . Aun así, un marcador histórico dedicado en 2015 afirma que el trabajo arqueológico reciente en la isla de Pocahontas ha revelado un asentamiento prehistórico que data de aproximadamente 6500 a. C. [3]
Nativos americanos
A partir del siglo XVI, lo que hoy es el estado de Virginia fue ocupado por tres grupos culturales principales: el iroquio , el siouan oriental y el algonquino . La punta de la península de Delmarva al sur del río Indian estaba controlada por el Algonquian Nanticoke . Mientras tanto, la región de Tidewater a lo largo de la costa de la bahía de Chesapeake parece haber sido controlada por los algonquianos Piscataway (que vivían alrededor del río Potomac), Powhatan y Chowanoke , o Roanoke (que vivían entre los ríos James y Neuse). Tierra adentro de ellos había dos tribus iroquesas conocidas como Nottoway , o Managog, y Meherrin . El resto de Virginia era casi en su totalidad sioux del este, dividido entre Monaghan y Manahoac, que tenían tierras desde el centro de Virginia Occidental, a través del sur de Virginia y hasta la frontera de Maryland (la región del valle del río Shenandoah estaba controlada por un pueblo diferente). . Además, es posible que los pueblos de las tierras conectados con la cultura del Mississippi apenas hayan cruzado al estado en su esquina suroeste. Más tarde, estas tribus se fusionaron para formar Yuchi . [5] [6]
Algonquiano
Rountree ha señalado que "imperio" describe con mayor precisión la estructura política del Powhatan. A finales del siglo XVI y principios del XVII, un jefe llamado Wahunsunacock creó este poderoso imperio al conquistar o afiliarse a aproximadamente treinta tribus cuyos territorios cubrían gran parte de lo que hoy es el este de Virginia. Conocido como el Powhatan , o jefe supremo , llamó a esta área Tenakomakah ("Tierra densamente habitada"). [7] El imperio resultó ventajoso para algunas tribus, que periódicamente se veían amenazadas por otros grupos, como los monacanos. El jefe Powhatan supuestamente permitió que la primera colonia inglesa, Jamestown, fuera asentada porque quería nuevas ventajas militares y económicas sobre los siouanos al oeste de su pueblo. El siguiente jefe, Opechancanough, lo sucedió en solo un par de años después del contacto y tenía una visión muy diferente de los ingleses. Lideró varios levantamientos fallidos, que causaron la fractura de su pueblo, algunas tribus se fueron al sur para vivir entre los Chowanoke o al norte para vivir entre los Piscataway. Después de eso, uno de sus hijos tomó varios Powhatans y se trasladó hacia el noroeste, convirtiéndose en Shawnee y se apoderó de los antiguos territorios de Susquehannock . [8] Registrados en los estados de Maryland y Pensilvania a lo largo del siglo XVII, finalmente se abrieron paso en el valle del río Ohio, donde se cree que se fusionaron con una variedad de otros pueblos nativos para formar la poderosa confederación que controlaba el área. eso es ahora Virginia Occidental hasta las Guerras Shawnee (1811-1813). [9] Solo en 1646, quedaban muy pocos Powhatans y los ingleses los vigilaban con dureza, ya que ni siquiera se les permitía elegir a sus propios líderes. Se organizaron en las tribus Pamunkey y Mattaponi . [10] Finalmente se disolvieron por completo y se fusionaron en la sociedad colonial.
Los Piscataway fueron empujados hacia el norte por el río Potomac al principio de su historia, y quedaron aislados del resto de su gente. Mientras que algunos se quedaron, otros optaron por emigrar hacia el oeste. Sus movimientos generalmente no se registran en el registro histórico, pero reaparecen en Fort Detroit en la actual Michigan a fines del siglo XVIII. Se dice que estos Piscataways se trasladaron a Canadá y probablemente se fusionaron con los Mississaugas, que se habían separado del Anishinaabeg y emigraron al sureste hacia esa misma región. A pesar de eso, muchos Piscataway se quedaron en Virginia y Maryland hasta la actualidad. Otros miembros del Piscataway también se fusionaron con el Nanticoke.
El Nanticoke parece haber estado confinado en gran parte a los pueblos indios, [11] pero más tarde se trasladaron a Nueva York en 1778. Posteriormente, se disolvieron, con grupos que se unieron a los iroqueses y lenape. [12]
Los Chowanoke fueron trasladados a tierras de reserva por los ingleses en 1677, donde permanecieron hasta el siglo XIX. Para 1821, se habían fusionado con otras tribus y generalmente se disolvieron, sin embargo, los descendientes de estos pueblos se reformaron en el siglo XXI y volvieron a adquirir gran parte de su antigua reserva en 2014.
Siouan oriental
Muchos de los pueblos siouanos del estado parecen haber sido originalmente una colección de tribus más pequeñas con afiliación incierta. Los nombres registrados a lo largo del siglo XVII fueron Monahassanough, Rassawek, Mowhemencho, Monassukapanough, Massinacack, Akenatsi, Mahoc, Nuntaneuck, Nutaly, Nahyssan, Sapon, Monakin, Toteros, Keyauwees, Shakori, Eno, Sissipahaw, Monetons y Mohetons. ahora es Virginia Occidental, Virginia, Carolina del Norte y Carolina del Sur. [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Se decía que todos hablaban, al menos dos idiomas distintos: Saponi (que parece ser un idioma de eslabón perdido existente entre las variantes Chiwere y Dhegihan) y Catawba (que está más estrechamente relacionado con Biloxi y las lenguas siouan de la costa del golfo). [18] [19] [20] John Smith fue el primero en notar dos grupos en el interior de Virginia: los Monaghans y los Monahoacs. Las palabras provienen del Powhatan [21] y las traducciones son inciertas, sin embargo Monaghan parece similar a una palabra conocida de Lenape, Monaquen, que significa "cuero cabelludo". [22] También se les conocía comúnmente como Eastern Blackfoot, lo que explica por qué algunos Saponi hoy se identifican como el pueblo Siouan-Blackfoot, [13] [23] y más tarde aún como Christannas.
Sin embargo, por lo que se puede suponer, parece que se organizaron así: de este a oeste a lo largo de la costa norte del río James, justo tierra adentro del Powhatan, habrían estado los Eno , Shakori y Saponi . Alrededor de la fuente del río (y probablemente sosteniendo algunas de las islas del río hacia el este) debería haber estado el Occaneechi o Akenatsi. Se creía que habían sido la tribu "abuelo" de la región, un término entre los pueblos nativos para cualquier tribu muy respetada y venerada por ser la primera o más antigua gente de su tipo. Al oeste de Occaneechi y localizadas principalmente en lo que ahora es Virginia Occidental, se creía que al menos dos tribus más estaban relacionadas: la Moneton del río Kanawha y la Tutelo del río Bluestone, que separa Virginia Occidental de Kentucky. A mitad de camino a lo largo de la orilla sur del río James debería haber estado el Sissipahaw . Probablemente eran la única tribu siouan oriental en el estado que habría hablado una forma de lengua catawba, en lugar de saponi / tutelo. Al norte de ellos estaban los Manahoac o Mahock. Los Keyauwee también son notables. Es difícil decir si eran una subtribu de los otros mencionados, una tribu recién formada o de algún otro lugar.
Originalmente existiendo a lo largo de la totalidad de la actual frontera occidental de Virginia y a lo largo de algunas de las montañas del suroeste de Virginia Occidental y Kentucky, parecen haber sido conducidas por primera vez hacia el este por el Iroquoian Westo durante las Guerras de los Castor. [24] [25] Desde entonces, los historiadores han notado que los Westo eran casi definitivamente Erie y Neutrals / Chonnonton, que habían conquistado amplias franjas de lo que ahora es el norte y el este de Ohio aproximadamente durante la década de 1630 y posteriormente fueron conquistados y expulsados por la Confederación Iroquois alrededor de 1650. Parece que los Tutelo de West Virginia vivieron por primera vez al norte de Saponi, en el norte de Virginia alrededor de 1670. [26] Más tarde en las Guerras de los Castor, los Iroquois perdieron sus nuevas tierras en Ohio y Michigan para los franceses y sus nuevos aliados nativos alrededor de los Grandes Lagos occidentales. En algún momento durante la década de 1680-90, [27] los iroqueses comenzaron a avanzar hacia el sur y declararon la guerra a las tribus relacionadas con Saponi, empujándolas hacia Carolina del Norte. Se observa en 1701 que Saponi, Tutelo, Occaneechi, Shakori y Keyauwee iban a formar una confederación para recuperar su tierra natal. El escritor asume que las cinco tribus fueron expulsadas hacia el sur, pero los Tutelos son conocidos como aliados de las "montañas occidentales". [28] Este es el mismo año en que los iroqueses se rindieron a los franceses, pero parece que las hostilidades con los Saponi continuaron a largo plazo. Poco después, los ingleses convencieron a los iroqueses de que comenzaran a vender todas sus tierras extendidas, que eran casi imposibles de mantener. Todo lo que conservaban era una franja de territorio a lo largo del río Susquahanna en Pensilvania.
Los saponi intentaron regresar a sus tierras, pero no pudieron hacerlo. Alrededor de 1702, el gobernador de la colonia de Virginia les dio tierras de reserva y abrió Fort Christanna cerca. Todas las tribus parecen haber regresado, excepto los keyauwee, que permanecieron entre los catawba. Llegaron a ser conocidos como el Pueblo Christanna en este momento. Este fuerte ofreció ayuda económica y educativa a los lugareños, pero después de que el fuerte cerró en 1718, los Saponi se dispersaron. Con continuos conflictos entre Saponi e Iroquio en la región, los gobernadores de Virginia, Pensilvania y Nueva York se unieron para organizar un tratado de paz, que finalmente puso fin al conflicto. En algún momento alrededor de 1722, los tutelo y algunos otros saponis emigraron al territorio de Pensilvania controlado por los iroqueses y se establecieron allí, entre muchos otros refugiados de tribus locales que habían sido destruidos, absorbidos por la sociedad colonial o simplemente se mudaron sin ellos. [29] [30] En 1753, los iroqueses los reorganizaron a todos en las tribus Tutelo, Delaware y Nanticoke, los trasladaron a Nueva York y les otorgaron todos los honores de la Confederación, a pesar de que ninguno de ellos era iroqués. [31] Después de la Revolución Americana, estas tribus los acompañaron a Canadá. Más tarde, los descendientes de los Tutelo emigraron nuevamente a Ohio, convirtiéndose en las tribus Saponi y Tutelo de Ohio. También se observó que muchos de los otros pueblos siouan de Virginia se habían fusionado con las tribus Catawba y Yamasee. [32]
Iroqués
Aunque se observa principalmente en Virginia, parece que Tuscarora emigró a la región desde la península de Delmarva a principios del siglo XVII. John Smith los señaló en un mapa temprano como los Kuskarawocks. [33] (Es posible que también hayan absorbido a los Tockwoghs, que también aparecen en el mapa y probablemente eran iroqueses). Después de una guerra prolongada con los ingleses, los Tuscarora comenzaron a partir hacia Nueva York y comenzaron a fusionarse con los iroqueses en grupos alrededor de 1720. , continuando aproximadamente hasta que los iroqueses fueron desterrados a Canadá después de la Revolución Americana. [34] Los que se quedaron se convirtieron en una nueva tribu, los Coharie, y emigraron al sur para vivir cerca de Meherrin. [35]
Los Meherrin ayudaron a los Tuscarora en esa guerra, pero no los siguieron hacia el norte. En 1717, los ingleses les dieron una reserva al sur de la frontera de Carolina del Norte. El gobierno de Carolina del Norte impugnó sus derechos sobre la tierra y trató de quitárselos debido a un error de un topógrafo que hizo que los colonos tanto nativos como ingleses reclamaran partes de la reserva. Sin embargo, lograron, más o menos, permanecer en la actualidad. El Nottoway también logró permanecer en gran parte en las cercanías de Virginia hasta la actualidad sin mucho conflicto o pérdida de herencia.
Aunque las Guerras de los castores se centraron principalmente en Ohio, la Confederación Iroquesa de Nueva York también estuvo en un conflicto prolongado con los Susquehannocks del centro de Pensilvania, al igual que la colonia inglesa de Maryland, aunque no se sabía que los dos fueran aliados. En algún momento alrededor de la década de 1650 o 1660, Maryland hizo las paces con los Susquehannocks y se alió con ellos, por lo que los iroqueses también los etiquetaron como enemigos, a pesar de estar aliados con Inglaterra en ese momento. Sin embargo, después de terminar su guerra con los Susquehannocks en 1674, los iroqueses emprendieron un alboroto más o menos inexplicable contra Maryland y sus aliados nativos restantes, que incluían a los Piscataways y las tribus Siouans del Este. Los habitantes del este de Siuán fueron expulsados del estado durante la década de 1680. Después de que las guerras de los castores terminaron oficialmente en 1701, los iroqueses vendieron sus posesiones extendidas, incluida su tierra en Virginia, a los ingleses. [26]
A mediados del siglo XVII, alrededor de 1655-6, un grupo iroqués conocido como Westo invadió Virginia. Si bien abundan muchas teorías sobre sus orígenes, parecen haber sido los últimos Eries y Chonnonton que invadieron Ohio al comienzo de las Guerras de los Castor. [36] El Westo parece haber entrado en el sur de Virginia Occidental, luego se movió directamente hacia el sur para avanzar hacia las tribus más pequeñas de Siouan de las Carolinas. En la década de 1680, fueron destruidos por una coalición de guerreros nativos liderados por una tribu llamada Sawanno. [37] También hay una nota de los Cherokee de que un grupo de "Shawnee" vivía entre ellos en la década de 1660 (después de la invasión de Westo, pero antes de su derrota), y luego emigró al sur de Virginia Occidental.
Otras tribus destacadas
Los primeros exploradores españoles e ingleses parecen haber sobreestimado en gran medida el tamaño de los Cherokee, colocándolos tan al norte como Virginia. Sin embargo, muchos historiadores ahora creen que había una gran confederación de razas mixtas / lenguas mixtas en la región, llamada Coosa . Los españoles también les dieron los apodos de Chalaques y Uchis durante el siglo XVI y los ingleses convirtieron a los Chalaques en Cherokees. [38] Los cherokees que conocemos hoy se encontraban entre estas personas, pero vivían mucho más al sur y tanto el idioma cherokee (de origen iroqués) como el idioma yuchi (muskogeano) han sido fuertemente modificados por la influencia de Siouan y llevan muchas palabras prestadas de Siouan. [39] [40] Esta nación habría existido en partes de los estados de Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Carolina del Norte, Carolina del Sur y Georgia, con núcleos de diferentes grupos culturales organizados en diferentes extremos del territorio y, probablemente, hablando Yuchi como una lengua común.
Después de que el Westo los atravesó, parecen haberse dividido a lo largo de la línea del río Tennessee para crear el Cherokee al sur y el Yuchi al norte. [41] A continuación, después de la Guerra Yamasee (1715-1717), el Yuchi eran la fuerza a través de los Apalaches [42] y se dividió de nuevo, en el Coyaha y la Chisca . Los franceses, viendo una oportunidad para nuevos aliados, se congraciaron con los Chisca y los trasladaron al corazón de la colonia de Illinois para vivir entre los algonquinos Ilinoweg . Más tarde, cuando la influencia francesa a lo largo del río Ohio disminuyó, la tribu parece haberse separado nuevamente, llevándose consigo a muchas tribus Ilinoweg y regresando a Kentucky, donde se convirtieron en los Kispoko . Más tarde, los Kispoko se convirtieron en la cuarta tribu de Shawnee. [43]
Mientras tanto, Coyaha reforzó su alianza con Cherokee y trajo muchas de las tribus muskogean más pequeñas de Alabama (a menudo conocidas como Mobilians) para formar la Confederación Creek . Si bien esta tribu continuaría teniendo una gran influencia histórica en el resto de la Era Colonial y la historia temprana de los Estados Unidos, nunca regresaron a Virginia. [44]
Además, al igual que los Sawannos, parece que muchos grupos escindidos se separaron del grupo principal y se trasladaron a lugares como Virginia Occidental y Kentucky. Posteriormente, esas tierras parecían estar llenas de pueblos nativos que afirmaban tener ascendencia "Cherokee", pero que no tenían afiliación tribal organizada. Los descendientes de esas personas viven hoy en West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Kentucky y Ohio. Sin embargo, también parece probable que estas poblaciones se casaran con los supervivientes Monongahela y otros grupos siouanos, sin embargo, las poblaciones deben haber sido bastante pequeñas en ambos lados para permitir que estos pueblos nunca reformaran un gobierno y permanecieran nómadas durante mucho tiempo después.
Exploración europea temprana
Después de su descubrimiento del Nuevo Mundo en el siglo XV, los estados europeos comenzaron a intentar establecer colonias del Nuevo Mundo. Inglaterra, la República Holandesa , Francia , Portugal y España fueron los más activos.
Español
En 1540, un partido liderado por dos españoles, Juan de Villalobos y Francisco de Silvera, enviado por Hernando de Soto , entró en lo que hoy es el condado de Lee en busca de oro. [45] En la primavera de 1567, Hernando Moyano de Morales, sargento del explorador español Juan Pardo , condujo a un grupo de soldados hacia el norte desde el Fuerte San Juan en Joara , una ciudad nativa en lo que ahora es el oeste de Carolina del Norte, para atacar y destruir. la Chisca pueblo de Maniatique cerca de la actual Saltville . [46] El ataque cerca de Saltville fue la primera batalla registrada en la historia de Virginia. [47]
Otro grupo español, capitaneado por Antonio Velázquez en la carabela Santa Catalina , exploró la región baja de la Bahía de Chesapeake en Virginia a mediados de 1561 bajo las órdenes de Ángel de Villafañe . [48] [49] Durante este viaje, dos jóvenes de Kiskiack o Paspahegh [50] , entre ellos Don Luis, fueron llevados de regreso a España. [48] En 1566, una expedición enviada desde la Florida española por Pedro Menéndez de Avilés llegó a la península de Delmarva . La expedición consistió en dos frailes dominicos , treinta soldados y Don Luis, en un fallido esfuerzo por establecer una colonia española en Chesapeake, creyendo que era una apertura al legendario Paso del Noroeste . [51] [52]
En 1570, los jesuitas españoles establecieron la Misión de Ajacán en la península inferior. Sin embargo, en 1571 fue destruida por Don Luis y un partido de sus aliados indígenas. [53] En agosto de 1572, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés llegó procedente de San Agustín con una treintena de soldados y marineros para vengarse de la masacre de los jesuitas y ahorcó a unos 20 indígenas. [52] En 1573, el gobernador de la Florida española, Pedro Menéndez de Márquez , realizó una exploración adicional del Chesapeake. [54] En la década de 1580, el capitán Vicente González dirigió varios viajes al Chesapeake en busca de asentamientos ingleses en el área. [55] En 1609, el gobernador español de Florida, Pedro de Ibarra, envió a Francisco Fernández de Écija desde San Agustín a inspeccionar las actividades de los colonos de Jamestown, pero España nunca intentó una colonia después del fracaso de la Misión de Ajacán. [55]
inglés
La Colonia Roanoke fue la primera colonia inglesa en el Nuevo Mundo. Fue fundada en Roanoke Island en lo que entonces era Virginia, ahora parte del condado de Dare, Carolina del Norte . Entre 1584 y 1587, hubo dos grandes grupos de colonos patrocinados por Sir Walter Raleigh que intentaron establecer un asentamiento permanente en la isla de Roanoke, y cada uno fracasó. El último grupo desapareció por completo después de que los suministros de Inglaterra se retrasaron tres años por una guerra con España. Debido a que desaparecieron, se les llamó "La Colonia Perdida".
El nombre Virginia proviene de la información recopilada por las exploraciones en inglés patrocinadas por Raleigh a lo largo de lo que ahora es la costa de Carolina del Norte. Philip Amadas y Arthur Barlowe informaron que un "rey" regional llamado Wingina gobernaba una tierra de Wingandacoa . La reina Isabel modificó el nombre a "Virginia", quizás en parte señalando su condición de "Reina Virgen". Aunque la palabra es latinate , se erige como el topónimo en inglés más antiguo de los Estados Unidos. [56]
En el segundo viaje, Raleigh se enteró de que, si bien el jefe de los Secotans se llamaba Wingina , la expresión wingandacoa , escuchada por los ingleses al llegar, en realidad significaba " Usas buena ropa" en Carolina Algonquian , y no era el nombre nativo de el país, como antes se entendía mal. [57] [ página necesaria ]
Compañía de Virginia de Londres
Tras la muerte de la reina Isabel I, en 1603 el rey Jaime I asumió el trono de Inglaterra. Después de años de guerra, Inglaterra estaba escasa de fondos, por lo que otorgó la responsabilidad de la colonización del Nuevo Mundo de Inglaterra a la Compañía de Virginia , que se incorporó como una sociedad anónima por un estatuto de propiedad redactado en 1606. Había dos ramas en competencia de Virginia. La compañía y cada uno esperaban establecer una colonia en Virginia para explotar el oro (que la región en realidad no tenía), establecer una base de apoyo para el corso inglés contra los barcos españoles y difundir el protestantismo al Nuevo Mundo en competencia con los españoles. propagación del catolicismo. Dentro de la Compañía de Virginia, a la sucursal de la Compañía de Plymouth se le asignó una parte norte del área conocida como Virginia, y el área de la Compañía de Londres al sur.
Jamestown
Primer aterrizaje
En diciembre de 1606, la Compañía de Londres envió a un grupo de 104 colonos en tres barcos: el Susan Constant , Godspeed y Discovery , bajo el mando del capitán Christopher Newport . Después de un viaje largo y difícil de 144 días, los colonos finalmente llegaron a Virginia el 26 de abril de 1607 a la entrada de la bahía de Chesapeake . En Cape Henry , bajaron a tierra, erigieron una cruz e hicieron una pequeña exploración, un evento que llegó a ser llamado el "Primer Desembarco".
Bajo órdenes de Londres de buscar una ubicación más interior a salvo de las incursiones españolas, exploraron el área de Hampton Roads y navegaron por el recién bautizado río James hasta Fall Line en lo que más tarde se convertiría en las ciudades de Richmond y Manchester .
Asentamiento
Después de semanas de exploración, los colonos seleccionaron un lugar y fundaron Jamestown el 14 de mayo de 1607. Fue nombrado en honor al rey James I (al igual que el río). Sin embargo, mientras que la ubicación en la isla de Jamestown era favorable para la defensa contra barcos extranjeros, el terreno bajo y pantanoso era duro e inhóspito para un asentamiento. Carecía de agua potable, acceso a la caza para la caza o mucho espacio para la agricultura. Si bien parecía favorable que no estuviera habitado por los nativos americanos, en poco tiempo, los colonos fueron atacados por miembros de la tribu local Paspahegh .
Los colonos llegaron mal preparados para volverse autosuficientes. Habían planeado comerciar con los nativos americanos por comida, dependían de los suministros periódicos de Inglaterra y habían planeado pasar parte de su tiempo buscando oro. Dejando el Discovery atrás para su uso, el Capitán Newport regresó a Inglaterra con el Susan Constant y el Godspeed , y regresó dos veces durante 1608 con las misiones First Supply y Second Supply. El comercio y las relaciones con los nativos americanos fueron, en el mejor de los casos, frágiles y muchos de los colonos murieron de enfermedades, hambre y conflictos con los nativos. Después de varios líderes fracasados, el capitán John Smith se hizo cargo del asentamiento, y muchos le atribuyen el sostenimiento de la colonia durante sus primeros años, ya que tuvo cierto éxito en el comercio de alimentos y lideró a los colonos desanimados.
Después del regreso de Smith a Inglaterra en agosto de 1609, hubo un gran retraso en la llegada programada de suministros. Durante el invierno de 1609/10 y continuando hasta la primavera y principios del verano, no llegaron más barcos. Los colonos se enfrentaron a lo que se conoció como la "época del hambre" . Cuando el nuevo gobernador Sir Thomas Gates , finalmente llegó a Jamestown el 23 de mayo de 1610, junto con otros sobrevivientes del naufragio del Sea Venture que resultó en la adición de Bermudas al territorio de Virginia, descubrió más del 80% de los 500 colonos. había muerto; muchos de los supervivientes estaban enfermos.
De vuelta en Inglaterra, la Compañía de Virginia fue reorganizada bajo su Segunda Carta, ratificada el 23 de mayo de 1609, que otorgó la mayor parte de la autoridad de liderazgo de la colonia al gobernador, el recién nombrado Thomas West, tercer barón De La Warr . En junio de 1610 llegó con 150 hombres y abundantes suministros. De La Warr inició la Primera Guerra Anglo-Powhatan , contra los nativos. Bajo su liderazgo, Samuel Argall secuestró a Pocahontas , hija del jefe Powhatan, y la retuvo en Henricus .
La economía de la Colonia fue otro problema. Nunca se había encontrado oro, y los esfuerzos por introducir industrias rentables en la colonia habían fracasado hasta que John Rolfe introdujo sus dos tipos extranjeros de tabaco: Orinoco y Sweet Scented. Estos produjeron una mejor cosecha que la variedad local y con el primer envío a Inglaterra en 1612, los clientes disfrutaron del sabor, haciendo del tabaco un cultivo comercial que estableció la viabilidad económica de Virginia.
La Primera Guerra Anglo-Powhatan terminó cuando Rolfe se casó con Pocahontas en 1614.
Inicios de las plantaciones
George Yeardley asumió el cargo de gobernador de Virginia en 1619. Terminó con el gobierno de un solo hombre y creó un sistema representativo de gobierno con la Asamblea General , la primera asamblea legislativa electa en el Nuevo Mundo.
También en 1619, la Compañía de Virginia envió a 90 mujeres solteras como esposas potenciales de los colonos masculinos para ayudar a poblar el asentamiento. Ese mismo año la colonia adquirió un grupo de "veinte y tantos" angoleños, traídos por dos corsarios ingleses. Probablemente fueron los primeros africanos de la colonia. Ellos, junto con muchos sirvientes europeos contratados, ayudaron a expandir la creciente industria tabacalera que ya era el producto principal de la colonia. Aunque estos hombres negros fueron tratados como sirvientes contratados, esto marcó el comienzo de la historia de esclavitud de Estados Unidos . La mayor importación de africanos esclavizados por traficantes de esclavos europeos no tuvo lugar hasta mucho más tarde en el siglo.
En algunas áreas, se establecieron propiedades o arrendamientos de tierras individuales en lugar de comunales, lo que proporcionó a las familias motivación para aumentar la producción, mejorar el nivel de vida y obtener riqueza. Quizás en ninguna parte esto fue más progresivo que en el desafortunado Henricus de Sir Thomas Dale , un desarrollo ubicado en el oeste ubicado a lo largo de la orilla sur del río James, donde los nativos también recibirían una educación en la primera universidad de la colonia.
Aproximadamente a 6 millas (9,7 km) al sur de las cataratas en la actual Richmond, en Henrico Cittie, Falling Creek Ironworks se estableció cerca de la confluencia de Falling Creek, utilizando depósitos de mineral locales para producir hierro. Fue el primero en América del Norte.
Los virginianos eran intensamente individualistas en este punto, debilitando a las pequeñas comunidades nuevas. Según Breen (1979) su horizonte estaba limitado por el presente o el futuro próximo. Creían que el medio ambiente podía y debía verse obligado a generar rápidos rendimientos financieros. Por lo tanto, todos buscaban el número uno a expensas de las empresas cooperativas. Las granjas se dispersaron y se formaron pocas aldeas o pueblos. Este individualismo extremo hizo que los colonos no pudieran defenderse de los indígenas, lo que resultó en dos masacres. [58]
Conflicto con los nativos
Los colonos ingleses pronto entraron en conflicto con los nativos. A pesar de alguna interacción exitosa, las cuestiones de propiedad y control de la tierra y otros recursos, y la confianza entre los pueblos, se convirtieron en áreas de conflicto. Virginia tiene condiciones de sequía en promedio cada tres años. Los colonos no entendieron que los nativos estaban mal preparados para alimentarlos en tiempos difíciles. En los años posteriores a 1612, los colonos despejaron tierras para cultivar tabaco de exportación, su cultivo comercial crucial. A medida que el tabaco agotaba el suelo, los colonos continuamente necesitaban limpiar más tierra para reemplazarla. Esto redujo la tierra boscosa de la que dependían los nativos americanos para la caza para complementar sus cultivos alimentarios. A medida que llegaban más colonos, querían más tierra.
Las tribus intentaron luchar contra la invasión de los colonos. Los principales conflictos tuvieron lugar en la masacre india de 1622 y la Segunda Guerra Anglo-Powhatan , ambas bajo el liderazgo del hermano menor del difunto jefe Powhatan, el jefe Opechancanough . A mediados del siglo XVII, los Powhatan y las tribus aliadas experimentaron una grave disminución de la población, debido en gran parte a las epidemias de enfermedades infecciosas recientemente introducidas , como la viruela y el sarampión , a las que no tenían inmunidad natural. Los colonos europeos habían expandido el territorio de modo que controlaban prácticamente toda la tierra al este de la línea de caída en el río James. Cincuenta años antes, este territorio había sido el imperio de la poderosa Confederación Powhatan.
Los miembros supervivientes de muchas tribus se asimilaron a la población general de la colonia. Algunos conservaron pequeñas comunidades con una identidad y un patrimonio más tradicionales. En el siglo XXI, Pamunkey y Mattaponi son las únicas dos tribus que mantienen reservas asignadas originalmente bajo los ingleses. A partir de 2010[actualizar], el estado ha reconocido a once tribus indígenas de Virginia . Otros han renovado su interés en buscar el reconocimiento estatal y federal desde la celebración del 400 aniversario de Jamestown en 2007. Las celebraciones estatales dieron a las tribus nativas americanas roles formales prominentes para mostrar sus contribuciones al estado.
Si bien los ingleses consideraron favorables los desarrollos de 1619 y el crecimiento continuo en los años siguientes, muchos aspectos, especialmente la necesidad continua de más tierras para cultivar tabaco, fueron una fuente de creciente preocupación para los nativos americanos más afectados, los Powhatan. .
En ese momento, el Imperio Powhatan restante estaba dirigido por el Jefe Opechancanough , jefe de Pamunkey y hermano del Jefe Powhatan. Se había ganado la reputación de ser un guerrero feroz bajo la jefatura de su hermano. Pronto, abandonó las esperanzas de la diplomacia y resolvió erradicar a los colonos ingleses.
El 22 de marzo de 1622, Powhatan mató a unos 400 colonos en la Masacre de India de 1622 . Con ataques coordinados, atacaron casi todos los asentamientos ingleses a lo largo del río James, en ambas orillas, desde Newport News Point en el este en Hampton Roads hasta el oeste río arriba hasta Falling Creek, unas pocas millas por encima de la plantación de Henricus y John Rolfe, Varina. Granjas . [59]
En Jamestown, una advertencia de un niño indio llamado Chanco a su empleador, Richard Pace , ayudó a reducir el total de muertes. Pace aseguró su plantación y remado a través del río durante la noche para alertar a Jamestown, lo que permitió a los colonos una preparación defensiva. No tuvieron tiempo de advertir a los puestos de avanzada, que sufrieron muertes y cautivos en casi todos los lugares. Varias comunidades enteras fueron esencialmente aniquiladas, incluidas Henricus y Wolstenholme Towne en Martin's Hundred . En Falling Creek Ironworks, que se había considerado prometedora para la colonia, dos mujeres y tres niños estaban entre los 27 muertos, dejando solo a dos colonos con vida. Las instalaciones fueron destruidas.
A pesar de las pérdidas, dos tercios de los colonos sobrevivieron; después de retirarse a Jamestown, muchos regresaron a las plantaciones periféricas, aunque algunas fueron abandonadas. Los ingleses tomaron represalias contra los Powhatan y hubo escaramuzas y ataques durante aproximadamente un año antes de que los colonos y Powhatan llegaran a una tregua.
Los colonos invitaron a los jefes y guerreros a Jamestown, donde propusieron un brindis de licor. El Dr. John Potts y algunos de los líderes de Jamestown habían envenenado la porción de licor de los nativos, que mató a unos 200 hombres. Los colonos mataron a otros 50 indios a mano.
El período entre el golpe de 1622 y otro ataque de Powhatan contra los colonos ingleses a lo largo del río James (ver Jamestown ) en 1644 marcó un punto de inflexión en las relaciones entre los Powhatan y los ingleses. En el período inicial, cada lado creía que estaba operando desde una posición de poder; por el Tratado de 1646 , los colonos habían tomado el equilibrio de poder y habían establecido el control entre los ríos York y Blackwater .
Colonia real
En 1624, se revocó el estatuto de la Compañía de Virginia y la colonia se transfirió a la autoridad real como colonia de la corona , pero los representantes electos en Jamestown continuaron ejerciendo una buena cantidad de poder. Bajo la autoridad real, la colonia comenzó a expandirse hacia el norte y el oeste con asentamientos adicionales.
En 1634, se creó un nuevo sistema de gobierno local en la Colonia de Virginia por orden del Rey de Inglaterra. Se designaron ocho condados , cada uno con sus propios funcionarios locales; estos condados fueron renombrados como condados solo unos años más tarde.
El gobernador Berkeley y la guerra civil inglesa
The first significant attempts at exploring the Trans-Allegheny region occurred under the administration of Governor William Berkeley. Efforts to explore farther into Virginia were hampered in 1644 when about 500 colonists were killed in another Indian massacre led, once again, by Opechancanough. Berkeley is credited with efforts to develop others sources of income for the colony besides tobacco such as cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and other crops at his large Green Spring Plantation.
The colonists defined the 1644 coup as an "uprising". Chief Opechancanough expected the outcome would reflect what he considered the morally correct position: that the colonists were violating their pledges to the Powhatan. During the 1644 event, Chief Opechancanough was captured. While imprisoned, he was murdered by one of his guards. After the death of Opechancanough, and following the repeated colonial attacks in 1644 and 1645, the remaining Powhatan tribes had little alternative but to accede to the demands of the settlers.[60]
Most Virginia colonists were loyal to the crown (Charles I) during the English Civil War, but in 1652, Oliver Cromwell sent a force to remove and replace Gov. Berkeley with Governor Richard Bennett, who was loyal to the Commonwealth of England. This governor was a moderate Puritan who allowed the local legislature to exercise most controlling authority, and spent much of his time directing affairs in neighboring Maryland Colony. Bennett was followed by two more "Cromwellian" governors, Edward Digges and Samuel Matthews, although in fact all three of these men were not technically appointees, but were selected by the House of Burgesses, which was really in control of the colony during these years.[61]
Many royalists fled to Virginia after their defeat in the English Civil War. Some intermarried with existing plantation families to establish influential families in Virginia such as the Washingtons, Randolphs, Carters and Lees. However, most 17th-century immigrants were indentured servants, merchants or artisans. After the Restoration, in recognition of Virginia's loyalty to the crown, King Charles II of England bestowed Virginia with the nickname "The Old Dominion", which it still bears today.[62]
Bacon's Rebellion
Governor Berkeley, who remained popular after his first administration, returned to the governorship at the end of Commonwealth rule. However, Berkeley's second administration was characterized with many problems. Disease, hurricanes, Indian hostilities, and economic difficulties all plagued Virginia at this time. Berkeley established autocratic authority over the colony. To protect this power, he refused to have new legislative elections for 14 years in order to protect a House of Burgesses that supported him. He only agreed to new elections when rebellion became a serious threat.
Berkeley finally did face a rebellion in 1676. Indians had begun attacking encroaching settlers as they expanded to the north and west. Serious fighting broke out when settlers responded to violence with a counter-attack against the wrong tribe, which further extended the violence. Berkeley did not assist the settlers in their fight. Many settlers and historians believe Berkeley's refusal to fight the Indians stemmed from his investments in the fur trade. Large scale fighting would have cut off the Indian suppliers Berkeley's investment relied on. Nathaniel Bacon organized his own militia of settlers who retaliated against the Indians. Bacon became very popular as the primary opponent of Berkeley, not only on the issue of Indians, but on other issues as well. Berkeley condemned Bacon as a rebel, but pardoned him after Bacon won a seat in the House of Burgesses and accepted it peacefully. After a lack of reform, Bacon rebelled outright, captured Jamestown, and took control of the colony for several months. The incident became known as Bacon's Rebellion. Berkeley returned himself to power with the help of the English militia. Bacon burned Jamestown before abandoning it and continued his rebellion, but died of disease. Berkeley severely crushed the remaining rebels.
In response to Berkeley's harsh repression of the rebels, the English government removed him from office. After the burning of Jamestown, the capital was temporarily moved to Middle Plantation, located on the high ground of the Virginia Peninsula equidistant from the James and York Rivers.[63]
Building of Williamsburg
Local leaders had long desired a school of higher education, for the sons of planters, and for educating the Indians. An earlier attempt to establish a permanent university at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622 wiped out the entire settlement. Finally, seven decades later, with encouragement from the Colony's House of Burgesses and other prominent individuals, Reverend Dr. James Blair, the colony's top religious leader, prepared a plan. Blair went to England and in 1693, obtained a charter from Protestants King William and Queen Mary II of England who had just deposed Catholic James II of England in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution. The college was named the College of William and Mary in honor of the two monarchs.
The rebuilt statehouse in Jamestown burned again in 1698. After that fire, upon suggestion of college students, the colonial capital was permanently moved to nearby Middle Plantation again, and the town was renamed Williamsburg, in honor of the king. Plans were made to construct a capitol building and plan the new city according to the survey of Theodorick Bland.
Tobacco plantations
As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became a significant economic force, especially in the tidewater region surrounding the Chesapeake Bay. Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social/economic systems developed to grow and distribute this cash crop. Some elements of this system included the importation and employment of slaves to grow crops. Planters would then fill large hogsheads with tobacco and convey them to inspection warehouses. In 1730, the Virginia House of Burgesses standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations.
Social structure
In terms of the white population, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige. They controlled the local Anglican church, choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity. They sought elected and appointed offices.[64] About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owned substantial farms; By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible. The bottom third owned no land, and verged on poverty. Many were recent arrivals, or recently released from indentured servitude.[65] Social stratification was most severe in the Northern Neck, where the Fairfax family had been given a proprietorship. In some districts there 70 percent of the land was owned by a handful of families, and three-fourths of the whites had no land at all. In the frontier districts, large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled, often moving down from Pennsylvania. Tobacco was not important there; farmers focused on hemp, grain, cattle, and horses. Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores.[66]
Sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level, starting at the top. In England hunting was sharply restricted to landowners, and enforced by armed gameskeepers. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone—including servants and slaves—could and did hunt. Poor men with a good rifle aim won praise; rich gentlemen who were off target won ridicule. In 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor, organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors," and he offered prizes "to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott."[67] Horse racing was the main event. The typical farmer did not own a horse in the first place, and racing was a matter for gentlemen only, but ordinary farmers were spectators and gamblers. Selected slaves often became skilled horse trainers. Horse racing was especially important for knitting the gentry together. The race was a major public event designed to demonstrate to the world the superior social status of the gentry through expensive breeding, training, boasting and gambling, and especially winning the races themselves.[68] Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high-stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry. When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.[69]
Historian Edmund Morgan (1975) argues that Virginians in the 1650s—and for the next two centuries—turned to slavery and a racial divide as an alternative to class conflict. "Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty." That is, white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low-status slaves.[70]
By 1700, the population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate, low death rate, importation of slaves from the Caribbean, and immigration from Britain and Germany, as well as from Pennsylvania. The climate was mild, the farm lands were cheap and fertile.[71]
Early to mid-1700s: Westward expansion
In 1716, Governor Alexander Spotswood led the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition, reaching the top ridge of the Blue Ridge Mountains at Swift Run Gap (elevation 2,365 feet (721 m)).[72][73] Spotswood promoted Germanna, a settlement of German immigrants brought over for the purpose of iron production, in modern-day Orange County.[74]
By the 1730s, the Three Notch'd Road extended from the vicinity of the fall line of the James River at the future site of Richmond westerly to the Shenandoah Valley, crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains at Jarmans Gap.[75][76] Around this time, Governor William Gooch promoted settlement of the Virginia backcountry as a means to insulate the Virginia colony from Native American and New France settlements in the Ohio Country[77] In response, a wide variety of settlers traveled southward on the Indian Trail later known as the Great Wagon Road along the Shenandoah Valley from Pennsylvania. Many, including German Palatines and Scotch-Irish American immigrants, settled along former Indian camps. According to Encyclopedia Virginia, "By 1735 there were as many as 160 families in the backcountry region, and within ten years nearly 10,000 Europeans lived in the Shenandoah Valley."[78]
As colonial settlement moved into the piedmont area from the Tidewater/Chesapeake area,[79] There was some uncertainty as to the exact tax boundaries of Virginia land versus the Land patent quit-rent rights held by Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in the Northern Neck Proprietary. When Robert "King" Carter died in 1732, Lord Fairfax read about his vast wealth in The Gentleman's Magazine and decided to settle the matter himself by coming to Virginia. Lord Fairfax travelled to Virginia for the first time between 1735 and 1737 to inspect and protect his lands.[80] He employed a young George Washington[81] (Washington's first employment) to survey his lands lying west of the Blue Ridge.[82] Once this legal battle was ironed out, Frederick County, Virginia was founded in 1743 and the "Frederick Town" settlements there became a fourth city charter in Virginia, now known as Winchester, Virginia in February 1752.[83]
In the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the Ohio Country.[84] Virginians Thomas Lee and brothers Lawrence and Augustine Washington organized the Ohio Company to represent the prospecting and trading interests of Virginian investors.[85] In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, granted the Ohio Company a great deal of this territory on the condition that it be settled by British colonists.[86] Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim.[87] To counter the French military presence in Ohio, in October 1753 Dinwiddie ordered the 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory.[88] Ultimately, many Virginians were caught up in the resulting French and Indian War that occurred 1754–1763. At the completion of the war, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 forbade all British settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains,[89] with the land west of the Proclamation Line known as the Indian Reserve. British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line,[90] some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west. Their efforts were successful, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. In 1768, the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the Treaty of Hard Labour, followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber, opened much of what is now Kentucky and West Virginia to British settlement within the Virginia Colony. However, the Northwest Territories north of the Ohio continued to be occupied by native tribes until US forces drove them out in the early decades of the 1800s.
Religión
The Church of England was legally established in the colony in 1619, and the Bishop of London sent in 22 Anglican clergyman by 1624. In practice, establishment meant that local taxes were funneled through the local parish to handle the needs of local government, such as roads and poor relief, in addition to the salary of the minister. There never was a bishop in colonial Virginia, and in practice the local vestry, consisting of gentry laymen controlled the parish.[91] By the 1740s, the Anglicans had about 70 parish priests around the colony.
Missionaries were sent to the Indians but they had little success apart from the Nansemond tribe, which had converted in 1638. The other Powhatan tribes converted to Christianity around 1791.[92]
The stress on personal piety opened the way for the First Great Awakening in the mid 18th century, which pulled people away from the formal rituals of the established church.[93] Especially in the back country, most families had no religious affiliation whatsoever and their low moral standards were shocking to proper Englishmen.[94] The Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians and other evangelicals directly challenged these lax moral standards and refused to tolerate them in their ranks. Baptists, German Lutherans and Presbyterians, funded their own ministers, and favored disestablishment of the Anglican church.
The spellbinding preacher Samuel Davies led the Presbyterians, and converted hundreds of slaves.[95] By the 1760s Baptists were drawing Virginians, especially poor white farmers, into a new, much more democratic religion. Slaves were welcome at the services and many became Baptists at this time. Methodist missionaries were also active in the late colonial period. Methodists encouraged an end to slavery, and welcomed free blacks and slaves into active roles in the congregations.[96]
The Baptists and Presbyterians were subject to many legal constraints and faced growing persecution; between 1768 and 1774, about half of the Baptists ministers in Virginia were jailed for preaching, in defiance of England's Act of Toleration of 1689 that guaranteed freedom of worship for Protestants. At the start of the Revolution, the Anglican Patriots realized that they needed dissenter support for effective wartime mobilization, so they met most of the dissenters' demands in return for their support of the war effort.[97]
Historians have debated the implications of the religious rivalries for the American Revolution. The struggle for religious toleration was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church.[98] After the American victory in the war, the Anglican establishment sought to reintroduce state support for religion. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Jefferson's "Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom", which eventually became law in 1786 as the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. With freedom of religion the new watchword, the Church of England was dis-established in Virginia. It was rebuilt as the Episcopal Church in the United States, with no connection to Britain.
revolución Americana
Antecedents
Revolutionary sentiments first began appearing in Virginia shortly after the French and Indian War ended in 1763. The Virginia legislature had passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating. King George III vetoed the measure, and clergy sued for back salaries. Patrick Henry first came to prominence by arguing in the case of Parson's Cause against the veto, which he declared tyrannical.
The British government had accumulated a great deal of debt through spending on its wars. To help payoff this debt, Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764 and the Stamp Act in 1765. The General Assembly opposed the passage of the Sugar Act on the grounds of no taxation without representation, and in turn passing the "Virginia Resolves" opposing the tax. Governor Francis Fauquier responded by dismissing the Assembly. The Northampton County court overturned the Stamp Act February 8, 1766. Various political groups, including the Sons of Liberty met and issued protests against the act. Most notably, Richard Bland published a pamphlet entitled An Enquiry into the Rights of The British Colonies, setting forth the principle that Virginia was a part of the British Empire, not the Kingdom of Great Britain, so it only owed allegiance to the Crown, not Parliament.
The Stamp Act was repealed, but additional taxation from the Revenue Act and the 1769 attempt to transport Bostonian rioters to London for trial incited more protest from Virginia. The Assembly met to consider resolutions condemning on the transport of the rioters, but Governor Botetourt, while sympathetic, dissolved the legislature. The Burgesses reconvened in Raleigh Tavern and made an agreement to ban British imports. Britain gave up the attempt to extradite the prisoners and lifted all taxes except the tax on tea in 1770.
In 1773, because of a renewed attempt to extradite Americans to Britain, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, George Mason, and others in the legislature created a committee of correspondence to deal with problems with Britain. This committee would serve as the foundation for Virginia's role in the American Revolution.
After the House of Burgesses expressed solidarity with the actions in Massachusetts, the Governor, Lord Dunmore, again dissolved the legislature. The first Virginia Convention was held August 1–6 to respond to the growing crisis. The convention approved a boycott of British goods and elected delegates to the Continental Congress.
War begins
On April 20, 1775, Dunmore ordered the gunpowder removed from the Williamsburg Magazine to a British ship. Patrick Henry led a group of Virginia militia from Hanover in response to Dunmore's order. Carter Braxton negotiated a resolution to the Gunpowder Incident by transferring royal funds as payment for the powder. The incident exacerbated Dunmore's declining popularity. He fled the Governor's Palace to a British ship at Yorktown. On November 7, Dunmore issued a proclamation declaring Virginia was in a state of rebellion. By this time, George Washington had been appointed head of the American forces by the Continental Congress and Virginia was under the political leadership of a Committee of Safety formed by the Third Virginia Convention in the governor's absence.
On December 9, 1775, Virginia militia moved on the governor's forces at the Battle of Great Bridge, winning a victory in the small action there. Dunmore responded by bombarding Norfolk with his ships on January 1, 1776. After the Battle of Great Bridge, little military conflict took place on Virginia soil for the first part of the American Revolutionary War. Nevertheless, Virginia sent forces to help in the fighting to the North and South, as well as the frontier in the northwest.
Independence
The Fifth Virginia Convention met on May 6 and declared Virginia a free and independent state on May 15, 1776. The convention instructed its delegates to introduce a resolution for independence at the Continental Congress. Richard Henry Lee introduced the measure on June 7. While the Congress debated, the Virginia Convention adopted George Mason's Bill of Rights (June 12) and a constitution (June 29) which established an independent commonwealth. Congress approved Lee's proposal on July 2 and approved Jefferson's Declaration of Independence on July 4. The constitution of the Fifth Virginia Convention created a system of government for the state that would last for 54 years, and converting House of Burgesses into a bicameral legislature with both a House of Delegates and a Senate. Patrick Henry serves as the first Governor of the Commonwealth (1776-1779).
War returns to Virginia
The British briefly brought the war back to coastal Virginia in May 1779. Fearing the vulnerability of Williamsburg, Governor Thomas Jefferson moved the capital farther inland to Richmond in 1780. However, in December, Benedict Arnold, who had betrayed the Revolution and become a general for the British, attacked Richmond and burned part of the city before the Virginia Militia drove his army out of the city.
Arnold moved his base of operations to Portsmouth and was later joined by troops under General William Phillips. Phillips led an expedition that destroyed military and economic targets, against ineffectual militia resistance. The state's defenses, led by General Baron von Steuben, put up resistance in the April 1781 Battle of Blandford, but were forced to retreat. The French General Lafayette and his forces arrived to help defend Virginia, and though outnumbered, engaged British forces under General Charles Cornwallis in a series of skirmishes to help reduce their effectiveness. Cornwallis dispatched two smaller missions under Colonel John Graves Simcoe and Colonel Banastre Tarleton to march on Charlottesville and capture Gov. Jefferson and the legislature, though was foiled when Jack Jouett rode to warn Virginia government.
Cornwallis moved down the Virginia Peninsula towards the Chesapeake Bay, where Clinton planned to extract part of the army for a siege of New York City. After surprising American forces at the Battle of Green Spring on July 6, 1781, Cornwallis received orders to move his troops to the port town of Yorktown and begin construction of fortifications and a naval yard, though when discovered American forces surrounded the town. Gen. Washington and his French ally Rochambeau moved their forces from New York to Virginia. The defeat of the Royal Navy by Admiral de Grasse at the Battle of the Virginia Capes ensured French dominance of the waters around Yorktown, thereby preventing Cornwallis from receiving troops or supplies and removing the possibility of evacuation. Following the two-week siege to Yorktown, Cornwallis decided to surrender. Papers for surrender were officially signed on October 19.
As a result of the defeat, the king lost control of Parliament and the new British government offered peace in April 1782. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 officially ended the war.
República temprana y período anterior a la guerra
Victory in the Revolution brought peace and prosperity to the new state, as export markets in Europe reopened for its tobacco.
While the old local elites were content with the status quo, younger veterans of the war had developed a national identity. Led by George Washington and James Madison, Virginia played a major role in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. Madison proposed the Virginia Plan, which would give representation in Congress according to total population, including a proportion of slaves. Virginia was the most populous state, and it was allowed to count all of its white residents and 3/5 of the enslaved African Americans for its congressional representation and its electoral vote. (Only white men who owned a certain amount of property could vote.) Ratification was bitterly contested; the pro-Constitution forces prevailed only after promising to add a Bill of Rights. The Virginia Ratifying Convention approved the Constitution by a vote of 89–79 on June 25, 1788, making it the tenth state to enter the Union.[99]
Madison played a central role in the new Congress, while Washington was the unanimous choice as first president. He was followed by the Virginia Dynasty, including Thomas Jefferson, Madison, and James Monroe, giving the state four of the first five presidents.
Slavery and freedmen in Antebellum Virginia
The Revolution meant change and sometimes political freedom for enslaved African Americans, too. Tens of thousands of slaves from southern states, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, escaped to British lines and freedom during the war. Thousands left with the British for resettlement in their colonies of Nova Scotia and Jamaica; others went to England; others disappeared into rural and frontier areas or the North.[100]
Inspired by the Revolution and evangelical preachers, numerous slaveholders in the Chesapeake region manumitted some or all of their slaves, during their lifetimes or by will. From 1,800 persons in 1782, the total population of free blacks in Virginia increased to 12,766 (4.3 percent of blacks) in 1790, and to 30,570 in 1810; the percentage change was from free blacks' comprising less than one percent of the total black population in Virginia, to 7.2 percent by 1810, even as the overall population increased.[101] One planter, Robert Carter III freed more than 450 slaves in his lifetime, more than any other planter. George Washington freed all of his slaves at his death.[102]
Many free blacks migrated from rural areas to towns such as Petersburg, Richmond, and Charlottesville for jobs and community; others migrated with their families to the frontier where social strictures were more relaxed.[103] Among the oldest black Baptist congregations in the nation were two founded near Petersburg before the Revolution. Each congregation moved into the city and built churches by the early 19th century.[104]
Twice slave rebellions broke out in Virginia: Gabriel's Rebellion in 1800, and Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831. White reaction was swift and harsh, and militias killed many innocent free blacks and black slaves as well as those directly involved in the rebellions. After the second rebellion, the legislature passed laws restricting the rights of free people of color: they were excluded from bearing arms, serving in the militia, gaining education, and assembling in groups. As bearing arms and serving in the militia were considered obligations of free citizens, free blacks came under severe constraints after Nat Turner's rebellion.
Westward emigration
As the new nation of the United States of America experienced growing pains and began to speak of Manifest Destiny, Virginia, too, found its role in the young republic to be changing and challenging. For one, the vast lands of the Virginia Colony were subdivided into other US states and territories. In 1784, Virginia relinquished its claims to the Illinois County, Virginia, except for the Virginia Military District (Southern Indiana). In 1775, Daniel Boone blazed a trail for the Transylvania Company from Fort Chiswell in Virginia through the Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. This Wilderness Road became the principal route used by settlers for more than fifty years to reach Kentucky from the East. The fledgling US government rewarded veterans of the Revolutionary War with plots of land along the Ohio River in the Northwest Territory. In 1792, three western counties split off to form Kentucky.
A second influence: the lands seemed to be more fertile in the west. Virginia's heavy farming of tobacco for 200 years had depleted its soils.[105]
The 1803 Louisiana Purchase only accelerated the westward movement of Virginians out of their native state. Many of the Virginians whose grandparents had created the Virginia Establishment began to emigrate and settle westward. Famous Virginian-born Americans affected not only the destiny of the state of Virginia, but the rapidly developing American Old West. Virginians Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were influential in their famous 1804-1806 expedition to explore the Missouri River and possible connections to the Pacific Ocean. Notable names such as Stephen F. Austin, Edwin Waller, Haden Harrison Edwards, and Dr. John Shackelford were famous Texan pioneers from Virginia. Even eventual Civil War general Robert E. Lee distinguished himself as a military leader in Texas during the 1846–48 Mexican–American War.
Cultural preservation
Historians estimate that one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War.[106] With this exodus, Virginia experienced a decline in both population and political influence[107] Prominent Virginians formed the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society to preserve the legacy and memory of its past. At the same time, with Virginians settling so much of the west, they brought their cultural habits with them. Today, many cultural features of the American South can be attributed to Virginians who migrated west.[108]
Cultural divide between Tidewater planters and Western Virginia farmers
As the western reaches of Virginia were developed in the first half of the 19th century, the vast differences in the agricultural basis, cultural, and transportation needs of the area became a major issue for the Virginia General Assembly. In the older, eastern portion, slavery contributed to the economy. While planters were moving away from labor-intensive tobacco to mixed crops, they still held numerous slaves and their leasing out or sales was also part of their economic prospect. Slavery had become an economic institution upon which planters depended. Watersheds on most of this area eventually drained to the Atlantic Ocean. In the western reaches, families farmed smaller homesteads, mostly without enslaved or hired labor. Settlers were expanding the exploitation of resources: mining of minerals and harvesting of timber. The land drained into the Ohio River Valley, and trade followed the rivers.
Representation in the state legislature was heavily skewed in favor of the more populous eastern areas and the historic planter elite. This was compounded by the partial allowance for slaves when counting population; as neither the slaves nor women had the vote, this gave more power to white men. The legislature's efforts to mediate the disparities ended without meaningful resolution, although the state held a constitutional convention on representation issues. Thus, at the outset of the American Civil War, Virginia was caught not only in national crisis, but in a long-standing controversy within its own boundaries. While other border states had similar regional differences, Virginia had a long history of east-west tensions which finally came to a head; it was the only state to divide into two separate states during the War.
Infrastructure and Industrial Revolution
After the Revolution, various infrastructure projects began to be developed, including the Dismal Swamp Canal, the James River and Kanawha Canal, and various turnpikes. Virginia was home to the first of all Federal infrastructure projects under the new Constitution, the Cape Henry Light of 1792, located at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Following the War of 1812, several Federal national defense projects were undertaken in Virginia. Drydock Number One was constructed in Portsmouth in the 1827. Across the James River, Fort Monroe was built to defend Hampton Roads, completed in 1834.
In the 1830s, railroads began to be built in Virginia. In 1831, the Chesterfield Railroad began hauling coal from the mines in Midlothian to docks at Manchester (near Richmond), powered by gravity and draft animals. The first railroad in Virginia to be powered by locomotives was the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad, chartered in 1834, with the intent to connect with steamboat lines at Aquia Landing running to Washington, D.C.. Soon after, others (with equally descriptive names) followed: the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad and Louisa Railroad in 1836, the Richmond and Danville Railroad in 1847, the Orange and Alexandria Railroad in 1848, and the Richmond and York River Railroad. In 1849, the Virginia Board of Public Works established the Blue Ridge Railroad. Under Engineer Claudius Crozet, the railroad successfully crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains via the Blue Ridge Tunnel at Afton Mountain.
Petersburg became a manufacturing center, as well as a city where free black artisans and craftsmen could make a living. In 1860, half its population was black and of that, one-third were free blacks, the largest such population in the state.
Iron industry
With extensive iron deposits, especially in the western counties, Virginia was a pioneer in the iron industry. The first ironworks in the new world was established at Falling Creek in 1619, though it was destroyed in 1622. There would eventually grow to be 80 ironworks, charcoal furnaces and forges with 7,000 hands at any one time, about 70 percent of them slaves. Ironmasters hired slaves from local slave owners because they were cheaper than white workers, easier to control, and could not switch to a better employer. But the work ethic was weak, because the wages went to the owner, not to the workers, who were forced to work hard, were poorly fed and clothed, and were separated from their families. Virginia's industry increasingly fell behind Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Ohio, which relied on free labor. Bradford (1959) recounts the many complaints about slave laborers and argues the over-reliance on slaves contributed to the failure of the iron-masters to adopt improved methods of production for fear the slaves would sabotage them. Most of the blacks were unskilled manual laborers, although Lewis (1977) reports that some were in skilled positions.[110][111]
Guerra civil
Virginia at first refused to join the Confederacy, but did so after President Lincoln on April 15 called for troops from all states; that meant Federal troops crossing Virginia on the way south to subdue South Carolina. On April 17, 1861 the convention voted to secede, and voters ratified the decision on May 23. Immediately the Union army moved into northern Virginia and captured Alexandria without a fight, and controlled it for the remainder of the war. The Wheeling area had opposed secession and remained strong for the Union.
Because of its strategic significance, the Confederacy relocated its capital to Richmond. Richmond was at the end of a long supply line and as the highly symbolic capital of the Confederacy became the main target of round after round of invasion attempts.[112] A major center of iron production during the civil war was located in Richmond at Tredegar Iron Works, which produced most of the artillery for the war. The city was the site of numerous army hospitals. Libby Prison for captured Union officers gained an infamous reputation for the overcrowded and harsh conditions, with a high death rate.[113] Richmond's main defenses were trenches built surrounding it down towards the nearby city of Petersburg. Saltville was a primary source of Confederate salt (critical for food preservation) during the war, leading to the two Battles of Saltville.
The first major battle of the Civil War occurred on July 21, 1861. Union forces attempted to take control of the railroad junction at Manassas, but the Confederate Army reached it first and won the First Battle of Manassas (known as "Bull Run" in Northern naming convention). Both sides mobilized for war; the year 1861 went on without another major fight.
Men from all economic and social levels, both slaveholders and nonslaveholders, as well as former Unionists, enlisted in great numbers on both sides. Areas, especially in the west and along the border, that sent few men to the Confederacy were characterized by few slaves, poor economies, and a history of reinal[check spelling] antagonism to the Tidewater.[114]
West Virginia breaks away
The western counties could not tolerate the Confederacy. Breaking away, they first formed the Union state of Virginia (recognized by Washington); it is called the Restored government of Virginia and was based in Alexandria, across the river from Washington. The Restored government did little except give its permission for Congress to form the new state of West Virginia in 1862.[115][116] From May to August 1861, a series of Unionist conventions met in Wheeling; the Second Wheeling Convention constituted itself as a legislative body called the Restored Government of Virginia. It declared Virginia was still in the Union but that the state offices were vacant and elected a new governor, Francis H. Pierpont; this body gained formal recognition by the Lincoln administration on July 4.[117] On August 20 the Wheeling body passed an ordinance for the creation; it was put to public vote on Oct. 24. The vote was in favor of a new state—West Virginia—which was distinct from the Pierpont government, which persisted until the end of the war.[118] Congress and Lincoln approved, and, after providing for gradual emancipation of slaves in the new state constitution, West Virginia became the 35th state on June 20, 1863. In effect there were now three states: the Confederate Virginia, the Union Restored Virginia, and West Virginia.[119]
The state and national governments in Richmond did not recognize the new state, and Confederates did not vote there. The Confederate government in Richmond sent in Robert E. Lee. But Lee found little local support and was defeated by Union forces from Ohio. Union victories in 1861 drove the Confederate forces out of the Monongahela and Kanawha valleys, and throughout the remainder of the war the Union held the region west of the Alleghenies and controlled the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the north. The new state was not subject to Reconstruction.[120]
Later war years
For the remainder of the war, many major battles were fought across Virginia, including the Seven Days Battles, the Battle of Fredericksburg, the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Battle of Brandy Station
Over the course of the War, despite occasional tactical victories and spectacular counter-stroke raids, Confederate control of many regions of Virginia was gradually lost to Federal advance. By October 1862 the northern 9th and 10th Congressional districts along the Potomac were under Union control. Eastern Shore, Northern, Middle and Lower Peninsula and the 2nd congressional district surrounding Norfolk west to Suffolk were permanently Union-occupied by May. Other regions, such as the Piedmont and Shenandoah Valley, regularly changed hands through numerous campaigns.
In 1864, the Union Army planned to attack Richmond by a direct overland approach through Overland Campaign and the Battle of the Wilderness, culminating in the Siege of Petersburg which lasted from the summer of 1864 to April 1865. By November 6, 1864, Confederate forces controlled only four of Virginia's 16 congressional districts in the region of Richmond-Petersburg and their Southside counties.[121]
In April 1865, Richmond was burned by a retreating Confederate Army ; Lincoln walked the city streets to cheering crowds of newly freed blacks. The Confederate government fled south, pausing in Danville for a few days. The end came when Lee surrendered to Ulysses Grant at Appomattox on April 9, 1865.
Reconstrucción
Virginia had been devastated by the war, with the infrastructure (such as railroads) in ruins; many plantations burned out; and large numbers of refugees without jobs, food or supplies beyond rations provided by the Union Army, especially its Freedmen's Bureau.[122]
Historian Mary Farmer-Kaiser reports that white landowners complained to the Bureau about unwillingness of freedwomen to work in the fields as evidence of their laziness, and asked the Bureau to force them to sign labor contracts. In response, many Bureau officials "readily condemned the withdrawal of freedwomen from the work force as well as the 'hen pecked' husbands who allowed it." While the Bureau did not force freedwomen to work, it did force freedmen to work or be arrested as vagrants. Furthermore, agents urged poor unmarried mothers to give their older children up as apprentices to work for white masters. Farmer-Kaiser concludes that "Freedwomen found both an ally and an enemy in the bureau."[123]
There were three phases in Virginia's Reconstruction era: wartime, presidential, and congressional.[124] Immediately after the war President Andrew Johnson recognized the Francis Harrison Pierpont government as legitimate and restored local government. The Virginia legislature passed Black Codes that severely restricted Freedmen's mobility and rights; they had only limited rights and were not considered citizens, nor could they vote. The state ratified the 13th amendment to abolish slavery and revoked the 1861 ordnance of secession. Johnson was satisfied that Reconstruction was complete.
Other Republicans in Congress refused to seat the newly elected state delegation; the Radicals wanted better evidence that slavery and similar methods of serfdom had been abolished, and the freedmen given rights of citizens. They also were concerned that Virginia leaders had not renounced Confederate nationalism. After winning large majorities in the 1866 national election, the Radical Republicans gained power in Congress. They put Virginia (and nine other ex-Confederate states) under military rule. Virginia was administered as the "First Military District" in 1867–69 under General John Schofield Meanwhile, the Freedmen became politically active by joining the pro-Republican Union League, holding conventions, and demanding universal male suffrage and equal treatment under the law, as well as demanding disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the seizure of their plantations. McDonough, finding that Schofield was criticized by conservative whites for supporting the Radical cause on the one hand, and attacked on the other by Radicals for thinking black suffrage was premature on the other, concludes that "he performed admirably' by following a middle course between extremes.[125]
Increasingly a deep split opened up in the republican ranks. The moderate element had national support and called itself "True Republicans." The more radical element set out to disfranchise whites—such as not allowing a man to hold office if he was a private in the Confederate army, or had sold food to the Confederate government, plus land reform. About 20,000 former Confederates were denied the right to vote in the 1867 election.[126] In 1867, radical James Hunnicutt (1814–1880), a white preacher, editor and Scalawag (white Southerners supporting Reconstruction) mobilized the black Republican vote by calling for the confiscation of all plantations and turning the land over to Freedmen and poor whites. The "True Republicans" (the moderates), led by former Whigs, businessmen and planters, while supportive of black suffrage, drew the line at property confiscation. A compromise was reached calling for confiscation if the planters tried to intimidate black voters.[127] Hunnicutt's coalition took control of the Republican Party, and began to demand the permanent disfranchisement of all whites who had supported the Confederacy. The Virginia Republican party became permanently split, and many moderate Republicans switched to the opposition "Conservatives".[128] The Radicals won the 1867 election for delegates to a constitutional convention.[129]
The 1868 constitutional convention included 33 white Conservatives, and 72 Radicals (of whom 24 were Blacks, 23 Scalawag, and 21 Carpetbaggers.[130] Called the "Underwood Constitution" after the presiding officer, the main accomplishment was to reform the tax system, and create a system of free public schools for the first time in Virginia.[131] After heated debates over disfranchising Confederates, the Virginia legislature approved a Constitution that excluded ex-Confederates from holding office, but allowed them to vote in state and federal elections.[132]
Under pressure from national Republicans to be more moderate, General Schofield continued to administer the state through the Army. He appointed a personal friend, Henry H. Wells as provisional governor. Wells was a Carpetbagger and a former Union general. Schofield and Wells fought and defeated Hunnicutt and the Scalawag Republicans. They took away contracts for state printing orders from Hunnicutt's newspaper. The national government ordered elections in 1869 that included a vote on the new Underwood constitution, a separate one on its two disfranchisement clauses that would have permanently stripped the vote from most former rebels, and a separate vote for state officials. The Army enrolled the Freedmen (ex-slaves) as voters but would not allow some 20,000 prominent whites to vote or hold office. The Republicans nominated Wells for governor, as Hunnicutt and most Scalawags went over to the opposition.[133]
The leader of the moderate Republicans, calling themselves "True Republicans," was William Mahone (1826–1895), a railroad president and former Confederate general. He formed a coalition of white Scalawag Republicans, some blacks, and ex-Democrats who formed the Conservative Party. Mahone recommended that whites had to accept the results of the war, including civil rights and the vote for Freedmen. Mahone convinced the Conservative Party to drop its own candidate and endorse Gilbert C. Walker, Mahone's candidate for governor. In return, Mahone's people endorsed Conservatives for the legislative races. Mahone's plan worked, as the voters in 1869 elected Walker and defeated the proposed disfranchisement of ex-Confederates.[134]
When the new legislature ratified the 14th and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution, Congress seated its delegation, and Virginia Reconstruction came to an end in January 1870. The Radical Republicans had been ousted in a non-violent election.[135] Virginia was the only southern state that did not elect a civilian government that represented more Radical Republican principles. Suffering from widespread destruction and difficulties in adapting to free labor, white Virginians generally came to share the postwar bitterness typical of the southern attitudes.[136] Historian Richard Lowe argues that the obstacles faced by the Radical Republican movement made their cause hopeless:
- even more damaging to Republicans' prospects than their poverty, their inexperience in state politics, their isolation from potential allies, and their identification with the heated North was the perverse and powerful racism that ran so powerfully through the white community. The great majority of the Old Dominion's white citizens could not take seriously a political party composed primarily of former slaves. [137]
Edad dorada
Railroad and industrial growth
In addition to those that were rebuilt, new railroads developed after the Civil War. In 1868, under railroad baron Collis P. Huntington, the Virginia Central Railroad was merged and transformed into the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad. In 1870, several railroads were merged to form the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad, later renamed Norfolk & Western. In 1880, the towpath of the now-defunct James River & Kanawha canal was transformed into the Richmond and Allegheny Railroad, which within a decade would merge into the Chesapeake & Ohio. Others would include the Southern Railroad, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Atlantic Coast Line; still others would eventually reach into Virginia, including the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania Railroad. The rebuilt Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad eventually was linked to Washington, D.C..
In the 1880s, the Pocahontas Coalfield opened up in far southwest Virginia, with others to follow, in turn providing more demand for railroads transportation. In 1909, the Virginian Railway opened, built for the express purpose of hauling coal from the mountains of West Virginia to the ports at Hampton Roads. The growth of railroads resulted in the creation of new towns and rapid growth of others, including Clifton Forge, Roanoke, Crewe and Victoria. The railroad boom was not without incident: the Wreck of the Old 97 occurred just north of Danville, Virginia in 1903, later immortalized by a popular ballad.
With the invention of the cigarette rolling machine, and the great increase in smoking in the early 20th century, cigarettes and other tobacco products became a major industry in Richmond and Petersburg. Tobacco magnates such as Lewis Ginter funded a number of public institutions.
Readjustment, public education, segregation
A division among Virginia politicians occurred in the 1870s, when those who supported a reduction of Virginia's pre-war debt ("Readjusters") opposed those who felt Virginia should repay its entire debt plus interest ("Funders"). Virginia's pre-war debt was primarily for infrastructure improvements overseen by the Virginia Board of Public Works, much of which were destroyed during the war or in the new State of West Virginia.
After his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1877, former confederate General and railroad executive William Mahone became the leader of the "Readjusters", forming a coalition of conservative Democrats and white and black Republicans. The so-called Readjusters aspired "to break the power of wealth and established privilege" and to promote public education. The party promised to "readjust" the state debt in order to protect funding for newly established public education, and allocate a fair share to the new State of West Virginia. Its proposal to repeal the poll tax and increase funding for schools and other public facilities attracted biracial and cross-party support.
The Readjuster Party was successful in electing its candidate, William E. Cameron as governor, and he served from 1882 to 1886. Mahone served as a Senator in the U.S. Congress from 1881 to 1887, as well as fellow Readjustor Harrison H. Riddleberger, who served in the U.S. Senate from 1883 to 1889. Readjusters' effective control of Virginia politics lasted until 1883, when they lost majority control in the state legislature, followed by the election of Democrat Fitzhugh Lee as governor in 1885. The Virginia legislature replaced both Mahone and Riddleberger in the U.S. Senate with Democrats.
In 1888, the exception to Readjustor and Democratic control was John Mercer Langston, who was elected to Congress from the Petersburg area on the Republican ticket. He was the first black elected to Congress from the state, and the last for nearly a century. He served one term. A talented and vigorous politician, he was an Oberlin College graduate. He had long been active in the abolitionist cause in Ohio before the Civil War, had been president of the National Equal Rights League from 1864 to 1868, and had headed and created the law department at Howard University, and acted as president of the college. When elected, he was president of what became Virginia State University.
While the Readjustor Party faded, the goal of public education remained strong, with institutions established for the education of schoolteachers. In 1884, the state acquired a bankrupt women's college at Farmville and opened it as a normal school. Growth of public education led to the need for additional teachers. In 1908, two additional normal schools were established, one at Fredericksburg and one at Harrisonburg, and in 1910, one at Radford.
After the Readjuster Party disappeared, Virginia Democrats rapidly passed legislation and constitutional amendments that effectively disfranchised African Americans and many poor whites, through the use of poll taxes and literacy tests. They created white, one-party rule under the Democratic Party for the next 80 years. White state legislators passed statutes that restored white supremacy through imposition of Jim Crow segregation. In 1902, Virginia passed a new constitution that reduced voter registration.
Era progresista
The Progressive Era after 1900 brought numerous reforms, designed to modernize the state, increase efficiency, apply scientific methods, promote education and eliminate waste and corruption.
A key leader was Governor Claude Swanson (1906–10), a Democrat who left machine politics behind to win office using the new primary law. Swanson's coalition of reformers in the legislature, built schools and highways, raised teacher salaries and standards, promoted the state's public health programs, and increased funding for prisons. Swanson fought against child labor, lowered railroad rates and raised corporate taxes, while systematizing state services and introducing modern management techniques. The state funded a growing network of roads, with much of the work done by black convicts in chain gangs. After Swanson moved to the U.S. Senate in 1910 he promoted Progressivism at the national level as a supporter of President Woodrow Wilson, who had been born in Virginia and was considered a native son. Swanson, as a power on naval affairs, promoted the Norfolk Navy Yard and Newport News Ship Building and Drydock Corporation. Swanson's statewide organization evolved into the "Byrd Organization."[138]
The State Corporation Commission (SCC) was formed as part of the 1902 Constitution, over the opposition of the railroads, to regulate railroad policies and rates. The SCC was independent of parties, courts, and big businesses, and was designed to maximize the public interest. It became an effective agency, which especially pleased local merchants by keeping rates low.[139]
Virginia has a long history of agricultural reformers, and the Progressive Era stimulated their efforts. Rural areas suffered persistent problems, such as declining populations, widespread illiteracy, poor farming techniques, and debilitating diseases among both farm animals and farm families. Reformers emphasized the need to upgrade the quality of elementary education. With federal help, in they set up a county agent system (today the Virginia Cooperative Extension) that taught farmers the latest scientific methods for dealing with tobacco and other crops, and farm house wives how to maximize their efficiency in the kitchen and nursery.[140]
Some upper-class women, typified by Lila Meade Valentine of Richmond, promoted numerous Progressive reforms, including kindergartens, teacher education, visiting nurses programs, and vocational education for both races. Middle-class white women were especially active in the Prohibition movement.[141] The woman suffrage movement became entangled in racial issues—whites were reluctant to allow black women the vote—and was unable to broaden its base beyond middle-class whites. Virginia women got the vote in 1920, the result of a national constitutional amendment.[142]
In higher education, the key leader was Edwin A. Alderman, president of the University of Virginia, 1904–31. His goal was the transformation of the southern university into a force for state service and intellectual leadership. and educational utility. Alderman successfully professionalized and modernized the state's system of higher education. He promoted international standards of scholarship, and a statewide network of extension services. Joined by other college presidents, he promoted the Virginia Education Commission, created in 1910. Alderman's crusade encountered some resistance from traditionalists, and never challenged the Jim Crow system of segregated schooling.[143]
While the progressives were modernizers, there was also a surge of interest in Virginia traditions and heritage, especially among the aristocratic First Families of Virginia (FFV). The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA), founded in Williamsburg in 1889, emphasized patriotism in the name of Virginia's 18th-century Founding Fathers.[144] In 1907, the Jamestown Exposition was held near Norfolk to celebrate the tricentennial of the arrival of the first English colonists and the founding of Jamestown.
Attended by numerous federal dignitaries, and serving as the launch point for the Great White Fleet, the Jamestown Exposition also spurred interest in the military potential of the area. The site of the exposition would later become, in 1917, the location of the Norfolk Naval Station. The proximity to Washington, D.C., the moderate climate, and strategic location of a large harbor at the center of the Atlantic seaboard made Virginia a key location during World War I for new military installations. These included Fort Story, the Army Signal Corps station at Langley, Quantico Marine Base in Prince William County, Fort Belvoir in Fairfax County, Fort Lee near Petersburg and Fort Eustis, in Warwick County (now Newport News). At the same time, heavy shipping traffic made the area a target for U-boats, and a number of merchant vessels were attacked or sunk off the Virginia coast.[145][146]
Entreguerras
Temperance became an issue in the early 20th century. In 1916, a statewide referendum passed to outlaw the consumption of alcohol. This was overturned in 1933.[147]
After 1930, tourism began to grow with the development of Colonial Williamsburg.
Shenandoah National Park was constructed from newly gathered land, as well as the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive. The Civilian Conservation Corps played a major role in developing that National Park, as well as Pocahontas State Park. By 1940, new highway bridges crossed the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers, bringing to an end the long-distance steamboat service which had long served as primary transportation throughout the Chesapeake Bay area. Ferryboats remain today in only a few places.
Byrd machine
Blacks comprised a third of the population but lost nearly all their political power. The electorate was so small that from 1905 to 1948 government employees and officeholders cast a third of the votes in state elections. This small, controllable electorate facilitated the formation of a powerful statewide political machine by Harry Byrd (1887–1966), which dominated from the 1920s to the 1960s.[148] Most of the blacks who remained politically active supported the Byrd organization, which in turn protected their right to vote, making Virginia's race relations the most harmonious in the South before the 1950s, according to V.O. Key.[149] Not until Federal civil rights legislation was passed in 1964 and 1965 did African Americans recover the power to vote and the protection of other basic constitutional civil rights.
La Segunda Guerra Mundial hasta mediados del siglo XX
The economic stimulus of the World War brought full employment for workers, high wages, and high profits for farmers.[150] It brought in many thousands of soldiers and sailors for training. Virginia sent 300,000 men and 4,000 women to the services. The buildup for the war greatly increased the state's naval and industrial economic base, as did the growth of federal government jobs in Northern Virginia and adjacent Washington, DC. The Pentagon was built in Arlington as the largest office building in the world. Additional installations were added: in 1941, Fort A.P. Hill and Fort Pickett opened, and Fort Lee was reactivated. The Newport News shipyard expanded its labor force from 17,000 to 70,000 in 1943, while the Radford Arsenal had 22,000 workers making explosives. Turnover was very high—in one three-month period the Newport News shipyard hired 8400 new workers as 8,300 others quit.[151]
Cold War and Space Age
In addition to general postwar growth, the Cold War resulted in further growth in both Northern Virginia and Hampton Roads. With the Pentagon already established in Arlington, the newly formed Central Intelligence Agency located its headquarters further afield at Langley (unrelated to the Air Force Base). In the early 1960s, the new Dulles International Airport was built, straddling the Fairfax County-Loudoun County border. Other sites in Northern Virginia included the listening station at Vint Hill. Due to the presence of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet in Norfolk, in 1952 the Allied Command Atlantic of NATO was headquartered there, where it remained for the duration of the Cold War.[152] Later in the 1950s and across the river, Newport News Shipbuilding would begin construction of the USS Enterprise—the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier—and the subsequent atomic carrier fleet.
Virginia also witnessed American efforts in the Space Race. When the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was transformed into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1958, the resulting Space Task Group headquartered at the laboratories of Langley Research Center.[153] From there, it would initiate Project Mercury, and would remain the headquarters of the U.S. manned spaceflight program until its transfer to Houston in 1962.[153] On the Eastern Shore, near Chincoteague, Wallops Flight Facility served as a rocket launch site, including the launch of Little Joe 2 on December 4, 1959, which sent a rhesus monkey, Sam, into suborbital spaceflight.[154] Langley later oversaw the Viking program to Mars.[155]
The new U.S. Interstate highway system begun in the 1950s and the new Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel in 1958 helped transform Virginia Beach from a tiny resort town into one of the state's largest cities by 1963, and spurring the growth of the Hampton Roads region linked by the Hampton Roads Beltway. In the western portion of the state, completion of north-south Interstate 81 brought better access and new businesses to dozens of counties over a distance of 300 miles (480 km) as well as facilitating travel by students at the many Shenandoah area colleges and universities. The creation of Smith Mountain Lake, Lake Anna, Claytor Lake, Lake Gaston, and Buggs Island Lake, by damming rivers, attracted many retirees and vacationers to those rural areas. As the century drew to a close, Virginia tobacco growing gradually declined due to health concerns, although not at steeply as in Southern Maryland. A state community college system brought affordable higher education within commuting distance of most Virginians, including those in remote, underserved localities. Other new institutions were founded, most notably George Mason University and Liberty University. Localities such as Danville and Martinsville suffered greatly as their manufacturing industries closed.[citation needed]
Civil rights era and Massive Resistance
In 1944, Irene Morgan refused to give up her seat on an interstate bus and was arrested in Middlesex County, Virginia pursuant to Virginia's segregation laws. Morgan appealed her case up to the U.S. Supreme Court and, in 1946, won Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, which struck down racial segregation in interstate buses. Virginia continued to enforce interstate bus segregation, and in 1947, activists organized a series of integrated rides, the Journey of Reconciliation, through Virginia and other states of the Upper South in an act of civil disobedience against Virginia's defiance of the Supreme Court's ruling. Another U.S. Supreme Court ruling involving Virginia, Boynton v. Virginia (1960), desegregated interstate bus terminals. Morgan, Boynton, and the Journey of Reconciliation inspired the 1961 Freedom Rides that fought bus segregation in the Deep South. Along with the bus desegregation cases, Virginia was a contestant in the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage, Loving v. Virginia (1967).
Senator Harry Byrd, the state's dominant politician, was long a champion of constitutional rights against expansion of federal power. He deployed two doctrines in a last ditch battle against racial integration after the Brown decision of 1954: interposition and massive resistance. The first doctrine proclaimed that the U.S. Constitution allowed the states to interpose state sovereignty blocking rulings of federal courts from taking effect on local school boards. The new doctrine of Massive Resistance became a rallying cry across the southern United States to block orders by federal courts to integrate public schools. The test cases came in Virginia, when in 1956 the legislature adopted interposition and urged fellow states to join in. Governor Stanley abandon his earlier moderation, and the legislature adopted the Stanley Plan. It included 13 segregationist laws, including five that were designed to intimidate the NAACP. The governor now had the power to close public schools, and he shut down the first one in Warren County in 1958, followed by Charlottesville and Norfolk. In 1959 both the Virginia supreme Court of Appeals, and the federal court declared the Stanley Plan unconstitutional in terms of both the state and federal constitutions. Governor J. Lindsay Almond broke with Byrd; the General assembly voted to end massive resistance. Nevertheless, in 1959-1963, Prince Edward County closed all its public schools.[156]
The first black students attended the University of Virginia School of Law in 1950, and Virginia Tech in 1953.[157] In 2008, various actions of the Civil Rights Movement were commemorated by the Virginia Civil Rights Memorial in Richmond.
Finales del siglo XX hasta la actualidad
By the 1980s, Northern Virginia and the Hampton Roads region had achieved the greatest growth and prosperity, chiefly because of employment related to Federal government agencies and defense, as well as an increase in technology in Northern Virginia. Shipping through the Port of Hampton Roads began expansion which continued into the early 21st century as new container facilities were opened. Coal piers in Newport News and Norfolk had recorded major gains in export shipments by August 2008. The recent expansion of government programs in the areas near Washington has profoundly affected the economy of Northern Virginia whose population has experienced large growth and great ethnic/ cultural diversification, exemplified by communities such as Tysons Corner, Reston and dense, urban Arlington. The subsequent growth of defense projects has also generated a local information technology industry. In recent years, intolerably heavy commuter traffic and the urgent need for both road and rail transportation improvements have been a major issue in Northern Virginia. The Hampton Roads region has also experienced much growth, as have the western suburbs of Richmond in both Henrico and Chesterfield Counties.
On January 13, 1990, Douglas Wilder became the first African American to be elected as Governor of a US state since Reconstruction when he was elected Governor of Virginia.
Virginia served as a major center for information technology during the early days of the Internet and network communication. Internet and other communications companies clustered in the Dulles Corridor. By 1993, the Washington area had the largest amount of Internet backbone and the highest concentration of Internet service providers.[158] In 2000, more than half of all Internet traffic flowed along the Dulles Toll Road,[158] and by 2016 70% of the world's internet traffic flowed through Loudoun County.[159] Bill von Meister founded two Virginia companies that played major roles in the commercialization of the Internet: McLean, Virginia based The Source and Control Video Corporation, forerunner of America Online. While short-lived, The Source was one of the first online service providers alongside CompuServe. On hand for the launch of The Source, Isaac Asimov remarked "This is the beginning of the information age."[160] The Source helped pave the way for future online service providers including another Virginia company founded by von Meister, America Online (AOL). AOL became the largest provider of Internet access during the Dial-up era of Internet access. AOL maintained a Virginia headquarters until the then-struggling company moved in 2007.
In 2006, former Governor of Virginia Mark Warner gave a speech and interview in the massively multiplayer online game Second Life, becoming the first politician to appear in a video game.[161] In 2007, Virginia speedily passed the nation's first spaceflight act by a vote of 99–0 in the House of Delegates.[162] Northern Virginia company Space Adventures is currently the only company in the world offering space tourism. In 2008, Virginia became the first state to pass legislation on Internet safety, with mandatory educational courses for 11- to 16-year-olds.[163]
Virginia was targeted in the September 11, 2001 attacks, as American Airlines Flight 77 was hijacked and crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County.
In 2013, by a slight margin in the Virginia Governor's race, the state of Virginia broke a long acclaimed streak of choosing a governor against the incumbent party within the White House. For the first time in more than thirty years, the Governor and the President were from the same party.
Historia de Virginia en sellos
Stamps of Virginia events and landmarks include the Jamestown founding, Mount Vernon, and Stratford Hall.
Ver también
- Colonial South and the Chesapeake
- Colony of Virginia
- Constitution of Virginia
- Women's suffrage in Virginia
- List of former counties, cities, and towns of Virginia
- History of Richmond, Virginia, the current state capital
- History of the East Coast of the United States
- History of the Southern United States
- History of Virginia on stamps
- List of newspapers in Virginia#Defunct newspapers
- Virginia Conventions
Referencias
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 1, 2013). "Girl's Bones Bear Signs of Cannibalism by Starving Virginia Colonists". The New York Times.
- ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia, the mountain state (1958) pp 48-52, 55
- ^ "Archaeological evidence also indicates that Native Americans occupied the area as early as 6500 BC." "State Historical Highway Marker 'Pocahontas Island' To Be Dedicated in Petersburg", Petersburg, VA Official Website, Posted on: June 16, 2015, archived article accessed February 25, 2016
- ^ Brown, Hutch (Summer 2000). "Wildland Burning by American Indians in Virginia". Fire Management Today. 60 (3): 32. An engraving after John White watercolor. Sparsely wooded field in background suggests the region's savanna.
- ^ Virginia Indian Tribes, University of Richmond Archived March 9, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Clarence Walworth Alvord and Lee Bidgood, 1912.
- ^ c.f. Anishinaabe language: danakamigaa: "activity-grounds", i.e. "land of much events [for the People]" Archived October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Edward Bland, The Discoverie of New Brittaine
- ^ "The Shawnee Tribe and War of 1812". SchoolworkHelper.net. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
- ^ Wood, Karenne (editor). The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, 2007.
- ^ "Restore Handsell".
- ^ Pritzker 441
- ^ a b "LEARN NC has been archived".
- ^ Hodge, F. W. (1910). The Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ Mooney, James, The Siouan Tribes of the Southeast. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1894.
- ^ Brashler 1987
- ^ Kent 2001
- ^ Hale, Horatio "Tutelo Tribe & Language" (1883)
- ^ Owen-Dorsey, James & Swanton, John R. "A Dictionary of Biloxi & Ofo" (1912)
- ^ Speck, Frank G. "Catawba Texts" (1969)
- ^ Collins, Scott Preston "Saponi History"
- ^ http://www.gilwell.com/lenape/lenape.pdf
- ^ "Saponi Nation of Ohio".
- ^ Jerald T. Milanich (February 10, 2006). Laboring in the Fields of the Lord: Spanish Missions And Southeastern Indians. University Press of Florida. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8130-2966-5. Retrieved June 25, 2012.
- ^ "Discoveries of John Lederer," reprinted by O.H. Harpel, Cincinnati (1879)
- ^ a b Batt's "Journal & Relation of a New Discovery" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 191 (1671)
- ^ "Lambreville to Bruyas Nov. 4,1696" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 484
- ^ Lawson's "History of Carolina" reprinted by Stroller & Marcom. Raleigh, 1860, p. 384
- ^ N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. V, p. 633
- ^ "Life of Brainerd" p. 167
- ^ N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. VI, p. 811
- ^ Mooney, J. (1894). The Siouan Tribes of the East. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ http://www.sonofthesouth.net/revolutionary-war/maps/captain-smith-virginia-map.jpg
- ^ "The Tuscarora and the Iroquois League | Native American Netroots".
- ^ "Coharie Tribe". Coharie Tribe. Coharie Tribe. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
- ^ "EARLY INDIAN MIGRATION IN OHIO". GenealogyTrails.com. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
- ^ Cheves, L. "Shaftesbury Papers." Col. of the South Carolina Historical Society 5, Richmond: William Ellis Jones
- ^ Cheves, L. "Shaftesbury Papers." Col. of the South Carolina Historical Society 5, Richmond: William Ellis Jones
- ^ "Yuchi Language Primer" (2007) Yuchi.org
- ^ cherokeelessons.com/pdf/Cherokee Lessons 978-0-557-68640-7.pdf
- ^ Oatis, Steven J. "A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, (1680-1730)
- ^ Oatis, A Colonial Complex
- ^ Charles Augustus Hanna, 1911 The Wilderness Trail, Vol II, 1911, pp. 93–95.
- ^ Ethridge, Robbie (2003). "Chapter 5: "The People of Creek Country"". Creek Country: The Creek Indians and their World. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-8078-5495-6.
- ^ Berrier Jr., Ralph (September 20, 2009). "The slaughter at Saltville". The Roanoke Times. Archived from the original on September 11, 2012. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
- ^ "Virginia Memory: Virginia Chronology". Library of Virginia. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
- ^ James O. Glanville (2004). Conquistadors at Saltville in 1567?: A Review of the Archeological and Documentary Evidence. Smithfield Review.
- ^ a b "A" New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient: The American Southeast During the Sixteenth Century. LSU Press. October 1, 2004. pp. 182–184. ISBN 978-0-8071-3028-5. Retrieved March 30, 2013.
- ^ Stephen Adams (2001), The best and worst country in the world: perspectives on the early Virginia landscape, University of Virginia Press, p. 61, ISBN 978-0-8139-2038-2
- ^ Charles M. Hudson; Carmen Chaves Tesser (1994). The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521-1704. University of Georgia Press. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-8203-1654-3.
- ^ Jerald T. Milanich (February 10, 2006). Laboring in the Fields of the Lord: Spanish Missions And Southeastern Indians. University Press of Florida. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8130-2966-5. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
- ^ a b Seth Mallios (August 28, 2006). The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. University of Alabama Press. pp. 39–43. ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
- ^ Price, 11
- ^ Thomas C. Parramore; Peter C. Stewart; Tommy L. Bogger (April 1, 2000). Norfolk: The First Four Centuries. University of Virginia Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8139-1988-1. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^ a b MR Peter C Mancall (2007). The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550-1624. UNC Press Books. pp. 517, 522. ISBN 978-0-8078-3159-5. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
- ^ Three names from the Roanoke Colony are still in use, all based on Native American names. Stewart, George (1945). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-59017-273-5.
- ^ Raleigh, History of the World: "For when some of my people asked the name of that country, one of the savages answered 'Win-gan-da-coa', which is as much as to say, 'You wear good clothes.'
- ^ T. H. Breen, "Looking Out for Number One: Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia," South Atlantic Quarterly, Summer 1979, Vol. 78 Issue 3, pp. 342–360
- ^ J. Frederick Fausz, "The 'Barbarous Massacre' Reconsidered: The Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and the Historians," Explorations in Ethnic Studies, vol 1 (Jan. 1978), 16–36
- ^ Gleach p. 199
- ^ John Esten Cooke, Virginia: A History of the People (1883) p. 205.
- ^ Heinemann, Ronald L., et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: a history of Virginia 1607-2007, U. Virginia Press 2007 ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4, p.44-45
- ^ Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (1957)
- ^ Albert H. Tillson (1991). Gentry and Common Folk: Political Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740-1789. UP of Kentucky. p. 20ff. ISBN 978-0813117492.
- ^ Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (2002) p 157.
- ^ John E. Selby, The Revolution in Virginia, 1775-1783 (1988) p 24-25.
- ^ Quoted in Nancy L. Struna, "The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite: The Chesapeake Gentry, 1650-1720s." Journal of Sport History 13#3 (1986) p 219. online Archived August 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Struna, The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite pp 212-16.
- ^ Timothy H. Breen, "Horses and gentlemen: The cultural significance of gambling among the gentry of Virginia." William and Mary Quarterly (1977) 34#2 pp: 239-257. online
- ^ Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (1975) p 386
- ^ Heinemann, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth (2007) 83–90
- ^ Gene Wilhelm, Jr., "Folk Culture History of the Blue Ridge Mountains" Appalachian Journal (1975) 2#3 in JSTOR
- ^ Delma R. Carpenter, "The Route Followed by Governor Spotswood in 1716 across the Blue Ridge Mountains." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1965): 405-412. in JSTOR
- ^ Rob Sherwood, "Germanna's Treasure Trove of History: A Journey of Discovery." Inquiry 13.1 (2008): 45-55. online
- ^ "The Route of the Three Notch'd Road : A Preliminary Report" (PDF). Virginiadot.org. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
- ^ "The Route of the Three Notch'd Road : A Preliminary Report" (PDF). 3chopt.com. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" online
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Backcountry_Frontier_of_Colonial_Virginia#start_entry
- ^ http://www.virginiaplaces.org/settleland/fairfaxgrant.html Once colonial settlement moved upstream of the Fall Line into the Piedmont, the dispute over the inland edge of the Northern Neck grant became an issue. Settlers seeking clear title had to know whether to file paperwork and pay fees to the colonial government in Williamsburg or the land office of the Fairfax family. If the colony could extinguish the Northern Neck grant somehow, revenues would flow to Williamsburg rather than to Leeds Castle."
- ^ http://www.historichampshire.org/research/searching1.htm "in mid-March, 1735, Lord Fairfax arrived in Virginia on board the Glasgow on his first inspection trip to America. The trip lasted over two years during which time Fairfax reasserted his claim to the Proprietary and made arrangements for the survey of the boundaries."
- ^ http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/lord-fairfax/ "in 1748 hired, among others, the sixteen-year old Washington to survey the Northern Neck."
- ^ George Washington's elder half brother Lawrence Washington (1718-1752) was married to Anne (1728-1761) a daughter of Col. William Fairfax of Belvoir—a land agent and cousin of Lord Thomas Fairfax. Anne's brother, George William Fairfax, was married to Sally Fairfax (nee Cary).
- ^ Historical Statement Relative to the Town of Winchester the Virginia -- House of Burgesses granted the fourth city charter in Virginia to 'Winchester' as Frederick Town was renamed.
- ^ MacCorkle, William Alexander. "The historical and other relations of Pittsburgh and the Virginias". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 16, 2013.
- ^ Andrew Arnold Lambing; et al. "Allegheny County: its early history and subsequent development: from the earliest period till 1790". Historic Pittsburgh Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
- ^ "Addresses delivered at the celebration of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Bushy Run, August 5th and 6th, 1913". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 16, 2013.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 48
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 42–43
- ^ "Royal Proclamation I". Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
- ^ Gordon S. Wood, The American Revolution, A History. New York, Modern Library, 2002 ISBN 0-8129-7041-1, p.22
- ^ Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen, The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007)
- ^ Rountree p. 161–162, 168–170, 175
- ^ Edward L. Bond, "Anglican theology and devotion in James Blair's Virginia, 1685–1743," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, (1996) 104#3 pp 313–40
- ^ Charles Woodmason, The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant ed. by Richard J. Hooker (1969)
- ^ David Brion Davis (1986). Slavery in the Colonial Chesapeake. Colonial Williamsburg. p. 28. ISBN 9780879351151.
- ^ Cynthia Lynn Lyerly (1998). Methodism and the Southern Mind, 1770-1810. Oxford UP. p. 119ff. ISBN 9780195354249.
- ^ John A. Ragosta, "Fighting for Freedom: Virginia Dissenters' Struggle for Religious Liberty during the American Revolution," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, (2008) 116#3 pp. 226–261
- ^ Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 To 1775," William and Mary Quarterly (1974) 31#3 pp 345–368 in JSTOR
- ^ Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (2010) pp. 235–319
- ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73
- ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81
- ^ Andrew Levy, The First Emancipator: The Forgotten Story of Robert Carter, the Founding Father who freed his slaves, New York: Random House, 2005 ( ISBN 0-375-50865-1)
- ^ Scott Nesbit, "Scales Intimate and Sprawling: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Geography of Marriage in Virginia", Southern Spaces, July 19, 2011. http://southernspaces.org/2011/scales-intimate-and-sprawling-slavery-emancipation-and-geography-marriage-virginia.
- ^ Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The 'Invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 137, accessed December 27, 2008
- ^ "Soil exhaustion in the Tidewater became chronic, and the Piedmont was "worn out, washed and gullied." Conditions were better in the Valley of Virginia, where wheat rather than tobacco was dominant, but even there people saw a brighter future outside Virginia." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ "In all, perhaps one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ "Virginia fell from first to seventh place in population, and its number of congressmen dropped from twenty-three to eleven." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners"Although this mass exodus of Virginians caused the state to slip into a secondary role both politically and economically, these westward-bound settlers spread their culture, laws, political ideas, and labor system across America."
- ^ "Washington Iron Furnace National Register Nomination" (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 23, 2010. Retrieved March 23, 2011.
- ^ S. Sydney Bradford, "The Negro Ironworker in Ante Bellum Virginia," Journal of Southern History, May 1959, Vol. 25 Issue 2, pp. 194–206; Ronald L. Lewis, "The Use and Extent of Slave Labor in the Virginia Iron Industry: The Antebellum Era," West Virginia History, Jan 1977, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 141–156
- ^ For a comparison of Virginia and New Jersey see John Bezis-Selfa, "A Tale of Two Ironworks: Slavery, Free Labor, Work, and Resistance in the Early Republic," William & Mary Quarterly, Oct 1999, Vol. 56 Issue 4, pp. 677–700
- ^ "Virginia Museum of History & Culture |". Archived from the original on February 3, 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
- ^ see "Libby Prison", Encyclopedia Virginia, accessed 21 April 2012
- ^ Aaron Sheehan-Dean, "Everyman's War: Confederate Enlistment in Civil War Virginia," Civil War History, March 2004, Vol. 50 Issue 1, pp. 5–26
- ^ The U.S Constitution requires permission of the old state for a new state to form. David R. Zimring, "'Secession in Favor of the Constitution': How West Virginia Justified Separate Statehood during the Civil War," West Virginia History, (2009) 3#2 pp. 23–51
- ^ Richard O. Curry, A House Divided, Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, (1964), pp. 141–147.
- ^ Curry, A House Divided, pg. 73.
- ^ Curry, A House Divided, pgs. 141–152.
- ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia: The Mountain State ch 15–20
- ^ Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (1985) ch 12–14
- ^ Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (1994) p. 43-53.
- ^ The main scholarly histories are Hamilton James Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction (1904); Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991); and Jack P. Maddex, Jr., The Virginia Conservatives, 1867–1879: A Study in Reconstruction Politics (1970). See also Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) ch. 11
- ^ Mary Farmer-Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation, (Fordham U.P., 2010), quotes pp. 51, 13
- ^ Richard Lowe, "Another Look at Reconstruction in Virginia," Civil War History, March 1986, Vol. 32 Issue 1, pp. 56–76
- ^ James L. McDonough, "John Schofield as Military Director of Reconstruction in Virginia.," Civil War History, Sept 1969, Vol. 15#3, pp. 237–256
- ^ Heinemann, et al. Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007) p 248.
- ^ Eric Foner, Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (1980) p 146
- ^ James E. Bond, No Easy Walk to Freedom: Reconstruction and the Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment (Praeger, 1997) p. 156.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 5
- ^ The Carpetbaggers were Northern whites who had moved to Virginia after the war. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 248
- ^ Note: In order to gain public education, black delegates had to accept segregation in the schools.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 6
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 7
- ^ Walker had 119,535 votes and Wells 101,204. The new Underwood Constitution was approved overwhelmingly, but the disfranchisement clauses were rejected by 3:2 ratios. The new legislature was controlled by the Conservative Party, which soon absorbed the "True Republicans". Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, p. 411
- ^ Ku Klux Klan chapters were formed in Virginia in the early years after the war, but they played a negligible role in state politics and soon vanished. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 249
- ^ Nelson M. Blake, William Mahone of Virginia: Soldier and Political Insurgent (1935)
- ^ Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856-70 (1991) p 119
- ^ Henry C. Ferrell, Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: a political biography (1985)
- ^ George Harrison Gilliam, "Making Virginia Progressive," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1999, Vol. 107 Issue 2, pp. 189–222
- ^ Lex Renda, "The Advent of Agricultural Progressivism in Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1988, Vol. 96 Issue 1, pp. 55–82
- ^ Lloyd C. Taylor, Jr. "Lila Meade Valentine: The FFV as Reformer," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1962, Vol. 70 Issue 4, pp. 471–487
- ^ Sara Hunter Graham, "Woman Suffrage In Virginia: The Equal Suffrage League and Pressure-Group Politics, 1909–1920," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1993, Vol. 101 Issue 2, pp. 227–250
- ^ Michael Dennis, "Reforming the 'academical village,'" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1997, Vol. 105 Issue 1, pp. 53–86
- ^ James M. Lindgren, "Virginia Needs Living Heroes": Historic Preservation in the Progressive Era," Public Historian, Jan 1991, Vol. 13 Issue 1, pp. 9–24
- ^ "U-Boat Sinks Schooner Without Any Warning" (PDF). New York Times. August 17, 1918. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
- ^ "RAIDING U-BOAT SINKS 2 NEUTRALS OFF VIRGINIA COAST". New York Times. June 17, 1918. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
- ^ Arlington Connection, Michael Lee Pope, October 14–20, 2009, Alcohol as Budget Savior, page 3
- ^ Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics (1974) p 181; Wallenstein, Cradle of America (2007) p 283–4
- ^ V.O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics (1949) p 32
- ^ Joe Freitus, Virginia in the War Years, 1938-1945: Military Bases, the U-Boat War and Daily Life (McFarland, 2014)
- ^ Charles Johnson, "V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1992): 365–398 in JSTOR
- ^ "A Brief History of U.S. Fleet Forces Command". U.S. Fleet Forces Command, USN. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
- ^ a b "Langley's Role in Project Mercury". NASA Langley Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ "Giant Leaps Began With "Little Joe"". NASA Langley Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ "Viking: Trialblazer For All Mars Research". NASA Langley Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ James H. Hershman Jr., "Massive Resistance" Encyclopedia of Virginia (2011)
- ^ Wallenstein, Peter (Fall 1997). "Not Fast, But First: The Desegregation of Virginia Tech". VT Magazine. Virginia Tech. Archived from the original on April 13, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ a b Donnelly, Sally B. "D.C. Dotcom." Time August 8, 2000. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,52073-2,00.html
- ^ Freed, Benjamin (September 14, 2016). "70 Percent of the World's Web Traffic Flows Through Loudoun County". Washingtonian.
- ^ "OBIT -".
- ^ LIFE: Mark Warner becomes first U.S. politician to campaign in a video game Archived September 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Virginia leads the way
- ^ Virginia First State to Require Internet Safety Lessons
Otras lecturas
Surveys
- Dabney, Virginius. Virginia: The New Dominion (1971)
- Heinemann, Ronald L., John G. Kolp, Anthony S. Parent Jr., and William G. Shade, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007). ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4.
- Kierner, Cynthia A., and Sandra Gioia Treadway. Virginia Women: Their Lives and Times, vol. 1. (University of Georgia Press, 2015) x, 378 pp
- Morse, J. (1797). "Virginia". The American Gazetteer. Boston, Massachusetts: At the presses of S. Hall, and Thomas & Andrews. OL 23272543M.
- Rubin, Louis D. Virginia: A Bicentennial History. States and the Nation Series. (1977), popular
- Salmon, Emily J., and Edward D.C. Campbell, Jr., eds. The Hornbook of Virginia history: A Ready-Reference Guide to the Old Dominion's People, Places, and Past 4th edition. (1994)
- Wallenstein, Peter. Cradle of America: Four Centuries of Virginia History (2007). ISBN 978-0-7006-1507-0.
- WPA. Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion (1940) famous guide to every locality; strong on society, economy and culture online edition
- Younger, Edward, and James Tice Moore, eds. The Governors of Virginia, 1860–1978 (1982)
Historiography
- Tarter, Brent, "Making History in Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography Volume: 115. Issue: 1. 2007. pp. 3+. online edition
By period
- Timeline of Virginia[note 1][note 2][note 3][note 4]
- ^ "Notable dates in Virginia history". Virginia Historical Society.
- ^ Benjamin Vincent (1910), "Virginia", Haydn's Dictionary of Dates (25th ed.), London: Ward, Lock & Co., hdl:2027/loc.ark:/13960/t89g6g776 – via Hathi Trust
- ^ Howard, Blair; Burnham, Mary K.; Burnham, Bill (April 2005). The Virginia Handbook. ISBN 9781588435125.
- ^ "Results for 'su:Virginia History Chronology.' [WorldCat.org]". www.worldcat.org. Retrieved July 21, 2020.
Prehistoric and Colonial
- Appelbaum, Robert, and John Wood Sweet, eds. Envisioning an English empire: Jamestown and the making of the North Atlantic world (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2011)
- Billings, Warren M., John E. Selby, and Thad W, Tate. Colonial Virginia: A History (1986)
- Bond, Edward L. Damned Souls in the Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (2000),
- Breen T. H. Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early America (1980). 4 chapters on colonial social history online edition
- Breen, T. H. Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (1985)
- Breen, T. H., and Stephen D. Innes. "Myne Owne Ground": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640–1676 (1980)
- Brown, Kathleen M. Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (1996) excerpt and text search
- Byrd, William. The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709–1712 (1941) ed by Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling online edition; famous primary source; very candid about his private life
- Bruce, Philip Alexander. Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Religious, Moral, Educational, Legal, Military, and Political Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records (1910) online edition
- Coombs, John C., "The Phases of Conversion: A New Chronology for the Rise of Slavery in Early Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 68 (July 2011), 332–60.
- Davis, Richard Beale. Intellectual Life in the Colonial South, 1585-1763 * 3 vol 1978), detailed coverage of Virginia
- Isaac, Rhys. The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (1982, 1999) Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality online review
- Kolp, John Gilman. Gentlemen and Freeholders: Electoral Politics in Colonial Virginia (Johns Hopkins U.P. 1998)
- Menard, Russell R. "The Tobacco Industry in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1617–1730: An Interpretation." Research In Economic History 1980 5: 109–177. 0363–3268 the standard scholarly study
- Mook, Maurice A. "The Aboriginal Population of Tidewater Virginia." American Anthropologist (1944) 46#2 pp: 193-208. online
- Morgan, Edmund S. Virginians at Home: Family Life in the Eighteenth Century (1952). online edition
- Morgan, Edmund S. "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." Journal of American History 1972 59(1): 5–29 in JSTOR
- Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (1975) online edition highly influential study
- Rasmussen, William M.S. and Robert S. Tilton. Old Virginia: The Pursuit of a Pastoral Ideal (2003)
- Roeber, A. G. Faithful Magistrates and Republican Lawyers: Creators of Virginia Legal Culture, 1680–1810 (1981)
- Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown (University of Virginia press, 2005), early Virginia history from an Indian perspective by a scholar
- Rutman, Darrett B., and Anita H. Rutman. A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650–1750 (1984), new social history
1776 to 1850
- Adams, Sean Patrick. Old Dominion, Industrial Commonwealth: Coal, Politics, and Economy in Antebellum America (2004)
- Ambler, Charles H. Sectionalism in Virginia from 1776 to 1861 (1910) full text online
- Beeman, Richard R. The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801 (1972)
- Dill, Alonzo Thomas. "Sectional Conflict in Colonial Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 87 (1979): 300–315.
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. A Share of Honor: Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Link, William A. Roots of Secession: Slavery and Politics in Antebellum Virginia (2007) excerpt and text search
- Main, Jackson T. “Sections and Politics in Virginia, 1781-1787.” William and Mary Quarterly 12#1 1955, pp. 96–112. online
- Main, Jackson T. “The One Hundred.” William and Mary Quarterly 11#4 1954, pp. 354–384. online finds the 100 wealthiest men in the 1780s controlled only six percent of the land and six and one-half percent of the slaves. Entail and primogeniture had little effect on landholding.
- Majewski, John D. A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia Before the Civil War (2006) excerpt and text search
- Risjord, Norman K. Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800 (1978). in-depth coverage of Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina online edition
- Selby, John E. The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783 (1988)
- Shade, William G. Democratizing the Old Dominion: Virginia and the Second Party System 1824–1861 (1996)
- Taylor, Alan. The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772-1832 (2014). 624 pp online review
- Tillson, Jr. Albert H. Gentry and Common Folk: Political Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740–1789 (1991),
- Varon; Elizabeth R. We Mean to Be Counted: White Women and Politics in Antebellum Virginia (1998)
- Virginia State Dept. of Education. The Road to Independence: Virginia 1763–1783 online edition; 80pp; with student projects
1850 to 1870
- Blair, William. Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (1998) online edition
- Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989)
- Eckenrode, Hamilton James. The political history of Virginia during the Reconstruction, (1904) online edition
- [Kerr-Ritchie, Jeffrey R.] Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860–1900 (1999)
- Lankford, Nelson. Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital (2002)
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. "A Share of Honor": Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Lowe, Richard. Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991)
- Maddex, Jr., Jack P. The Virginia Conservatives, 1867–1879: A Study in Reconstruction Politics (1970).
- Majewski, John. A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia before the Civil War (2000)
- Noe, Kenneth W. Southwest Virginia's Railroad: Modernization and the Sectional Crisis (1994)
- Robertson, James I. Civil War Virginia: Battleground for a Nation (1993) 197 pages; excerpt and text search
- Shanks, Henry T. The Secession Movement in Virginia, 1847–1861 (1934) online edition
- Sheehan-Dean, Aaron Charles. Why Confederates fought: family and nation in Civil War Virginia (2007) 291 pages excerpt and text search
- Simpson, Craig M. A Good Southerner: The Life of Henry A. Wise of Virginia (1985), wide-ranging political history
- Wallenstein, Peter, and Bertram Wyatt-Brown, eds. Virginia's Civil War (2008) excerpt and text search
- Wills, Brian Steel. The war hits home: the Civil War in southeastern Virginia (2001) 345 pages; excerpt and text search
Since 1870
- Brundage, W. Fitzhugh. Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930 (1993)
- Buni, Andrew. The Negro in Virginia Politics, 1902–1965 (1967)
- Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989)
- Ferrell, Henry C., Jr. Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: A Political Biography (1985) early 20th century
- Freitus, Joe. Virginia in the War Years, 1938-1945: Military Bases, the U-Boat War and Daily Life (McFarland, 2014) online review
- Gilliam, George H. "Making Virginia Progressive: Courts and Parties, Railroads and Regulators, 1890–1910." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 107 (Spring 1999): 189–222.
- Heinemann, Ronald L. Depression and the New Deal in Virginia: The Enduring Dominion (1983)
- Heinemann, Ronald L. Harry Byrd of Virginia (1996)
- Heinemann, Ronald L. "Virginia in the Twentieth Century: Recent Interpretations." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 94 (April 1986): 131–60.
- Hunter, Robert F. "Virginia and the New Deal," in John Braeman et al. eds. The New Deal: Volume Two – the State and Local Levels (1975) pp. 103–36
- Johnson, Charles. "V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1992): 365–398 in JSTOR
- Kerr-Ritchie, Jeffrey R. Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860–1900 (1999)
- Key, V. O., Jr. Southern Politics in State and Nation (1949), important chapter on Virginia in the 1940s
- Lassiter, Matthew D., and Andrew B. Lewis, eds. The Moderates' Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (1998)
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. "A Share of Honor": Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Link, William A. A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870–1920 (1986)
- Martin-Perdue, Nancy J., and Charles L. Perdue Jr., eds. Talk about Trouble: A New Deal Portrait of Virginians in the Great Depression (1996)
- Moger, Allen W. Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870–1925 (1968)
- Muse, Benjamin. Virginia's Massive Resistance (1961)
- Pulley, Raymond H. Old Virginia Restored: An Interpretation of the Progressive Impulse, 1870–1930 (1968)
- Shiftlett, Crandall. Patronage and Poverty in the Tobacco South: Louisa County, Virginia, 1860–1900 (1982), new social history
- Smith, J. Douglas. Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia (2002)
- Sweeney, James R. "Rum, Romanism, and Virginia Democrats: The Party Leaders and the Campaign of 1928" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 90 (October 1982): 403–31.
- Wilkinson, J. Harvie, III. Harry Byrd and the Changing Face of Virginia Politics, 1945–1966 (1968)
- Wynes, Charles E. Race Relations in Virginia, 1870–1902 (1961)
Environment, geography, locales
- Adams, Stephen. The Best and Worst Country in the World: Perspectives on the Early Virginia Landscape (2002) excerpt and text search
- Gottmann, Jean. Virginia at mid-century (1955), by a leading geographer
- Gottmann, Jean. Virginia in Our Century (1969)
- Kirby, Jack Temple. "Virginia'S Environmental History: A Prospectus," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1991, Vol. 99 Issue 4, pp. 449–488
- *Parramore, Thomas C., with Peter C. Stewart and Tommy L. Bogger. Norfolk: The First Four Centuries (1994)
- Terwilliger, Karen. Virginia's Endangered Species (2001), esp. ch 1
- Sawyer, Roy T. America's Wetland: An Environmental and Cultural History of Tidewater Virginia and North Carolina (University of Virginia Press; 2010) 248 pages; traces the human impact on the ecosystem of the Tidewater region.
Primary sources
- Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia
- Duke, Maurice, and Daniel P. Jordan, eds. A Richmond Reader, 1733–1983 (1983)
- Eisenberg, Ralph. Virginia Votes, 1924–1968 (1971), all statistics
enlaces externos
- Encyclopedia Virginia
- Virginia Historical Society short history of state, with teacher guide
- Virginia Memory, digital collections and online classroom of the Library of Virginia
- How Counties Got Started in Virginia
- Union or Secession: Virginians Decide
- Virginia and the Civil War
- Civil War timeline
- Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of Virginia, various dates.