Kedoshim
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No debe confundirse con Kodashim , Kodesh Hakodashim , Kidush Hashem o Mártires en el judaísmo .
"No segarás hasta los límites de tu campo".

Kedoshim , K'doshim o Qedoshim ( קְדֹשִׁים - hebreo para "santos", la decimocuarta palabra, y la primera palabra distintiva, en la parashá) es la trigésima porción semanal de la Torá ( פָּרָשָׁה , parashá ) en el ciclo judío anual de la lectura de la Torá y el séptimo en el Libro de Levítico . Constituye Levítico 19: 1–20: 27 . La parashá habla de las leyes de santidad y comportamiento ético, repite los diez mandamientos, y describe las penas por transgresiones sexuales. La parashá se compone de 3229 letras hebreas, 868 palabras hebreas, 64 versos y 109 líneas en un rollo de la Torá ( סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה , Sefer Torá ). [1]

Los judíos generalmente lo leen a finales de abril o mayo. El calendario hebreo lunisolar contiene hasta 55 semanas , el número exacto varía entre 50 en años comunes y 54 o 55 en años bisiestos. En los años bisiestos (por ejemplo, 2022 y 2024), la parashá Kedoshim se lee por separado. En años comunes (por ejemplo, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2025 y 2026), la parashá Kedoshim se combina con la parashá anterior, Acharei Mot , para ayudar a lograr la cantidad necesaria de lecturas semanales. Algunas congregaciones conservadoras sustituyen las lecturas de parte de la parashá, Levítico 19 , por la lectura tradicional de Levítico 18 en el servicio de Yom Kipur Minjá .[2] Y en ellibro de oracionesestándar de las Altas Fiestas de la Reforma ( מחזור , machzor ), Levítico 19: 1–4 , 9–18 y 32–37 son las lecturas de la Torá para el servicio de Yom Kipur de la tarde. [3]

Kodashim es el nombre de quinto orden en la Mishnah , Tosefta y el Talmud de Babilonia . El término " kedoshim " a veces también se usa para referirse a los seis millones de judíos asesinados durante el Holocausto , a quienes algunos llaman " kedoshim " porque cumplieron la mitzvá de Kiddush Hashem .

Lecturas

En la lectura tradicional de la Torá en sábado, la parashá se divide en siete lecturas, o עליות , aliyot . [4]

Primera lectura - Levítico 19: 1-14

En la primera lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios le dijo a Moisés que dijera a los israelitas que fueran santos , porque Dios es santo. [5] Dios luego explicó (en lo que los eruditos llaman "el Código de Santidad ") cómo las personas pueden ser santas. Dios instruyó a los israelitas:

  • Reverenciar a sus padres y madres [6]
  • Para guardar el sábado [6]
  • No volverse a los ídolos [7]
  • Para comer el sacrificio de bienestar en los dos primeros días y quemar todas las sobras el tercer día [8]
  • No para segar todo el camino hasta los límites de un campo, sino para dejar algo para el pobre y el extranjero [9]
  • No robar , engañar , jurar en falso o defraudar [10]
  • Pagar a los trabajadores su salario puntualmente [11]
  • No insultar al sordo ni estorbar al ciego [12]

Segunda lectura - Levítico 19: 15-22

En la segunda lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios instruyó a los israelitas:

  • Juzgar con justicia [13]
  • No tratar con rudeza a sus compatriotas, no sacar provecho de su sangre ni odiarlos en su corazón [14]
  • Para reprender a los parientes pero no incurrir en culpa por ellos [15]
  • No tomar venganza ni guardar rencor [16]
  • Amar a los demás como a uno mismo [16]
  • Yo soy el Señor. [17]
  • No cruzar diferentes especies o sembrar campos con dos tipos de semillas [17]
  • No usar ropa de una mezcla de dos tipos de materiales [17]
  • Un hombre que tenía relaciones sexuales con una esclava designada para otro hombre tenía que ofrecer un carnero de ofrenda por la culpa . [18]

Tercera lectura - Levítico 19: 23–32

En la tercera lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios instruyó a los israelitas:

  • Considerar que el fruto de un árbol recién plantado está prohibido durante tres años, reservado para Dios en el cuarto año y disponible para su uso en el quinto año [19]
  • No comer nada con su sangre [20]
  • No practicar la adivinación o la adivinación [20]
  • No redondear el crecimiento lateral de la cabeza ni destruir el crecimiento lateral de la barba [21]
  • No cortar su carne por los muertos [22]
  • No degradar a sus hijas ni convertirlas en rameras [23]
  • Venerar el santuario de Dios [24]
  • No recurrir a fantasmas ni preguntar a los espíritus [25]
  • Levantarse ante los ancianos y mostrar deferencia a los ancianos [26]

Cuarta lectura - Levítico 19: 33–37

En la cuarta lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios instruyó a los israelitas:

  • No a los extraños injustos que residen en la tierra, sino a amarlos como a uno mismo [27]
  • No falsificar pesos o medidas [28]
uno imaginando a Molech

Quinta lectura - Levítico 20: 1–7

En la quinta lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios luego le dijo a Moisés que instruyera a los israelitas sobre las siguientes penas por las transgresiones.

Los siguientes iban a ser ejecutados:

  • Uno que le dio un hijo a Molech [29]

Los siguientes debían ser separados de su pueblo ( כרת , karet ):

  • Alguien que recurrió a fantasmas o espíritus familiares [30]

Sexta lectura - Levítico 20: 8-22

En la sexta lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios le dijo a Moisés que instruyera a los israelitas sobre las siguientes penas por las transgresiones.

Los siguientes iban a ser ejecutados:

  • Uno que insultó a su padre o madre [31]
  • El hombre que cometió adulterio con una mujer casada y la mujer casada con quien lo cometió [32]
  • Un hombre que se acostó con la esposa de su padre, y la esposa de su padre con quien se acostó [33]
  • Un hombre que se acostó con su nuera, y su nuera con quien se acostó [34]
  • Un hombre que se acuesta con un varón como se acuesta con una mujer, y el varón con quien se acuesta [35]
  • Un hombre que se casó con una mujer y su madre, y la mujer y su madre con quien se casó [36]
  • Un hombre que tuvo relaciones carnales con una bestia, y la bestia con la que tuvo relaciones [37]
  • Una mujer que se acercó a cualquier bestia para aparearse con ella, y la bestia a la que se acercó [38]
  • Alguien que tenía un fantasma o un espíritu familiar [39]

Los siguientes debían ser separados de su pueblo ( כרת , karet ):

  • Un hombre que se casó con su hermana y la hermana con la que se casó [40]
  • Un hombre que se acostó con una mujer en su enfermedad, y la mujer con la que se acostó [41]

Los siguientes iban a morir sin hijos:

  • Un hombre que descubrió la desnudez de su tía, y la tía cuya desnudez descubrió [42]
  • Un hombre que se casó con la esposa de su hermano y la esposa del hermano con quien se casó [43]

Entonces Dios ordenó a los israelitas que observaran fielmente todas las leyes de Dios, para que la Tierra Prometida no las arrojara. [44]

Séptima lectura - Levítico 20: 23–27

En la séptima lectura ( עליה , aliyah ), Dios dejó en claro que fue porque los antiguos habitantes de la tierra hicieron todas estas cosas que Dios los desposeyó. [45] Dios designó a los israelitas como santos para Dios, porque Dios es santo, y Dios había apartado a los israelitas de otros pueblos para que fueran de Dios. [46]

Lecturas según el ciclo trienal

Los judíos que leen la Torá de acuerdo con el ciclo trienal de lectura de la Torá leen la parashá de acuerdo con un horario diferente. [47]

En antiguos paralelos

La parashá tiene paralelismos en estas fuentes antiguas:

Levítico capítulo 20

Levítico 20:24 , así como Éxodo 3: 8 y 17 , 13: 5 y 33: 3 , Números 13:27 y 14: 8 , y Deuteronomio 6: 3 , 11: 9 , 26: 9 y 15 , 27 : 3 y 31:20describe la Tierra de Israel como una tierra que fluye "leche y miel". De manera similar, el cuento egipcio medio (principios del segundo milenio a. C.) de Sinuhe Palestina describía la Tierra de Israel o, como lo llamaba el cuento egipcio, la tierra de Yaa: "Era una buena tierra llamada Yaa. Había higos y uvas. Tenía más vino que agua. Abundante era su miel, abundante su aceite. Todo tipo de fruta había en sus árboles. Cebada estaba allí y emmer, y un sinfín de ganado de todo tipo ". [48]

En la interpretación bíblica interna

La parashá tiene paralelos o se discute en estas fuentes bíblicas: [49]

Levítico capítulo 19

En Levítico 19: 2 , Dios le dijo a Moisés que dijera a los israelitas: “Seréis santos; porque yo, el Señor tu Dios, soy santo ”. El profesor David P. Wright de la Universidad de Brandeis contó más de 850 instancias de la raíz hebrea de tres letras que denota santidad ( קדש , kdsh ) como verbo, sustantivo o adjetivo en la Biblia hebrea ( תנך , Tanakh ). [50] El profesor Larry A. Mitchel, anteriormente del Pacific Union College , contó 430 instancias de "santo" ( קֹדֶשׁ , kodesh ) como adjetivo o sustantivo, 172 instancias del verbo "ser santo" o "consagrar" ( kadash), 115 instancias de “santo” ( קָדוֹשׁ , kadosh ) como adjetivo, y 11 instancias del adjetivo “consagrado” o sustantivo “prostituta de culto” ( קָדֵשׁ , kadesh ). [51] Wright señaló que la Biblia hebrea describe como Dios "santo", seres divinos menores, sacerdotes , el pueblo israelita, nazareos , levitas , primogénitos , profetas , el Santuario , las ofrendas, el mobiliario del Santuario, la ropa sacerdotal, la propiedad dedicada al Sacerdotes, aceite de la unción , incienso , cierta agua, la Tierra de Israel ,El cielo , el sábado, las fiestas , el año jubilar , ciertas guerras y el pacto . [52]

Levítico 19: 33–34 amonesta a los israelitas a no agraviar al extranjero, “porque extranjeros fuisteis en la tierra de Egipto”. (Véase también Éxodo 22:20 ; 23: 9 ; Deuteronomio 1:16 ; 10: 17-19 ; 24: 14-15 y 17-22 ; y 27:19 .) De manera similar, en Amós 3: 1 , el siglo VIII El profeta Amós a. C. ancló sus pronunciamientos en la historia del Éxodo de la comunidad del pacto , diciendo: "Oíd esta palabra que el Señor ha hablado contra vosotros, hijos de Israel, contra toda la familia que saqué de la tierra de Egipto". [53]

Las profesoras Tamara Cohn Eskenazi del Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion y Tikva Frymer-Kensky de la University of Chicago Divinity School argumentaron que Ruth representó el amor debido al extraño en Levítico 19:34 cuando en Moab , Ruth se dedicó a Noemí. , forastero en Moab. Luego, Booz proporcionó su contraparte al hacer posible la inclusión de Rut la moabita en la comunidad de Belén . [54]

Levítico capítulo 20

Levítico 20:20 aborda el papel de Dios en la creación de los niños. Mientras que Levítico 12: 6–8 requería que una nueva madre trajera un holocausto y una ofrenda por el pecado, Levítico 26: 9 , Deuteronomio 28:11 y Salmo 127: 3–5 aclaran que tener hijos es una bendición de Dios. ; Génesis 15: 2 y 1 Samuel 1: 5–11 caracterizan la falta de hijos como una desgracia; y Levítico 20:20 y Deuteronomio 28:18 amenazan la falta de hijos como castigo.

Levítico 20: 3 anunció el juicio de que aquellos que dieron a sus hijos a Moloc profanaron el nombre de Dios . En Amós 2: 7 , Amós condenó de manera similar por profanar el Nombre de Dios a los padres e hijos que tuvieron relaciones sexuales con la misma mujer, probablemente explotando a una sirvienta doméstica. [55] Amós agrupó a estos pecadores en el mismo versículo junto con los que pisotean la cabeza de los pobres en el polvo y los que hacen que los humildes caminen por un camino tortuoso, sugiriendo así de manera más general que aquellos que se aprovechan de las personas en posiciones sociales más bajas profanar el nombre de Dios.

Un rollo de documento de Damasco encontrado en Qumran

En la interpretación no árabe temprana

La parashá tiene paralelos o se analiza en estas primeras fuentes no árabes: [56]

Levítico capítulo 20

El Documento de Damasco de los sectarios de Qumrán prohibía que un hombre se casara con su sobrina, deduciendo esto de la prohibición en Levítico 18:13 de que una mujer se casara con su sobrino. El profesor Lawrence Schiffman de la Universidad de Nueva York señaló que este era un punto de discordia entre los fariseos y otros grupos judíos en la época del Segundo Templo . [57]

En la interpretación rabínica clásica

La parashá se analiza en estas fuentes rabínicas de la era de la Mishná y el Talmud : [58]

Levítico capítulo 19

El rabino Judah ben Pazzi dedujo de la yuxtaposición de las prohibiciones sexuales de Levítico 18 y la exhortación a la santidad en Levítico 19: 2 que aquellos que se protegen contra la inmoralidad sexual son llamados santos, y el rabino Joshua ben Levi enseñó que dondequiera que se encuentre una cerca contra la inmoralidad sexual, uno también encontrará santidad. [59]

Un Midrash interpretó el mensaje de Dios a Israel en Levítico 19: 1–2 en el sentido de: "Hijos míos, como yo estoy separado, vosotros sed separados; como yo soy santo, vosotros sed santos". [60]

El rabino Abin comparó las dos exhortaciones a la santidad en Levítico 19: 1–2 y 20: 7 con el caso de un rey que recompensaba a sus centinelas borrachos dos veces más que a sus centinelas sobrios. De manera similar, Dios exhortó dos veces a los israelitas a la santidad, porque la inclinación al mal influye en la gente como borrachos, mientras que la inclinación al mal no existe entre los seres celestiales. De manera similar, el rabino Abin comparó las dos exhortaciones a la santidad con el caso de los ciudadanos que hicieron tres coronas para el rey, y el rey colocó una sobre su propia cabeza y dos sobre la cabeza de sus hijos. Asimismo, todos los días los seres celestiales coronan a Dios con tres santidades, llamándolo, en las palabras de Isaías 6: 3, "Santo, santo, santo". Entonces Dios coloca una corona de santidad sobre la propia cabeza de Dios y dos coronas de santidad sobre la cabeza de Israel. [61]

El rabino Ḥiyya enseñó que la sección que comienza en Levítico 19: 1 se habló en presencia de todo el pueblo israelita, porque incluye la mayoría de los principios esenciales de la Torá. Y el rabino Levi dijo que era porque incluye cada uno de los Diez Mandamientos , y señaló que: (1) Éxodo 20: 2 dice: "Yo soy el Señor tu Dios", y Levítico 19: 3 dice: "Yo soy el Señor tu Dios". "; (2) Éxodo 20: 2-3 dice: "No tendréis otros dioses", y Levítico 19: 4 dice: "Ni os hagáis dioses de fundición"; (3) Éxodo 20: 6 (20: 7 en NJPS) dice: "No tomarás el nombre del Señor tu Dios en vano", y Levítico 19:12dice: "Y no jurarás en falso por mi nombre"; (4) Éxodo 20: 7 (20: 8 en NJPS) dice, "Acuérdate del día de reposo", y Levítico 19: 3 dice, "Y guardarás mis sábados"; (5) Éxodo 20:11 (20:12 en NJPS) dice: "Honra a tu padre ya tu madre", y Levítico 19: 3 dice: "Cada uno temerá a su madre ya su padre"; (6) Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en NJPS) dice, "No matarás", y Levítico 19:16 dice, "Ni estarás de brazos cruzados con la sangre de tu prójimo"; (7) Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en NJPS) dice, "No cometerás adulterio", y Levítico 20:10dice: "Tanto el adúltero como la adúltera ciertamente morirán; (8) Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en NJPS) dice:" No robarás ", y Levítico 19:11 dice:" No robarás ". robar "; (9) Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en NJPS) dice," No darás falso testimonio ", y Levítico 19:16 dice," No subirás y bajarás como chismoso "; y ( 10) Éxodo 20:13 (20:14 en NJPS) dice: "No codiciarás. . . todo lo que sea de tu prójimo ", y Levítico 19:18 dice:" Amarás a tu prójimo como a ti mismo " [62].

A Baraita citó las palabras de Levítico 19: 3 , "Cada uno temerá a su madre y a su padre, y guardará mis sábados", para enseñar que el deber de honrar a los padres no reemplaza el deber de guardar el sábado. [63]

Rabí Shimon señaló que en todas partes, las Escrituras mencionan el honor de un padre antes que el honor de la madre. [64] Pero Levítico 19: 3 menciona primero a la madre para enseñar que uno debe honrar a ambos padres por igual. [65] Los Sabios, sin embargo, dijeron que el padre se antepone a la madre en todos los lugares, porque tanto el hijo como la madre están obligados a honrar al padre. [66]

En un Baraita se enseñó que el rabino dijo que Dios sabe que un hijo honra más a su madre que a su padre, porque la madre lo conquista con las palabras. Por lo tanto, (en Éxodo 20:11 (20:12 en NJSP)) Dios puso el honor del padre antes que el de la madre. Dios sabe que un hijo teme a su padre más que a su madre, porque el padre le enseña Torá. Por lo tanto, (en Levítico 19: 3 ) Dios puso el temor de la madre antes que el del padre. [67]

Tomando nota de que, como manda Levítico 19: 3 , "Temerás a tu padre y a tu madre", y Deuteronomio 6:13 manda: "Temerás al Señor tu Dios y servirás", los rabinos enseñaron en un Baraita que la Escritura compara el temor de los padres al temor de Dios. Como manda Éxodo 20:11 (20:12 en NJSP), "Honra a tu padre y a tu madre", y Proverbios 3: 9 dice, "Honra al Señor con tu sustancia", la Escritura compara el honor debido a los padres con el debido a Dios. Y como manda Éxodo 21:17 : "El que maldiga a su padre oa su madre, ciertamente morirá ", y Levítico 24:15.manda: "El que maldice a su Dios, cargará con su pecado", la Escritura compara el maldecir a los padres con el maldecir a Dios. Pero el Baraita concedió que con respecto a golpear (que Éxodo 21:15 aborda con respecto a los padres) que ciertamente es imposible (con respecto a Dios). El Baraita concluyó que estas comparaciones entre padres y Dios son solo lógicas, ya que los tres (Dios, la madre y el padre) son socios en la creación del niño. Porque los rabinos enseñaron en un Baraita que hay tres socios en la creación de una persona: Dios, el padre y la madre. Cuando uno honra al padre y a la madre, Dios lo considera como si Dios hubiera habitado entre ellos y ellos hubieran honrado a Dios. Y un Tanna enseñó ante Rav Najmanque cuando uno irrita a su padre ya su madre, Dios considera que es correcto no morar entre ellos, porque si Dios hubiera habitado entre ellos, ellos habrían enojado a Dios. [67]

El tratado Shabat en la Mishná, Tosefta, el Talmud de Jerusalén y el Talmud babilónico interpretaron las leyes del sábado en Éxodo 16:23 y 29 ; 20: 7-10 (20: 8-11 en NJPS); 23:12 ; 31: 13-17 ; 35: 2-3 ; Levítico 19: 3 ; 23: 3 ; Números 15: 32–36 ; y Deuteronomio 5:11 (5:12 en NJPS). [68]

Un Midrash preguntó a qué mandamiento se refiere Deuteronomio 11:22 cuando dice: "Porque si guardas diligentemente todo este mandamiento que te mando, que lo cumplas, que ames al Señor tu Dios, que andes en todos sus caminos y que sigas adhiérete a Él, entonces el Señor echará a todas estas naciones de delante de ti, y tú despojarás a naciones más grandes y poderosas que tú ". El rabino Levi dijo que "este mandamiento" se refiere a la recitación del Shemá ( Deuteronomio 6: 4-9 ), pero los rabinos dijeron que se refiere al sábado, que es igual a todos los preceptos de la Torá. [69]

El Alfabeto de Rabí Akiva enseñó que cuando Dios le estaba dando la Torá a Israel, Dios les dijo que si aceptaban la Torá y observaban los mandamientos de Dios, entonces Dios les daría por la eternidad algo más precioso que Dios poseía: el Mundo Venidero . Cuando Israel pidió ver en este mundo un ejemplo del Mundo Venidero, Dios respondió que el sábado es un ejemplo del Mundo Venidero. [70]

Espigadoras (acuarela hacia 1896-1902 de James Tissot )

El tratado Peah en la Mishná, Tosefta y el Talmud de Jerusalén interpretó las leyes de la cosecha del rincón del campo y los rebuscos que se darían a los pobres en Levítico 19: 9–10 y 23:22 , y Deuteronomio 24: 19–21. . [71]

La Mishná enseñó que la Torá no define un mínimo ni un máximo para la donación de los rincones del campo a los pobres. [72] Pero la Mishná también enseñó que no se debe hacer que la cantidad que se deja a los pobres sea menos de la sexagésima parte de la cosecha total. Y aunque no se da una cantidad definida, la cantidad que se dé debe estar de acuerdo con el tamaño del campo, el número de personas pobres y el alcance del rendimiento. [73]

The Gleaners (grabado de Gustave Doré de la Biblia de La Sainte de 1865 )

El rabino Eliezer enseñó que quien cultiva un terreno en el que se puede plantar un cuarto de kav de semilla está obligado a ceder un rincón a los pobres. El rabino Joshua dijo que la tierra produce dos marinas de grano. El rabino Tarfon dijo tierra de al menos seis palmos por seis palmos. El rabino Judah ben Betera dijo que la tierra requiere dos golpes de hoz para cosechar, y la ley es como él habló. Rabí Akiva dijo que quien cultiva tierra de cualquier tamaño está obligado a dar un rincón a los pobres y las primicias . [74]

La Mishná enseñaba que los pobres podían entrar a un campo para recolectar tres veces al día: por la mañana, al mediodía y por la tarde. Rabban Gamliel enseñó que decían esto solo para que los terratenientes no redujeran el número de veces que los pobres podían entrar. Rabí Akiva enseñó que decían esto solo para que los terratenientes no aumentaran el número de veces que los pobres tenían que entrar. Los terratenientes de Beit Namer solían cosechar a lo largo de una cuerda y permitían que los pobres recogieran una esquina de cada hilera. [75]

La Mishná enseñó que quien no permite que los pobres espigan, o que permite que uno y no otro, o que sólo ayuda a uno, está robando a los pobres. La Mishná enseñó que Proverbios 22:28 habla de esto cuando dice: "No invadas el límite de los que suben". [76]

La Guemará señaló que Levítico 19: 9 incluye un término superfluo "cosechando" y razonó que esto debe enseñar que la obligación de dejar a los pobres se aplica tanto a los cultivos que el propietario arranca como a los que corta. Y la Guemará razonó que las palabras superfluas "Cuando coseches" en Levítico 23:22 enseñan que la obligación también se extiende a quien recoge una cosecha a mano. [77]

Observando que la discusión de los dones a los pobres en Levítico 23:22 aparece entre las discusiones de las festividades - Pascua y Shavuot por un lado, y Rosh Hashaná y Yom Kipur por el otro - Rabí Avardimos ben Rabí Yossi dijo que esto enseña que las personas que dar racimos inmaduros de uvas (como en Levítico 19:10 y Deuteronomio 24:21 ), la gavilla olvidada (como en Deuteronomio 24:19 ), la esquina del campo (como en Levítico 19: 9 y 23:22 ), y los pobres diezman (como en Deuteronomio 14:28 y 26:12) se contabiliza como si el Templo existiera y ofrecieran sus sacrificios en él. Y para los que no dan a los pobres, se les cuenta como si el Templo existiera y no ofrecieran sus sacrificios en él. [78]

La Mishná enseñaba que incluso si un terrateniente decía: "Estoy cosechando con la condición de que tomaré lo que se me olvide", el terrateniente todavía estaba sujeto a la ley de la gavilla olvidada en Levítico 19: 9-10 (y cualquier cosa que el terrateniente olvidó que pertenecía a los pobres). [79]

Uvas

La Mishná definió “fruto caído ( פֶרֶט , peret )” dentro del significado de Levítico 19:10 para significar lo que cae en el momento de la cosecha de la uva. La Mishná enseñaba que quien dejaba una canasta debajo de la vid cuando cosechaba uvas estaba robando a los pobres. La Mishná dice que Proverbios 22:28 habla de esto cuando dice: "No retires el límite de los que suben". [80]

La Mishná definió "un racimo defectuoso ( עוֹלֶלֶת , olelet )" dentro del significado de Levítico 19:10 y Deuteronomio 24:21 para significar cualquier racimo que no tuviera ni un hombro ni una porción colgante (sino que estuviera completamente unido al tallo principal ). Si el racimo tenía un hombro o una parte colgante, pertenecía al dueño de la propiedad, pero si había una duda, pertenecía a los pobres. Un racimo que se pegaba al empalme entre las ramas o el tallo y el tronco, si se arrancaba con el racimo de uva pertenecía al dueño de la propiedad; si no, pertenecía a los pobres. El rabino Judah dijo que un racimo de una sola uva era un racimo, pero los Sabios decían que era un racimo defectuoso (y por lo tanto pertenecía a los pobres). [81]

La Mishná enseñaba que después de que los más débiles de los pobres llegaban y se iban, a todos (independientemente de la pobreza o la riqueza) se les permitía tomar los tallos individuales que caían durante la cosecha ( לֶקֶט , leket , que debían dejarse para que los pobres los recogieran). . [82]

La Mishná enseñó que si una esposa renunciaba a todos los beneficios de otras personas, su esposo no podía anular el voto de su esposa, pero ella aún podía beneficiarse de los rebuscos, las gavillas olvidadas y la esquina del campo que Levítico 19: 9-10 y 23 : 22 , y Deuteronomio 24: 19–21 ordenaron a los agricultores que se fueran a los pobres. [83]

El rabino Josiah enseñó que aprendemos la prohibición formal contra el secuestro de las palabras "No robarás" en Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en el NJPS) (ya que Deuteronomio 22: 7 y Éxodo 21:16 simplemente establecen el castigo por secuestro ). Rabí Johanan enseñó que lo aprendemos de Levítico 25:42 , "No serán vendidos como esclavos". La Guemará armonizó las dos posiciones al concluir que el rabino Josiah se refirió a la prohibición del secuestro, mientras que el rabino Johanan se refirió a la prohibición de vender a una persona secuestrada. De manera similar, los rabinos enseñaron en un Baraita que Éxodo 20:12(20:13 en NJPS), "No robarás", se refiere al robo de seres humanos. A la posible objeción de que Éxodo 20:12 (20:13 en el NJPS) se refiere al robo de propiedad , el Baraita respondió que uno de los trece principios por los cuales interpretamos la Torá es que una ley es interpretada por su contexto general, y el Los Diez Mandamientos hablan de delitos capitales (como asesinato y adulterio). (Por lo tanto, "No robarás" debe referirse a un crimen capital y, por lo tanto, al secuestro.) Otro Baraita enseñó que las palabras "No robarás" en Levítico 19:11 se refieren al robo de propiedad. A la posible objeción de que Levítico 19:11 se refiere al robo de seres humanos, el Baraita respondió que el contexto general deLevítico 19: 10–15 habla de asuntos monetarios; por lo tanto, Levítico 19:11 debe referirse al robo de dinero. [84]

Los tratados Nedarim y Shevuot de la Mishná, Tosefta, el Talmud de Jerusalén y el Talmud de Babilonia interpretaron las leyes de los votos y juramentos en Éxodo 20: 7 , Levítico 5: 1–10 y 19:12 , Números 30: 2–17 y Deuteronomio 23. : 24 . [85]

La Mishná interpretó Levítico 19:13 y Deuteronomio 24: 14-15 para enseñar que un trabajador contratado por día podía cobrar el salario del trabajador toda la noche siguiente. Si se contrata por la noche, el trabajador podría cobrar el salario durante todo el día siguiente. Si se contrata por horas, el trabajador puede cobrar el salario durante todo el día y la noche. Si se contrata por semana, mes, año o período de 7 años, si el tiempo del trabajador expira durante el día, el trabajador puede cobrar el salario durante todo ese día. Si el tiempo del trabajador expira durante la noche, el trabajador podría cobrar el salario toda esa noche y el día siguiente. [86]

La Mishná enseñó que el alquiler de personas, animales o utensilios estaban sujetos a la ley de Deuteronomio 24:15 que "en el mismo día le darás su salario" y la ley de Levítico 19:13.que "el salario de un jornalero no permanecerá contigo en toda la noche hasta la mañana". El empleador se hizo responsable solo cuando el trabajador o el proveedor exigieron el pago del empleador. De lo contrario, el empleador no infringió la ley. Si el empleador le dio al trabajador o vendedor un borrador sobre un comerciante o un cambista, el empleador cumplió con la ley. Un trabajador que reclamaba el salario dentro del tiempo establecido podía cobrar el pago si el trabajador simplemente juraba que el empleador aún no había pagado. Pero si había pasado el tiempo establecido, el juramento del trabajador era insuficiente para cobrar el pago. Sin embargo, si el trabajador tenía testigos de que el trabajador había exigido el pago (dentro del tiempo establecido), el trabajador aún podía jurar y recibir el pago. [87]

La Mishná enseñó que el empleador de un extranjero residente estaba sujeto a la ley de Deuteronomio 24:15 que "en el mismo día le darás su salario" (como Deuteronomio 24:14 se refiere al extranjero), pero no a la ley. de Levítico 19:13 que "el salario de un jornalero no permanecerá contigo en toda la noche hasta la mañana". [87]

Abaye enseñó que la regla de que una comunidad debe marcar las tumbas puede derivarse de Levítico 19:14 , "Y no pongas piedra de tropiezo delante de los ciegos". [88]

La Mishná enseñó que quien persigue a un vecino con la intención de matar debe ser salvado del pecado incluso a costa de la vida del perseguidor. [89] La Guemará enseñó que es de Levítico 19:16 , "No estarás de brazos cruzados con la sangre de otro", que los Sabios en un Baraita dedujeron que cuando una persona persigue a otra con la intención de matar, la persona perseguida debe salvarse incluso a costa de la vida del perseguidor. La Guemará también citó Levítico 19:16.para un Baraita que enseñó que uno está obligado a intentar salvar a otro a quien ve ahogándose en un río, o siendo arrastrado por un animal salvaje, o siendo atacado por bandidos. La Guemará enseñó además que el verso “No te quedes con la sangre de otro” enseña que incluso se debe contratar a otros para que ayuden a rescatar a una persona que se ve en peligro, y se transgrede una prohibición si no se hace. [90]

En un Baraita, los rabinos razonaron que si Levítico 19:17 había dicho simplemente: "No odiarás a tu hermano", uno podría haber creído que simplemente no debería golpearlo, abofetearlo o maldecirlo; por lo tanto, Levítico 19:17 dice "en tu corazón" para cubrir tanto las intenciones como las acciones. La Escritura habla de odio en el corazón. [91]

Así, en Levítico 19:17 , el corazón odia. Un Midrash catalogó la amplia gama de capacidades adicionales del corazón reportadas en la Biblia hebrea. [92] El corazón habla, [93] ve, [93] oye, [94] camina, [95] cae, [96] se para, [97] se regocija, [98] llora, [99] se consuela, [100 ] se turba, [101] se endurece, [102] se desmaya, [103] se aflige, [104] temores, [105] se puede quebrantar, [106] se enorgullece,[107] se rebela, [108] inventa, [109] cavilaciones, [110] desborda, [111] maquina, [112] deseos, [113] se extravía, [114] codicia, [115] se refresca, [116] puede ser robado, [117] es humillado, [118] está atraído, [119] errs, [120] tiembla, [121] se despierta, [122] amores, [123] envidias, [124] se busca, [125 ] es renta, [126] medita, [127]es como un fuego, [128] es como una piedra, [129] se convierte en arrepentimiento, [130] se calienta, [131] muere, [132] se derrite, [133] toma en palabras, [134] es susceptible al miedo , [135] da gracias, [136] codicia, [137] se vuelve duro, [138] alegra, [139] actúa engañosamente, [140] habla por sí mismo, [141] ama los sobornos, [142] escribe palabras , [143] planes, [144] recibe mandamientos, [145] actúa con orgullo,[146] hace arreglos, [147] y se engrandece. [148]

El rabino Samuel bar Rav Isaac dijo que Rav dijo que a uno se le permite odiar a otro a quien ve cometer un pecado, como dice Éxodo 23: 5 : "Si ves el asno del que te odia acostado bajo su carga". Pero la Guemará preguntó si a uno se le permite odiar al prójimo, como dice Levítico 19:17 , "No odiarás a tu hermano en tu corazón", que prohíbe odiar al prójimo. La Guemará concluyó que a uno se le permite odiar a otro por el comportamiento malvado que ve, mientras que otros que no son conscientes de estas acciones pueden no odiar al otro. Rav Naman bar Isaac dijo: Esto no solo está permitido, sino que también es un mandamiento odiar a esta otra persona, como Proverbios 8:13.declara: "El temor de Dios es odiar el mal". [149]

En un Baraita, los rabinos dedujeron del mandato de Levítico 19:17 que "ciertamente reprenderás a tu prójimo" que uno está obligado a reprender a un vecino a quien se observa haciendo algo malo. Y dedujeron de las palabras enfáticas "ciertamente reprenderás" que si uno ha reprendido al prójimo y el vecino no acepta la reprensión, entonces hay que reprender al prójimo nuevamente. Pero los rabinos dedujeron que Levítico 19:17 continúa diciendo "no cargarás con el pecado a causa de él" para enseñar que uno no debe reprender a un vecino para vergüenza del vecino. [150]

Al leer el informe de Génesis 21:25 , "Y Abraham reprendió a Abimelec ", el rabino José ben El rabino Hanina enseñó que la reprensión conduce al amor, como dice Proverbios 9: 8 : "Reprime al sabio, y te amará". El rabino José ben Hanina dijo que el amor sin reproche no es amor. Y Resh Lakish enseñó que la reprensión conduce a la paz, y así (como informa Génesis 21:25 ) "Abraham reprendió a Abimelec". Resh Lakish dijo que la paz sin reproches no es paz. [151]

La Guemará leyó las palabras de Levítico 26:37 , "Y tropezarán unos con otros", para significar que uno tropezará con el pecado de otro. La Guemará concluyó que todos somos responsables unos de otros. [152] De manera similar, en otra parte, la Guemará leyó las palabras de Levítico 26:37 , "Y tropezarán unos con otros", en el sentido de que por todas las transgresiones de la Torá, el mundo entero es castigado. Así, la Guemará enseñó que todos los judíos se garantizan unos a otros. [153] Y leyendo Canción 6:11, "Bajé al jardín de las nueces", para aplicarlo a Israel, un Midrash enseñaba que así como cuando uno toma una nuez de un montón de nueces, todas las demás se caen, así que si un solo judío es herido, todas Los judíos lo sienten, como dice Números 16:22 : "¿Pecará un hombre, y te enojarás con toda la congregación?" [154]

El rabino Tarfon se preguntó si alguien de su generación podría aceptar la reprimenda, porque si uno le decía a otro: "Quítate la mota de entre los ojos", el otro respondería: "¡Quítate la viga de entre los ojos!" El rabino Eleazar ben Azariah se preguntó si alguien de su generación sabría censurar . El rabino Johanan ben Nuri dijo que a menudo se quejaba de Akiva a Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, lo que provocó que Akiva fuera castigado como resultado, pero Akiva derramó aún más amor sobre el rabino Johanan ben Nuri, confirmando lo que Proverbios 9: 8 dice: "Reprobar no es un escarnecedor, para que no te odie; reprende al sabio, y te amará ". [155]

El rabino Judah, hijo del rabino Simeon ben Pazzi, le preguntó a su padre si era preferible reprender honestamente o renunciar a la censura por falsa modestia. El rabino Simeon respondió que la moderación por verdadera modestia es mejor aún, porque un Maestro dijo que la modestia es la más grande de todas. Así que la falsa modestia también es preferible, razonó, porque Rav Judah dijo en nombre de Rav que uno debe dedicarse al estudio de la Torá y a las buenas obras, aunque no sea por su propio bien, porque al hacer el bien por un motivo oculto, uno llegará a hacer el bien por sí mismo. Para ilustrar la reprimenda honesta y la tolerancia por falsa modestia, la Guemará contó cómo Rav Hunay Ḥiyya bar Rav estaban sentados ante Samuel, cuando Ḥiyya bar Rav se quejó de cómo Rav Huna lo estaba molestando. Rav Huna se comprometió a no molestar más a Ḥiyya bar Rav. Después de que Ḥiyya bar Rav se fue, Rav Huna le dijo a Samuel cómo Ḥiyya bar Rav había hecho esto y aquello mal. Entonces Samuel le preguntó a Rav Huna por qué no le había dicho a Ḥiyya bar Rav en su cara. Rav Huna respondió que no quería avergonzar al hijo de Rav (y por eso eligió la tolerancia insincera sobre la reprimenda honesta). [156]

La Guemará discutió hasta qué punto se debería reprender a otro. Rav dijo que uno debe reprender hasta que el reprobado golpee al reprobador. Samuel dijo que uno debe reprender hasta que el reprobado maldice al reprobador. El rabino Johanan dijo que uno debe reprender solo hasta que el reprobado reprenda al reprobador. La Guemará notó una disputa similar entre Tannaim . El rabino Eliezer dijo hasta que el reprobado golpea al reprobador. Rabí Joshua dijo hasta que el reprobado maldice al reprobado. Ben Azzai dijo hasta que el reprobado reprende al reprobador. Rav Naman bar Isaac dijo que los tres citaron 1 Samuel 20:30 para apoyar sus posiciones. 1 Samuel 20:30dice: "Entonces la ira de Saúl se encendió contra Jonatán y le dijo: 'Hijo de perversa rebelión, ¿no sé que has elegido al hijo de Isaí ( David ) para tu propia vergüenza, y para la vergüenza de ¿la desnudez de tu madre? '"Y poco después, 1 Samuel 20:33 dice:" Y Saúl le arrojó su lanza para herirlo ". El rabino Eliezer dijo "hasta que el reprobado golpee" porque 1 Samuel 20:33 dice "para herirlo". El rabino Joshua dijo "hasta que el reprendido maldiga" porque 1 Samuel 20:33 dice: "para tu propia vergüenza y para la vergüenza de la desnudez de tu madre". Ben Azzai dijo "hasta que el reprobado reprende "porque 1 Samuel 20:30dice: "Entonces se encendió la ira de Saúl". La Guemará preguntó cómo Ben Azzai, quien dijo "hasta que el que reprendió reprende", explicó cómo 1 Samuel 20:33 también menciona golpes y maldiciones. La Guemará razonó que Jonatán arriesgó su vida aún más (y reprendió incluso más de lo requerido) debido a su gran amor por David. [157]

El rabino Nathan advirtió, sin embargo, que uno no debe reprender a otro por una falta que uno mismo tiene. Así reza el proverbio: Si hay un caso de ahorcamiento en el registro familiar de una persona, uno ni siquiera debería pedirle a esa persona que cuelgue un pez. [158]

Y el rabino Il'a dijo en nombre del rabino Eleazar hijo del rabino Simeon que así como uno está obligado a decir palabras de reproche que serán aceptadas, así uno está obligado a no decir palabras de reproche que no serán aceptadas. El rabino Abba dijo que es un deber renunciar a la reprensión que no será aceptada, como dice Proverbios 9: 8 : "No reprendas al escarnecedor, para que no te odie; reprende al sabio, y te amará". [159]

Al leer las palabras de Levítico 19:18 , "No tomarás venganza", la Sifra definió el alcance del término "venganza". La Sifra enseñó que el término "venganza" se aplica a un caso en el que una persona pide prestada la hoz de un segundo, y el segundo no la presta, y luego, al día siguiente, el segundo le pide al primero que tome prestada la pala del primero, y el primero se niega a prestarlo porque el segundo no prestó la hoz del segundo. Y leyendo las palabras de Levítico 19:18"No ... guardarás rencor", definió la Sifra el alcance del término "rencor". La Sifra enseñó que el término "rencor" se aplica a un caso en el que una persona pide prestada la pala de un segundo, y el segundo no se la presta, y luego, al día siguiente, el segundo le pide al primero que tome prestada la hoz del primero, y el primero consiente en prestar la hoz, pero se burla: "Yo no soy como tú, porque no me prestaste tu pala, pero aquí, toma la hoz". [160]

Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people," the Jerusalem Talmud asked what would be a practical illustration. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?[161]

Hillel (sculpture at the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem)

Once a gentile came before Shammai and said, "I will convert to Judaism, on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot." Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before Hillel, Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18), "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation — go and learn it."[162]

The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the generations of Adam," state a still more encompassing principle.[163] Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the descendants of Adam," teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, "Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame." And Rabbi Tanhuma taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, "In the likeness of God made He him."[164]

The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.[165]

Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.[166]

And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him.[167] Similarly, Rav Hisda taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.[168]

Tractate Kilayim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19.[169]

Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances (מִשְׁפָּטַי‎, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (חֻקֹּתַי‎, chukotai) shall you keep," the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" (מִשְׁפָּטִים‎, mishpatim) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (חֻקִּים‎, chukim) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool-linen mixtures (שַׁעַטְנֵז‎, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (חליצה‎, chalitzah, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of the person with tzaraat (in Leviticus 14), and the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (מִשְׁפָּטִים‎, mishpatim) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.[170] The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8) and purification of a person affected by skin disease (מְּצֹרָע‎, metzora, regulated in Leviticus 13–14).[171] Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (chuk) in connection with each: the laws of (1) a brother's wife (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10), (2) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), (3) the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16), and (4) the red cow (in Numbers 19).[172]

Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (שַׁעַטְנֵז‎, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.[173]

Hanina ben Hakinai employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of Leviticus 25:4), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1) and (8) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.[174]

Tractate Orlah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.[175]

Rav Zeira counted five kinds of orlah (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10), (2) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12), (3) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26), (4) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14), and (5) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, "And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh," and Genesis 17:11 says, "And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin."[176]

Judah ben Padiah noted Adam's frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.[177]

The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for Kohanim not to become ritually impure for the dead.[178]

Rabbi Eliezer the Great taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34).[179] The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, "You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt," to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.[180]

Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, "You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment," apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law, and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, "in judgment, in measures." The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names "unrighteous," "hated," "repulsive," "accursed," and an "abomination," and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of Rav Huna that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from Proverbs 11:1, "A false balance is an abomination to the Lord," which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, "When presumption comes, then comes shame." Reading Micah 6:11, "Shall I be pure with wicked balances?" Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, "And with a bag of deceitful weights" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, "You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures." But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, "For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God," and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, "Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt."[181]

Offering to Molech (illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us by Charles Foster)

Leviticus chapter 20

Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:7[182] and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a–b interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to Molech in Leviticus 18:21 and 20:1–5 and Deuteronomy 18:10.

The Mishnah asked about the command of Leviticus 20:15–16 that the animal be killed: If the person had sinned, in what way did the animal sin? The Mishnah concluded that Scripture ordered it killed because it enticed the person to sin. Alternatively, the Mishnah explained that the animal was killed so that it should not pass through the streets provoking people to say, "This is the animal on account of which so and so was stoned."[183]

A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey (illustration from Henry Davenport Northrop's 1894 Treasures of the Bible)

The Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with "milk and honey," as described in Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited Bnei Brak, he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from Lod to Ono, and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of Sepphoris extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty-two parasangs by six parasangs.[184]

In medieval Jewish interpretation

The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:[185]

Leviticus chapter 19

Maimonides

Reading Leviticus 19:17, "Do not hate your brother in your heart," Maimonides taught that whoever hates a fellow Jew in his heart transgresses a Torah prohibition.[186] Maimonides taught that when someone wrongs you, you should not remain silent and despise that person. Rather, you must make the matter known and ask the person: "Why did you do this to me?" "Why did you wrong me regarding that matter?" as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You shall surely admonish your colleague." If, afterwards, the person who committed the wrong asks you to forgive, you must do so. One should not be cruel when forgiving.[187] Maimonides taught that it is a commandment for a person who sees that a fellow Jew has sinned or is following an improper path to attempt to correct the other's behavior and to inform the other, as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You shall surely admonish your colleague." A person who rebukes a colleague — whether because of a wrong committed against the person or because of a matter between the colleague and God — should rebuke the colleague privately. The person should speak to the colleague patiently and gently, informing the colleague that the person is only making these statements for the colleague's own welfare, to allow the colleague to merit the life of the World to Come. If the colleague accepts the rebuke, it is good; if not, the person should rebuke the colleague a second and third time. Indeed, you are obligated to rebuke a colleague who does wrong until the colleague strikes you and tells you: "I will not listen." Whoever has the possibility of rebuking sinners and fails to do so is considered responsible for the sin, for the person had the opportunity to rebuke the sinners.[188] Maimonides taught that at first, a person who admonishes a colleague should not speak to the colleague harshly so that the colleague becomes embarrassed, as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You should . . . not bear a sin because of him." It is forbidden for a person to embarrass a fellow Jew, and even more to embarrass a fellow Jew in public. This applies to matters between one person and another. In regard to spiritual matters, however, if a transgressor does not repent after being admonished in private, the transgressor may be shamed in public and the transgressor's sin may be publicized. Maimonides taught that such a transgressor may be subjected to abuse, scorn, and curses until the transgressor repents, as was the practice of the prophets of Israel.[189] But Maimonides taught that it is pious behavior for a person who was wronged by a colleague not to admonish the offender or mention the matter at all because the offender was very boorish or because the offender was mentally disturbed, provided that the person forgives the offender totally without bearing any feelings of hate or admonishing the offender. Leviticus 19:17 is concerned only with those who carry feelings of hate.[190]

Maimonides taught that a person who takes revenge against a colleague transgresses a Torah prohibition, as Leviticus 19:18 states: "Do not take revenge." One should train oneself to rise above one's feelings about all worldly things, for people of understanding consider all these things as vanity and emptiness for which it is not worth seeking revenge. Paraphrasing the Sifra (reported in "In classical rabbinic interpretation: Chapter 19" above), Maimonides taught that taking revenge includes the case where a colleague asks a person to borrow a hatchet and the person refuses to lend it. On the following day, the person who refused asks to borrow a hatchet from his colleague. The colleague responds that just as the person did not lend it to the colleague, the colleague will not lend it to the person. This is considered taking revenge. Instead, when the person comes to ask for the hatchet, the colleague should give it to the person with a full heart, without repaying the person for what the person did.[191] Similarly, Maimonides taught that anyone who holds a grudge against another Jew violates a Torah prohibition, as Leviticus 19:18 states: "Do not bear a grudge against the children of your people." Once again paraphrasing the Sifra (above), Maimonides taught that bearing a grudge includes the case where Reuven asked Shimon to rent Shimon's house to Reuven or lend an ox to him, and Shimon was not willing to do so. A few days later, Shimon came to borrow or rent something from Reuven, and Reuven told Shimon, "Here, it is. I am lending it to you. I am not like you, nor am I paying you back for what you did." A person who acts this way violates the prohibition against bearing a grudge. Instead, the person should wipe the matter from the person's heart and never bring it to mind. As long as the person brings the matter to mind and remembers it, there is the possibility that the person will seek revenge. Therefore, Leviticus 19:18 condemned holding a grudge, requiring one to wipe the wrong from one's heart entirely. Maimonides taught that this quality permits a stable environment, trade, and commerce to be established among people.[192]

Reading Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself," Maimonides taught that all Jews are commanded to love all other Jews as themselves. Therefore, they should speak the praises of others and show concern for their money just as they do with their own money and their own honor. Maimonides taught that whoever gains honor through the degradation of a colleague does not have a share in the World to Come.[193] Maimonides taught that the commandment of Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself," implies that whatever you would like other people to do for you, you should do for your comrade in the Torah and mitzvot. Maimonides taught that the commandment of Leviticus 19:18 thus includes the commandments of Rabbinic origin to visit the sick, comfort mourners, to prepare for a funeral, prepare a bride, accompany guests, attend to all the needs of a burial, carry a corpse on one shoulders, walk before the bier, mourn, dig a grave, and bury the dead, and also to bring joy to a bride and groom and help them in all their needs.[194]

Naḥmanides

Naḥmanides, in contrast, read the words of Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," as an overstatement. Naḥmanides taught that the human heart is unable to accept a command to love one's neighbor as oneself. Noting that Rabbi Akiva taught that one's life takes precedence over the life of one's fellow,[195] Naḥmanides read Leviticus 19:18 to means that one is to love one's fellow as one loves all good for oneself. Naḥmanides taught that if one loved one's neighbor completely, one would want the friend to gain riches, properties, honor, knowledge, and wisdom. But because of human nature, one would still not want the neighbor to be one's equal, for one would always have a desire that one should have more of these good things than the neighbor. Therefore, Leviticus 19:18 commanded that this degrading jealousy should not exist in one's heart, but instead one should love to do good abundantly for one's fellow as one does for oneself, and one should place no limitations upon one's love for one's fellow.[196]

In modern interpretation

The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:

Leviticus chapter 19

In 1877, Professor August Klostermann of the University of Kiel observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “Holiness Code.”[197]

Professor John Gammie, formerly of the University of Tulsa, ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and Job 31.[198]

In 1950, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . [I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”[199]

The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, "Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow," the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must insure that the victim is "thoroughly healed," and Deuteronomy 22:2, "And you shall restore the lost property to him." The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give "permission for the physician to cure." Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life-threatening situation.[200] The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.[201]

Professor William Dever of Lycoming College noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at Kuntillet Ajrud in the Sinai Desert (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11.[202]

Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” מֹאזְנַיִם‎, moznayim, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.[203]

Leviticus chapter 20

Leading modern authorities in different Jewish religious movements differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. From Orthodox Judaism, in 2010, four leaders of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary of Yeshiva University posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences.[204] In 1977, the Central Conference of American Rabbis of Reform Judaism adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them.[205] In 2006, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism approved by a 13-to-12 vote a responsum that held while that the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage.[206] Then in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same-sex marriages to be kiddushin, utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.[207]

Dr. Nathan MacDonald of St John's College, Cambridge, reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey," as in Leviticus 20:24, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. MacDonald wrote that the term for milk (חָלָב‎, chalav) could easily be the word for "fat" (חֵלֶב‎, chelev), and the word for honey (דְבָשׁ‎, devash) could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation.[208]

Commandments

According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 13 positive and 38 negative commandments in the parashah:[209]

  • To revere one's father and mother[6]
  • Not to turn to idolatry[7]
  • Not to make an idol[7]
  • Not to eat meat left over from sacrifices[210]
  • Not to reap a corner of one's field, so that the poor may glean[211]
  • Not to reap the very last end of one's field, so that the poor may glean[211]
  • To leave gleanings for the poor[211]
The Red Vineyard (painting by Vincent van Gogh)
  • Not to gather the gleanings, so that the poor may take them[211]
  • To leave a part of a vineyard unreaped, for the poor[212]
  • Not to gather the gleanings of a vineyard, so that the poor may take them[212]
  • To leave the unformed clusters of grapes for the poor[212]
  • Not to steal[213]
  • Not to deny possession of something entrusted to you[213]
  • Not to swear in denial of a monetary claim[213]
  • Not to swear falsely in God's Name[214]
  • Not to withhold wages or fail to repay a debt[11]
  • Not to rob or defraud one's neighbor[11]
  • Not to delay payment of wages past the agreed time[11]
  • Not to curse any upstanding Jew[12]
  • Not to put a stumbling block before nor give harmful advice (lifnei iver) to a trusting person[12]
  • Not to pervert justice[13]
  • A judge must not respect the great man at the trial.[13]
  • To judge righteously[13]
  • Not to speak derogatorily of others[215]
  • Not to stand idly by if someone's life is in danger[215]
  • Not to hate fellow Jew[15]
  • To reprove a sinner[15]
  • Not to embarrass others[15]
  • Not to take revenge[16]
  • Not to bear a grudge[16]
  • To love others as one loves oneself[216]
  • Not to crossbreed animals[17]
  • Not to plant diverse seeds together[17]
  • Not to eat fruit of a tree during its first three years[217]
  • The fourth year crops must be totally for holy purposes.[218]
  • Not to eat like a glutton or drink like a drunkard[20]
  • Not to be superstitious[20]
  • Not to engage in astrology[20]
  • Men must not shave the hair off the sides of their head.[21]
  • Men must not shave their beards with a razor.[21]
  • Not to tattoo the skin[22]
  • To show reverence to the Temple[24]
  • Not to act as a medium[25]
  • Not to act as a magical seer[25]
  • To honor those who teach and know Torah[26]
  • Not to commit injustice with scales and weights[219]
  • Each individual must ensure that his scales and weights are accurate[220]
  • Not to curse one's father or mother[31]
  • The courts must carry out the death penalty of burning[36]
  • Not to imitate idolaters in customs and clothing[45]

In the liturgy

God's characteristic of holiness in Leviticus 19:2 is reflected in Isaiah 6:2–3 and in turn in the Kedushah section of the Amidah prayer in each of the three prayer services.[221]

Amos (engraving by Gustave Doré from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

Following the example if the 16th century mystic Isaac Luria, some Jews recite each day an acceptance of the obligation of Leviticus 19:18 to love one's neighbor as one's self.[222]

Haftarah

The haftarah for the parashah is:

  • for Ashkenazi Jews: Amos 9:7–15
  • for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 20:2–20

When parashah Kedoshim is combined with parashah Acharei (as it is in non-leap years, e.g., 2018, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2025, and 2026), the haftarah for the week is that for parashah Kedoshim.

See also

  • Conservative Judaism and sexual orientation

Notes

  1. ^ "Torah Stats — VaYikra". Akhlah Inc. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
  2. ^ See Mahzor for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Edited by Jules Harlow. United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism.
  3. ^ Gates of Repentance: The New Union Prayerbook for the Days of Awe. Edited by Chaim Stern, pages 452–55. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, Revised ed. 1996.
  4. ^ See, e.g., The Schottenstein Edition Interlinear Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Edited by Menachem Davis, pages 129–46. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2008.
  5. ^ Leviticus 19:1–2.
  6. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:3.
  7. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:4.
  8. ^ Leviticus 19:5–8.
  9. ^ Leviticus 19:9–10.
  10. ^ Leviticus 19:11–13.
  11. ^ a b c d Leviticus 19:13.
  12. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:14.
  13. ^ a b c d Leviticus 19:15.
  14. ^ Leviticus 19:16–17.
  15. ^ a b c d Leviticus 19:17.
  16. ^ a b c d Leviticus 19:18.
  17. ^ a b c d e Leviticus 19:19.
  18. ^ Leviticus 19:20–22.
  19. ^ Leviticus 19:23–25.
  20. ^ a b c d e Leviticus 19:26.
  21. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:27.
  22. ^ a b Leviticus 19:28.
  23. ^ Leviticus 19:29.
  24. ^ a b Leviticus 19:30.
  25. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:31.
  26. ^ a b Leviticus 19:32.
  27. ^ Leviticus 19:33–34.
  28. ^ Leviticus 19:35–36.
  29. ^ Leviticus 20:1–2.
  30. ^ Leviticus 20:6.
  31. ^ a b Leviticus 20:9.
  32. ^ Leviticus 20:10.
  33. ^ Leviticus 20:11.
  34. ^ Leviticus 20:12.
  35. ^ Leviticus 20:13.
  36. ^ a b Leviticus 20:14.
  37. ^ Leviticus 20:15.
  38. ^ Leviticus 20:16.
  39. ^ Leviticus 20:27.
  40. ^ Leviticus 20:17.
  41. ^ Leviticus 20:18.
  42. ^ Leviticus 20:19–20.
  43. ^ Leviticus 20:21.
  44. ^ Leviticus 20:22.
  45. ^ a b Leviticus 20:23.
  46. ^ Leviticus 20:26.
  47. ^ See, e.g., Richard Eisenberg "A Complete Triennial Cycle for Reading the Torah." Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement: 1986–1990, pages 383–418. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2001.
  48. ^ Nathan MacDonald. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times, page 6. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.
  49. ^ For more on inner-Biblical interpretation, see, e.g., Benjamin D. Sommer. "Inner-biblical Interpretation." In The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 1835–41. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  50. ^ David P. Wright. “Holiness.” Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman, volume 3, page 237. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
  51. ^ Larry A. Mitchel. A Student's Vocabulary for Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic, pages 4, 9, 12, 49, 78. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1984.
  52. ^ David P. Wright. “Holiness.” Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman, volume 3, page 237–44.
  53. ^ Professor Amy-Jill Levine of Vanderbilt University Divinity School suggested that Amos used freedom from slavery as the paradigm and template against which he expressed concerns about the covenant community, casting the community in the role of Pharaoh when they transgressed. See Amy-Jill Levine. “The Prophets and the Fall of the North.” In The Old Testament: Part II. Springfield, Virginia: The Teaching Company, 2001.
  54. ^ Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Tikva Frymer-Kensky. The JPS Bible Commentary: Ruth (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011), page xxiii.
  55. ^ Gary V. Smith. Hosea, Amos, Micah: The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2001.
  56. ^ For more on early nonrabbinic interpretation, see, e.g., Esther Eshel, “Early Nonrabbinic Interpretation,” in Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, editors, The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition, pages 1841–59.
  57. ^ Lawrence H. Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1994), page 130–31 (citing Zadokite Fragments 5:7–8).
  58. ^ For more on classical rabbinic interpretation, see, e.g., Yaakov Elman. "Classical Rabbinic Interpretation." In The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 1859–78.
  59. ^ Leviticus Rabbah 24:6. Land of Israel, 5th century, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
  60. ^ Leviticus Rabbah 24:4.
  61. ^ Leviticus Rabbah 24:8.
  62. ^ Leviticus Rabbah 24:5.
  63. ^ Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 5b. Babylonia, 6th century, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Michoel Weiner, and Hillel Danziger, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 23, page 5b. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1999.
  64. ^ E.g., Exodus 20:11 (20:12 in NJSP) 21:15, and 21:17, and Deuteronomy 5:15 (5:16 in NJPS) and 27:16.
  65. ^ Mishnah Keritot 6:9 (Land of Israel, circa 200 CE), in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), pages 850–51; Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Eliahu Shulman, Dovid Arye Kaufman, Dovid Nachfolger, Menachem Goldberger, Michoel Weiner, Mendy Wachsman, Abba Zvi Naiman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2004), volume 69, page 28a; see also Genesis Rabbah 1:15 (Land of Israel, 5th century), in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, Midrash Rabbah: Genesis (London: Soncino Press, 1939), volume 1, pages 13–14.
  66. ^ Mishnah Keritot 6:9, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation, pages 850–51; Babylonian Talmud Keritot 28a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Eliahu Shulman et al, volume 69, page 28a.
  67. ^ a b Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 30b–31a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by David Fohrman, Dovid Kamenetsky, and Hersh Goldwurm, edited by Hersh Goldwurm (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1992), volume 36, pages 30b–31a.
  68. ^ Mishnah Shabbat 1:1–24:5, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation, pages 179–208; Tosefta Shabbat 1:1–17:29 (Land of Israel, circa 250 CE), in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002), volume 1, pages 357–427; Jerusalem Talmud Shabbat 1a–113b (Land of Israel, circa 400 CE), in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi, elucidated by Yehuda Jaffa, Gershon Hoffman, Mordechai Smilowitz, Abba Zvi Naiman, Chaim Ochs, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2013), volumes 13–15; Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 2a–157b, in, e.g., Koren Talmud Bavli: Tractate Shabbat, commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz) (Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2012), volumes 2–3.
  69. ^ Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:4, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 7, page 91.
  70. ^ Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva. Circa 700. Quoted in Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath, page 73. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951.
  71. ^ Mishnah Peah 1:1–8:9, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 14–36. Tosefta Peah 1:1–4:21. Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a–73b.
  72. ^ Mishnah Peah 1:1, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 14–15. Tosefta Peah 1:1. Jerusalem Talmud Peah 1a.
  73. ^ Mishnah Peah 1:2, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 15. Jerusalem Talmud Peah 10b.
  74. ^ Mishnah Peah 3:6, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 19–20.
  75. ^ Mishnah Peah 4:5, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 21.
  76. ^ Mishnah Peah 5:6, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 25.
  77. ^ Babylonian Talmud Chullin 137a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Eliezer Herzka, Michoel Weiner, and Yosef Davis, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003), volume 64, page 1373.
  78. ^ Sifra Emor chapter 13 (233:2), in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, Sifra, volume 3, page 250.
  79. ^ Mishnah Peah 6:11, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 27.
  80. ^ Mishnah Peah 7:3, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 31.
  81. ^ Mishnah Peah 7:4, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 31.
  82. ^ Mishnah Peah 8:1, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 33.
  83. ^ Mishnah Nedarim 11:3, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 428.
  84. ^ Babylonian Talmud Talmud Sanhedrin 86a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Asher Dicker, Joseph Elias, and Dovid Katz, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 49, page 86a3. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. See also Mekhilta Bahodesh 8. Land of Israel, late 4th century, in, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Z. Lauterbach, volume 2, page 334. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1933, reissued 2004.
  85. ^ Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:11, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation, pages 406–30; Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction, volume 1, pages 785–805; Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–; Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000), volumes 29–30; Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation, pages 620–39; Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction, volume 2, pages 1219–44; Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–; Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Mordechai Kuber, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994), volume 51.
  86. ^ Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:11, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 554. Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 110b.
  87. ^ a b Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:12, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 554–55. Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 111a.
  88. ^ Babylonian Talmud Moed Katan 5a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Gedaliah Zlotowitz, Michoel Weiner, Noson Dovid Rabinowitch, and Yosef Widroff, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1999), volume 21, page 5a.
  89. ^ Mishnah Sanhedrin 8:7, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 602. Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Asher Dicker, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 48, page 73a1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
  90. ^ Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 73a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Asher Dicker, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 48, pages 73a1–3.
  91. ^ Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Feivel Wahl, Yosef Davis, Henoch Moshe Levin, Israel Schneider, Yeshayahu Levy, Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Nachfolger, Eliezer Lachman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 67, page 16b1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2004. See also Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:1. Land of Israel, 4th century CE, in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 108–09. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
  92. ^ Ecclesiastes Rabbah 1:16.
  93. ^ a b Ecclesiastes 1:16.
  94. ^ 1 Kings 3:9.
  95. ^ 2 Kings 5:26.
  96. ^ 1 Samuel 17:32.
  97. ^ Ezekiel 22:14.
  98. ^ Psalm 16:9.
  99. ^ Lamentations 2:18.
  100. ^ Isaiah 40:2.
  101. ^ Deuteronomy 15:10.
  102. ^ Exodus 9:12.
  103. ^ Deuteronomy 20:3.
  104. ^ Genesis 6:6.
  105. ^ Deuteronomy 28:67.
  106. ^ Psalm 51:19.
  107. ^ Deuteronomy 8:14.
  108. ^ Jeremiah 5:23.
  109. ^ 1 Kings 12:33.
  110. ^ Deuteronomy 29:18.
  111. ^ Psalm 45:2.
  112. ^ Proverbs 19:21.
  113. ^ Psalm 21:3.
  114. ^ Proverbs 7:25.
  115. ^ Numbers 15:39.
  116. ^ Genesis 18:5.
  117. ^ Genesis 31:20.
  118. ^ Leviticus 26:41.
  119. ^ Genesis 34:3.
  120. ^ Isaiah 21:4.
  121. ^ 1 Samuel 4:13.
  122. ^ Song of Songs 5:2.
  123. ^ Deuteronomy 6:5.
  124. ^ Proverbs 23:17.
  125. ^ Jeremiah 17:10.
  126. ^ Joel 2:13.
  127. ^ Psalm 49:4.
  128. ^ Jeremiah 20:9.
  129. ^ Ezekiel 36:26.
  130. ^ 2 Kings 23:25.
  131. ^ Deuteronomy 19:6.
  132. ^ 1 Samuel 25:37.
  133. ^ Joshua 7:5.
  134. ^ Deuteronomy 6:6.
  135. ^ Jeremiah 32:40.
  136. ^ Psalm 111:1.
  137. ^ Proverbs 6:25.
  138. ^ Proverbs 28:14.
  139. ^ Judges 16:25.
  140. ^ Proverbs 12:20.
  141. ^ 1 Samuel 1:13.
  142. ^ Jeremiah 22:17.
  143. ^ Proverbs 3:3.
  144. ^ Proverbs 6:18.
  145. ^ Proverbs 10:8.
  146. ^ Obadiah 1:3.
  147. ^ Proverbs 16:1.
  148. ^ 2 Chronicles 25:19.
  149. ^ Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 113b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1998), volume 11, page 113b1–2.
  150. ^ Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Feivel Wahl, Yosef Davis, Henoch Moshe Levin, Israel Schneider, Yeshayahu Levy, Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Nachfolger, Eliezer Lachman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 67, page 16b2. See also Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:2, in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, page 109.
  151. ^ Genesis Rabbah 54:3, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 477–78.
  152. ^ Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Asher Dicker and Abba Zvi Naiman, edited by Hersh Goldwurm, volume 47, page 27b3. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1993.
  153. ^ Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 39a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Mordechai Kuber, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 51, page 39a4.
  154. ^ Song of Songs Rabbah 6:11 [6:26]. 6th–7th century, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Song of Songs. Translated by Maurice Simon, volume 9, pages 270–72. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
  155. ^ Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Feivel Wahl, Yosef Davis, Henoch Moshe Levin, Israel Schneider, Yeshayahu Levy, Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Nachfolger, Eliezer Lachman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 67, page 16b2; see also Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:3, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, Sifra: An Analytical Translation, volume 3, page 109.
  156. ^ Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Feivel Wahl, Yosef Davis, Henoch Moshe Levin, Israel Schneider, Yeshayahu Levy, Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Nachfolger, Eliezer Lachman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 67, page 16b3.
  157. ^ Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 16b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mendy Wachsman, Feivel Wahl, Yosef Davis, Henoch Moshe Levin, Israel Schneider, Yeshayahu Levy, Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Nachfolger, Eliezer Lachman, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 67, pages 16b3–4.
  158. ^ Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mordechai Rabinovitch and Tzvi Horowitz, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 42, page 59b3. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1993.
  159. ^ Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 65b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Zev Meisels, Feivel Wahl, Eliezer Herzka, Avrohom Neuberger, Asher Dicker, Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 24, page 65b2. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1999.
  160. ^ Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶¶ 200:3:4–5, in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, page 109. See also Babylonian Talmud Yoma 23a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Abba Zvi Naiman, Michoel Weiner, Yosef Widroff, Moshe Zev Einhorn, Israel Schneider, and Zev Meisels, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1998), volume 13, page 23a.
  161. ^ Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4, in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi, elucidated by Elchanan Cohen, Chaim Ochs, Mordechai Stareshefsky, Abba Zvi Naiman, Gershon Hoffman, Shlomo Silverman, Yehuda Jaffa, Aharon Meir Goldstein, Avrohom Neuberger, edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2016), volume 33.
  162. ^ Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 31a, in, e.g., Koren Talmud Bavli: Shabbat, commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz) (Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2012), volume 2, page 145.
  163. ^ Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 4, ¶ 200:3:7, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, Sifra: An Analytical Translation, volume 3, page 109; see also Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:4, in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi, elucidated by Elchanan Cohen et al, volume 33.
  164. ^ Genesis Rabbah 24:7, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, page 204.
  165. ^ Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 84b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Asher Dicker, Joseph Elias, and Dovid Katz, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995), volume 49, page 84b.
  166. ^ Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 37b, Sanhedrin 45a.
  167. ^ Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 41a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by David Fohrman, Dovid Kamenetsky, and Michoel Weiner, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2001), volume 37, pages 41a2.
  168. ^ Babylonian Talmud Niddah 17a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli: Tractate Niddah: Volume 1, elucidated by Hillel Danziger, Moshe Zev Einhorn, and Michoel Weiner, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1996), volume 71, page 17a.
  169. ^ Mishnah Kilayim 1:1–9:10, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 49–68. Tosefta Kilayim 1:1–5:27. Jerusalem Talmud Kilayim 1a–84b.
  170. ^ Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Zev Meisels, Abba Zvi Naiman, Dovid Kamenetsky, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1998), volume 14, page 67b.
  171. ^ Sifra, Aharei Mot, pereq 13, ¶ 194:2:11, in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, page 79. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
  172. ^ Numbers Rabbah 19:5.
  173. ^ Sifra, Kedoshim, pereq 9, ¶ 207:2:13, in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, page 137.
  174. ^ Mishnah Makkot 3:9, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, The Mishnah: A New Translation, page 618; Babylonian Talmud Makkot 21b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, revised and enlarged edition, 2001), volume 50, page 21b.
  175. ^ Mishnah Orlah 1:1–3:9, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 158–66. Tosefta Orlah 1:1–8. Jerusalem Talmud Orlah 1a–42a.
  176. ^ Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, chapter 29, in, e.g., Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer. Translated and annotated by Gerald Friedlander, pages 206–07. See also Genesis Rabbah 46:5, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, page 392. (Rabbi Akiva counted four kinds of orlah).
  177. ^ Genesis Rabbah 21:7, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 176–77.
  178. ^ Mishnah Kiddushin 1:7, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 488–89. Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 29a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by David Fohrman, Dovid Kamenetsky, and Hersh Goldwurm, edited by Hersh Goldwurm, volume 36, page 29a.
  179. ^ See, e.g., Exodus 22:20; 23:9; Leviticus 19:33–34; Deuteronomy 1:16; 10:17–19; 24:14–15 and 17–22; and 27:19.
  180. ^ Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 59b, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mordechai Rabinovitch and Tzvi Horowitz, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 42, page 59b3.
  181. ^ Ruth Rabbah 1:2. 6th–7th century, in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Ruth. Translated by L. Rabinowitz, volume 8, pages 16–18. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
  182. ^ Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:7, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 598. Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Asher Dicker, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 48, page 64a3.
  183. ^ Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:4, in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 596–97. Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 54a.
  184. ^ Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 111b–12a.
  185. ^ For more on medieval Jewish interpretation, see, e.g., Barry D. Walfish. "Medieval Jewish Interpretation." In The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 1891–915.
  186. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 5. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 122–25. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
  187. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 6, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 124–27.
  188. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 7, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 126–29.
  189. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 8, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 128–31.
  190. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 9, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 130–33.
  191. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 7, ¶ 7, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 146–49.
  192. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 7, ¶ 8, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 148–51.
  193. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot, chapter 6, ¶ 3, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 120–23.
  194. ^ Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Evel, chapter 14, ¶ 1, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Shoftim: The Book of Judges. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 484–85. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2001.
  195. ^ Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 62a, in, e.g., Talmud Bavli, elucidated by Mordechai Rabinovitch and Tzvi Horowitz, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 42, page 62a1.
  196. ^ Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270, in, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 292–93. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
  197. ^ Menahem Haran. “Holiness Code.” In Encyclopaedia Judaica, column 820. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972. LCCN 72-90254.
  198. ^ John G. Gammie. Holiness in Israel, page 34. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1989.
  199. ^ Morris Adler, Jacob B. Agus, and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly, volume 14 (1950), pages 112–88. New York: Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1951, in Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997.
  200. ^ Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. “Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998. YD 336:1.1998, in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 321. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
  201. ^ Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. “Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998, in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 335–36.
  202. ^ William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 178 and note 43. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
  203. ^ William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 244–45.
  204. ^ Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, and Mayer Twersky. "Torah View on Homosexuality." (2010).
  205. ^ Central Conference of American Rabbis. "Rights of Homosexuals." (1977).
  206. ^ Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner. "Homosexuality, Human Dignity & Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards." EH 24.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  207. ^ CCAR Responsa Committee. "Same-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin." 5774.4. (2013).
  208. ^ Nathan MacDonald. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times, page 7.
  209. ^ Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, volume 3, pages 3–163. Jerusalem: Feldheim Publishers, 1984.
  210. ^ Leviticus 19:8.
  211. ^ a b c d Leviticus 19:9.
  212. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:10.
  213. ^ a b c Leviticus 19:11.
  214. ^ Leviticus 19:12.
  215. ^ a b Leviticus 19:16.
  216. ^ Brotherly love is commanded in Leviticus 19:18 for one's "neighbor" [other Jews] and at Leviticus 19:34 for "strangers."
  217. ^ Leviticus 19:23.
  218. ^ Leviticus 19:24.
  219. ^ Leviticus 19:35.
  220. ^ Leviticus 19:36.
  221. ^ Reuven Hammer. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, page 4. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003.
  222. ^ Siddur Lev Shalem for Shabbat and Festivals. Edited by Edward Feld, page 102. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2016.

Further reading

The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:

Biblical

  • Exodus 19:6 (being holy).
  • Leviticus 18:21 (Molech); 23:22 (corners of fields).
  • Deuteronomy 18:10 (passing children through the fire); 24:14–15 (paying wages promptly).
  • 1 Kings 11:4–8, 33 (Molech).
  • 2 Kings 16:3 (son pass through fire); 17:17 (children pass through fire); 21:6 (son pass through fire); 23:10–14 (Molech).
  • Isaiah 56:6–7 (keeping the Sabbath); 57:9 (Molech or king); 66:23 (universally observed Sabbath).
  • Jeremiah 7:31 (child sacrifice); 16:6 (shaving); 22:13–14 (paying wages); 32:35 (Molech); 41:5 (shaving); 48:37 (shaving); 49:1–3 (Molech or Malcam).
  • Ezekiel 16:20–21 (sacrificing children); Ezekiel 18:5–7 (the just does not rob); Ezekiel 23:6–12 (violations of the Holiness Code); Ezekiel 23:37 (sacrifice of sons).
  • Amos 5:25–27 (Molech or king).
Confucius
  • Zephaniah 1:4–6 (Molech).
  • Psalm 41:2 (consideration for the poor); 82:2 (unrighteous judgment); 135:4 (God's choice of Israel); 140:13 (the poor).
  • 2 Chronicles 33:6 (children pass through fire).

Ancient

  • Confucius. The Analects 3:15:23. ("Tsze-kung asked, saying, ‘Is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?' The Master said, ‘Is not Reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.'"). China, circa 5th Century B.C.E.
Aristotle
  • Aristotle. 4th Century B.C.E. ("We should behave to our friends as we would wish our friends to behave to us.") Quoted in Diogenes Laërtius. Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, 5:11. 3rd century CE. Translated by C.D. Yonge. 19th century. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0-548-11682-2.

Early nonrabbinic

  • Tobit 4:15. Between 225 and 175 BCE. (“And what you hate, do not do to anyone.”).
Philo
  • Philo. Allegorical Interpretation, book 3, ¶ 7:22; On the Birth of Abel and the Sacrifices Offered by Him and by His Brother Cain, ¶ 22:77; Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter, ¶¶ 22:95, 25:109, 27:113, 28:117, 33:135; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? ¶ 33:162; On Flight and Finding, ¶ 34:188; On Abraham, ¶ 2:13; The Special Laws, book 1, ¶¶ 4:25, 41:224; book 2, ¶¶ 43:238–39; book 4, ¶¶ 7:39, 35:183, 37:193, 38:197; On the Virtues, ¶ 15:88. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE, in, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 52, 104, 199–202, 289, 338, 389, 412, 536, 555, 591, 619, 634–35, 648. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. ISBN 0-943575-93-1.
  • James 2:8 Circa 45–62 C.E. ("If you really keep the royal law found in Scripture, ‘Love your neighbor as yourself,' you are doing right.").
  • Galatians 5:14. Circa 49–58 C.E. ("The entire law is summed up in a single command: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.'").
  • Romans 13:8–9. Greece, circa 58 C.E. ("Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellowman has fulfilled the law. The commandments . . . are summed up in this one rule: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.'").
  • Mark 12:31. Circa 70 C.E. ("The second is this: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.' There is no commandment greater than these.").
  • Matthew 7:12 ("So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets."); 19:19 ("‘love your neighbor as yourself.'"); 22:39–40 ("And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.' All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments."). Circa 70–100 C.E.
  • Luke 6:31 ("Do to others as you would have them do to you."); 10:25–28 ("Love your neighbor as yourself."). Circa 80–150 CE.
  • Acts 7:42–43. Circa 80–150 CE. (Molech).
Josephus
  • Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews book 4, chapter 8, paragraph 11. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, page 117. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8. (mixtures of wool and linen).

Classical rabbinic

  • Mishnah: Peah 1:1–8:9; Kilayim 1:1–9:10; Sheviit 1:8; Terumot 3:9; Orlah 1:1–3:9; Shabbat 1:1–24:5; Shekalim 1:1; Yevamot 8:6; Nedarim 1:1–11:11; Kiddushin 1:7, 1:9; Bava Kamma 5:7; Bava Metzia 5:11, 7:7, 9:11–12; Sanhedrin 1:3–4; 3:7; 7:4, 6–8, 10–11; 8:7; 9:1; Makkot 3:5–6, 8–9; Shevuot 1:1–8:6; Keritot 1:1, 2:4–6, 6:9. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 14–36, 49–68, 70, 100, 158–66, 251, 356, 424, 428, 489, 515, 544, 548, 583–84, 589, 597–98, 602, 617–18, 836, 840, 851. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4.
  • Tosefta: Peah 1:1–4:21; Demai 5:2; Kilayim 1:1–5:27; Maasrot 3:12; Orlah 1:1–8; Bikkurim 2:4; Shabbat 15:9; 17:1; Megillah 3:24; Sotah 5:11; 15:7; Gittin 2:7; Kiddushin 1:4; Bava Metzia 10:3; Bava Batra 5:7; Sanhedrin 3:1; 6:2; 9:11; 12:1; Shevuot 3:1. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 47–76, 103, 251–76, 292, 341–43, 349, 415, 423, 650, 853, 891, 901, 925–26; volume 2, pages 1084, 1115, 1150, 1164, 1178, 1185, 1229. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. ISBN 1-56563-642-2.
  • Sifra ¶¶ 195:1–210:2. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 85–159. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-207-0.
  • Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 60a; Peah 1a–73b; Kilayim 1a–84b; Sheviit 12a, 59a; Maasrot 37b; Maaser Sheni 49b, 51a; Orlah 1a–42a; Bikkurim 23a–b; Shabbat 1a–113b; Pesachim 14b; Rosh Hashanah 8a, 9b; Yevamot 11a, 33a, 57a, 61a, 62a; Nedarim 11a, 32a; Nazir 27b; Sotah 3a, 6a, 11b, 41b, 49b–50a; Kiddushin 5a–b, 20b–21a; Bava Kamma 22b; Bava Metzia 13b, 23a, 32b–33a; Sanhedrin 3b, 29b, 34b; Shevuot 1a–. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 2–3, 6a–b, 9–10, 12–13, 18, 24, 29–30, 33, 35–37, 40–42. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59856-528-7.
  • Genesis Rabbah 1:15; 7:4; 15:7; 21:7; 24:7; 46:4; 55:3; 81:1; 90:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 13–14, 51–52, 122–24, 176–77, 204, 391, 483; volume 2, pages 745, 827–28. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
  • Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon 49:3; 45:1–2; 61:1; 62:1, 3; 66:1; 74:4; 76:3; 77:3. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 218, 249–50, 278, 282, 284–85, 294, 348, 355, 359. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006. ISBN 0-8276-0799-7.
  • Leviticus Rabbah 19:4; 24:1–25:8; 26:7; 27:3; 30:10; 35:3; 36:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 242, 304–24, 330–36, 346, 391, 448, 456. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
Talmud
  • Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 10b, 21b, 35a, 36a–b; Shabbat 23a, 31a, 69b, 71b, 108a, 149a; Eruvin 17b; Pesachim 3a, 16b, 22b, 75a, 78a, 113b; Yoma 18b, 23a, 36a–b, 43a, 69a, 81b, 85b; Sukkah 34b–35a; Beitzah 3b, 5a, 14b, 25b, 28b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 9b, 31b; Taanit 6b; Megillah 7b, 17b; Moed Katan 2a–b, 4b–5a, 9a, 14b, 17a; Chagigah 4a, 7a, 16a, 25b; Yevamot 2b, 4a–6b, 37b, 46b–47a, 54a–55b, 65b, 94b–95a, 97a, 122a; Ketubot 29a, 30b, 36a, 37b, 46a, 80a; Nedarim 2a–91b; Nazir 29a, 37a, 41a, 57b, 58b; Sotah 7a, 8b, 43b; Gittin 39b, 41b, 43a–b, 47a, 53a–b, 54b, 59b, 85a; Kiddushin 6a, 19a, 23a, 29a, 30b, 31b–32b, 33b, 34b, 35b, 37a, 39a, 41a, 54b, 56b; Bava Kamma 16b, 28a, 51a, 54b–55a, 68b–69b, 70b, 76b, 80b, 94a, 99a, 101a, 105b, 113a; Bava Metzia 5b, 9b, 10b, 12a, 21b, 26b, 31a, 32a, 49a, 55b, 59b, 61b, 75b, 83b, 90b–91a, 92b, 94b, 101a, 110b–11b; Bava Batra 24a, 27a, 36a, 89b, 94a; Sanhedrin 2a, 3a, 15a, 29a, 30a, 31a, 32b, 33b, 39a, 40b, 45a, 46a, 50b–53a, 54a–55a, 57a, 60a, 63a, 64a–65a, 66a, 67b, 69a, 70a, 73a, 75a–76a, 84b, 85b–86a; Makkot 4b, 5b, 7b, 8b, 13b–14b, 16a–b, 20a–22b; Shevuot 2a–49b; Avodah Zarah 6a–b, 10b, 22a, 54b, 62a, 64a, 65b, 68a; Horayot 4a, 11a; Zevachim 5b, 23b, 28a–b, 44a, 47a, 56b, 72a; Menachot 5b–6a, 16b, 25a, 69b, 90b, 110a; Chullin 3a, 7b, 13a, 26b, 29a, 31a, 71a, 74b, 78b–79a, 82b, 85a, 95b, 114a–15b, 120b, 121a, 130b–31b, 134b, 135b, 137a, 138a, 141a–b; Arakhin 16b; Temurah 3a, 4a, 6a, 28b; Keritot 3a–b, 5a, 9a–b, 10b–11a, 12b, 15a, 16a, 21a–b, 22b, 24a, 28a; Meilah 2a, 10a, 16b–17a, 18a; Tamid 27b; Niddah 17a, 41b, 50a, 51a, 57a. Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.

Medieval

  • Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:6; 6:3; 7:3. Land of Israel, 9th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 7, pages 6, 123, 135. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
  • Saadia Gaon. Emunoth ve-Deoth (Beliefs and Opinions). Baghdad, Babylonia, 933. In, e.g., The Book of Beliefs and Opinions. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 31–32, 128, 130, 219–20, 225–26, 254, 327–28, 385. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948. ISBN 0-300-04490-9.
Rashi
  • Exodus Rabbah 1:28; 15:24; 31:16; 38:7; 43:5. 10th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by Simon M. Lehrman, volume 3, pages 36, 195, 398, 455, 500. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
  • Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 19–20. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 225–59. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-89906-028-5.
  • Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 97–114. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001. ISBN 1-930675-07-0.
  • Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:11; [[s:Kitab al Khazari/Part Four|4:3}}E Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 148, 203. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN 0-8052-0075-4.
  • Numbers Rabbah 1:8; 2:8; 8:2, 7; 9:2, 7, 10, 12, 45; 10:1, 5; 11:7; 14:6; 15:17; 17:5; 19:2, 5; 20:14, 19. 12th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 14, 32, 205, 229, 239, 248, 256, 263, 318, 334–36, 364, 437; volume 6, pages 590, 660–61, 705, 747, 755, 802, 811. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
The Tree of Life in The Bahir
  • Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 153–85. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004. ISBN 0-932232-11-6.
  • Bahir, part 1, paragraph 180. Provence, circa 1174. In, e.g., The Bahir: A Translation and Commentary. Translation and commentary by Aryeh Kaplan, pages 69–70. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, 1977. ISBN 1-56821-383-2.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot (The Laws of Personality Development), chapter 6, ¶¶ 3, 5–9; chapter 7, ¶¶ 1–8. Hilchot Talmud Torah (The Laws of Torah Study), chapter 6, ¶ 1. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 120–33, 136–51, 248–51. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem (The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes), chapter 11, ¶ 9. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem: The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 3, pages 206–07. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. OCLC 23834932 ASIN B000L88PUS.
Maimonides
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shevuot (The Laws of Oaths), chapter 1, ¶¶ 3, 8. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Hafla'ah: The Book of Utterances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 14–19. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-885220-41-3.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Kilayim (The Laws of Forbidden Mixtures). Hilchot Matnot Aniyim (The Laws of Gifts to the Poor), chapter 1, ¶ 5. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Zeraim: The Book of Agricultural Ordinances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 12–101, 104–07. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-885220-49-9.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Me'ilah (The Laws of Misappropriation (of Consecrated Property)), chapter 8, ¶ 8. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Ha'Avodah: The Book of (Temple) Service. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 898–901. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-885220-57-X.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Tum'at Ochalin (The Laws of the Impurity of Foods), chapter 16, ¶ 12. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Taharah: The Book of Purity. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 294–95. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-885220-68-4.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Geneivah (The Laws Pertaining to Theft), chapter 7, ¶ 1. Hilchot Gezelah Va'Avedah (The Laws Pertaining to Robbery and Lost Articles), chapter 1. Hilchot Rotze'ach USh'mirat Nefesh (The Laws of Murderers and the Protection of Human Life), chapter 12, ¶ 14. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Nezikin: The Book of Damages. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 206–09, 232–41, 594–97. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-885220-18-9.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Sechirut (The Laws of Rentals and Employer-Employee Relations), chapter 11, ¶ 2. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Mishpatim: The Book of Judgments. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 108–09. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2000. ISBN 1-885220-26-X.
  • Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Sanhedrin V'HaOnshin Hamesurim Lahem (The Laws of the Courts and the Penalties placed under their Jurisdiction), chapter 13, ¶ 4. Hilchot Mamrim (The Laws of the Rebellious Ones), chapter 6, ¶¶ 1, 12; chapter 7, ¶ 1. Hilchot Evel (The Laws of Mourning), chapter 14, ¶ 1, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Shoftim: The Book of Judges. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 100–03, 316–17, 384–85, 484–85. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-885220-28-6.
  • Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 762–80. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013. ISBN 978-1-60280-261-2.
  • Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 281–325. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974. ISBN 0-88328-007-8.
The Zohar
  • Zohar, part 1, pages 5b–6a, 8b, 204b, 207b, 228b; part 2, pages 15b, 30b, 49b, 89a, 108b, 122a, 182b, 215b–16a, 225b; part 3, pages 42b, 49a, 80a–88a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
  • Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1729–66. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003. ISBN 965-7108-45-4.
  • Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1191–219. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000. ISBN 1-57819-130-0.
  • Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 907–42. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005. ISBN 978-965-7108-76-5.
  • Isaac Abrabanel. Principles of Faith. Naples, Italy, 1494. In, e.g., Isaac Abravanel. Principles of Faith (Rosh Amanah). Translated by Menachem Marc Kellner, pages 107, 126, 164, 170, 197. Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8386-3080-4.
  • Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 611–33. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001. ISBN 965-7108-30-6.

Modern

  • Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 164–91. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. ISBN 978-1508721338.
  • Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 578–89. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. ISBN 0-89906-268-7.
  • Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 699–717. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000. ISBN 965-7108-13-6.
Hobbes
  • Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 230–35. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1-56871-303-7.
  • Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0-14-043195-0.
  • Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 351–401. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Kant
  • Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1190–236. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999. ISBN 965-7108-12-8.
  • Immanuel Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Second Section. Germany, 1785. ("There is therefore but one categorical imperative, namely, this: Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.").
Eliot
  • Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 364–87. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011. ISBN 978-1-928822-53-0.
Luzzatto
  • George Eliot. Adam Bede, chapter 18. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1859. Reprinted, e.g., edited by Carol A. Martin, page 172. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. (Mrs. Poyser recalls to Mr. Poyser how she quoted Leviticus 19:18 to Dinah to encourage her to treat herself better, saying: “I told her, she went clean again’ the Scriptur, for that says, ‘Love your neighbour as yourself;’ ‘but,’ I said, ‘if you loved your neighbour no better nor you do yourself, Dinah, it’s little enough you’d do for him. You’d be thinking he might do well enough on a half-empty stomach.’”).
  • Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 962–73. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012. ISBN 978-965-524-067-2.
  • Samson Raphael Hirsch. The Jewish Sabbath. Frankfurt, before 1889. Translated by Ben Josephussoro. 1911. Reprinted Lexington, Kentucky: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014. ISBN 978-1492373438.
Cohen
  • Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 185–91. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. ISBN 0-8276-0650-8. Reprinted 2012. ISBN 0-8276-0946-9.
  • Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 96, 103, 110, 127, 145, 152, 205, 229, 348, 422, 430, 451. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7885-0102-X. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Freud
  • Sigmund Freud. “The Savage's Dread of Incest.” In Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics. Translated by A.A. Brill. New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1919. Originally published as Totem und Tabu: Einige Übereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker. Leipzig, 1913.
  • Fritz Lang. Metropolis. Babelsberg: Universum Film A.G., 1927. (early science fiction film with Molech plot element).
  • Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 93–96. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Mann
  • Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 79, 82–83, 152–53, 189, 201–02, 226–27, 336, 351, 384–86, 927. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
  • Morris Adler, Jacob B. Agus, and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly, volume 14 (1950), pages 112–88. New York: Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1951. In Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997.
Heschel
  • Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951. Reprinted 2005. ISBN 0-374-51267-1.
  • Julian Morgenstern. “The Decalogue of the Holiness Code.” Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 26 (1955): pages 1–27.
  • Morris Adler. The World of the Talmud, pages 27–28, 40–41. B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations, 1958. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0-548-08000-3.
  • James A. Michener. The Source, pages 106–20. New York: Random House, 1965. (child sacrifice).
  • Central Conference of American Rabbis. "Rights of Homosexuals." (1977).
  • Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 261–88. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979. ISBN 0-8028-2522-2.
  • Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 137–41. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. ISBN 0-910250-12-X.
  • John G. Gammie. Holiness in Israel. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1989. ISBN 1-59752-033-0.
  • Mark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, pages 127, 129, 132–33. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. ISBN 0-06-067416-4.
  • Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 127–37. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8074-0334-2.
  • "Consensus Statement on Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 612. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4.
  • Joel Roth. "Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992b. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 613–75. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4.
  • Howard Handler. "In the Image of God: A Dissent in Favor of the Full Equality of Gay and Lesbian Jews into the Community of Conservative Judaism." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992h. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 718–21. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4.
  • Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, pages 3–4. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993. ISBN 1-56000-081-3.
  • Jacob Milgrom. "Does the Bible Prohibit Homosexuality? The biblical prohibition is addressed only to Israel. It is incorrect to apply it on a universal scale." Bible Review. Volume 9 (number 6) (December 1993).
  • Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1128–44. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-687-27814-7.
  • Jacob Milgrom. "How Not to Read the Bible: I am not for homosexuality, but I am for homosexuals. When the Bible is distorted to make God their enemy I must speak out to set the record straight." Bible Review. Volume 10 (number 2) (April 1994).
  • Jacob Milgrom. "The Most Basic Law in the Bible: It is easy to ‘love' the war-ravaged Bosnians, the AIDS-stricken Zaireans or the bereaved of Oklahoma City. But what of the strangers in our midst, the vagrants on our sidewalks?" Bible Review. Volume 11 (number 4) (August 1994).
  • Judith S. Antonelli. "Holiness." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 303–12. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995. ISBN 1-56821-438-3.
  • Jacob Milgrom. "‘The Alien in Your Midst': Every nation has its ger: the permanent resident. The Torah commands us, first, not to oppress the ger, and then to befriend and love him." Bible Review. Volume 11 (number 6) (December 1995).
  • Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 179–83. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996. ISBN 0-399-14195-2.
  • Marc Gellman. "Cutting Corners." In God's Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, pages 80–84. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996. ISBN 0-688-13169-7.
  • Jacob Milgrom. “The Changing Concept of Holiness in the Pentateuchal Codes with Emphasis on Leviticus 19.” In Reading Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by J.F.A. Sawyer, pages 65–75. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
  • W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 292–98. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8074-0551-5.
  • Calum M. Carmichael. Law, Legend, and Incest in the Bible: Leviticus 18–20, pages 1–44, 62–198. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8014-3388-6.
  • Robert Goodman. “Shabbat.” In Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities, pages 1–19. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-86705-042-X.
  • Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 201–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-86705-041-1.
  • Mary Douglas. Leviticus as Literature, pages 37, 42, 46, 84, 92, 99, 109, 123–24, 151, 156, 216, 231, 233, 237–40, 246, 250. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-924419-7.
  • Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 179–94, 269–82, 319–46. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. ISBN 978-0-86705-045-5. (Leviticus 19:14, 17–18, 28, 32).
  • Robert S. Greenberger, "Motley Group Pushes for FDA Labels on Biofoods To Help Religious People Observe Dietary Laws," Wall Street Journal, August 18, 1999, page A20.
Steinsaltz
  • Adin Steinsaltz. Simple Words: Thinking About What Really Matters in Life, page 48. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-84642-X.
  • Rachel Esserman. "Who Shall Be Holy?" In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 225–30. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000. ISBN 1-58023-076-8.
  • Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 160–61. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. ISBN 0-06-065548-8.
  • Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 17–22, volume 3A, pages 1594–790. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000. ISBN 0-385-41255-X.
  • Joseph Telushkin. The Book of Jewish Values: A Day-by-Day Guide to Ethical Living, pages 4–6. New York: Bell Tower, 2000. ISBN 0-609-60330-2.
  • Susan Ackerman. "When the Bible Enters the Fray: As Vermont legalizes civil unions for same-sex couples, both sides of the debate turn to the Bible for support. They might do better to turn to Bible scholars, too." Bible Review. Volume 16 (number 5) (October 2000): pages 6, 50.
  • Eyal Regev. “Priestly Dynamic Holiness and Deuteronomic Static Holiness.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 51 (number 2) (April 2001): pages 243–61.
  • Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 435–43, 553–59. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-86705-054-3.
  • Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 183–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. ISBN 0-8276-0691-5.
  • Tikva Frymer-Kensky. “To the Barricades: Views against the Other.” In Reading the Women of the Bible, pages 199–208. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. ISBN 0-8052-4121-3. (Leviticus 18:24–30 on how the original inhabitants of the Land of Israel lost the land).
  • Gershon Hepner. “Abraham's Incestuous Marriage with Sarah a Violation of the Holiness Code.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 53 (number 2) (April 2003): pages 143–55.
  • Daniel S. Nevins. "The Participation of Jews Who Are Blind in the Torah Service." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2003.
  • Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, pages 18, 32–34, 55–56, 129–32, 181–86, 259–62, 290–91, 300–04, 307–10. New York: Bell Tower, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4509-6.
  • Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 625–34. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. ISBN 0-393-01955-1.
  • Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 212–59. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8006-9514-3.
  • Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 252–58. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.
  • Rona Shapiro. "Haftarat Kedoshim: Amos 9:7–15." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 138–40. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-58023-133-0.
  • Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
  • Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 196–203. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005. ISBN 965-7108-74-8.
  • Bernard J. Bamberger. “Leviticus.” In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 797–815. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006. ISBN 0-8074-0883-2.
  • Jonathan P. Burnside. “Strange Flesh: Sex, Semiotics and the Construction of Deviancy in Biblical Law.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 4) (June 2006): pages 387–420.
  • Richard A. Allbee. “Asymmetrical Continuity of Love and Law between the Old and New Testaments: Explicating the Implicit Side of a Hermeneutical Bridge, Leviticus 19.11–18.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 31 (number 2) (December 2006): pages 147–66.
  • Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8018-8500-0.
  • Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner. "Homosexuality, Human Dignity & Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards." EH 24.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Joel Roth. "Homosexuality Revisited." EH 24.2006a New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Leonard Levy. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah." EH 24.2006c New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Baruch Frydman-Kohl. "You Have Wrestled with God and Human and Prevailed: Homosexuality and Halakhah." EH 24.2006d New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Loel M. Weiss. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah: A Concurring Opinion." EH 24.2006e New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Myron Geller, Robert Fine and David Fine. "A New Context: The Halakhah of Same-Sex Relations." EH 24.2006f New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Gordon Tucker. "Halakhic and Metahalakhic Arguments Concerning Judaism and Homosexuality." EH 24.2006g New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
  • Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood Is Life." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 90. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 1-60047-112-9.
kugel
  • James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 19, 27, 131, 256, 261–62, 291–93, 295, 299, 302, 341, 609–10. New York: Free Press, 2007. ISBN 0-7432-3586-X.
  • Esther Jungreis. Life Is a Test, page 168. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4226-0609-0.
  • Alan Morinis. Everyday Holiness: The Jewish Spiritual Path of Mussar. Trumpeter, 2007. ISBN 978-1590303689.
  • Patrick Stump, Pete Wentz, and Wesley Eisold (Fall Out Boy). "Golden." In Infinity on High. Island Records, 2007. (Golden Rule reference).
  • Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007. ISBN 3161492579.
  • The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 701–22. New York: URJ Press, 2008. ISBN 0-8074-1081-0.
  • Roland Boer. “The Forgetfulness of Julia Kristeva: Psychoanalysis, Marxism and the Taboo of the Mother.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 33 (number 3) (March 2009): pages 259–76.
  • David Brodsky. “Sex in the Talmud: How to Understand Leviticus 18 and 20: Parashat Kedoshim (Leviticus 19:1–20:27).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 157–69. New York: New York University Press, 2009. ISBN 0-8147-2012-9.
  • Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 311–17. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009. ISBN 978-0-310-25573-4.
  • Golden Rule: The Ethics of Reciprocity in World Religions. Edited by Jacob Neusner and Bruce D. Chilton. Continuum, 2009. ISBN 1-84706-295-4.
  • Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 173–77. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. ISBN 978-965-229-434-0.
  • Julie Cadwallader-Staub. Joy. In Face to Face: A Poetry Collection. DreamSeeker Books, 2010. ISBN 1-931038-52-X. ("land of milk and honey").
  • Idan Dershowitz. “A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 2) (2010): pages 172–76.
  • Noach Dzmura. Balancing on the Mechitza: Transgender in Jewish Community. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1-55643-813-4.
  • Andrew Ramer, Camille Shira Angel, Dev Noily, and Jay Michaelson. Queering the Text: Biblical, Medieval, and Modern Jewish Stories. Maple Shade, New Jersey: White Crane Books, 2010. ISBN 1-59021-183-9.
  • Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, and Mayer Twersky. "Torah View on Homosexuality" (2010).
  • Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 170–73. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010. ISBN 0-19-528955-2.
  • Marjorie Ingall. "Shatnez Shock: Pondering One of the Torah's Woolliest Rules." Tablet Magazine. (July 19, 2010).
  • "Reporters' Roundtable: Sex and Sexuality Edition." In The Forward. (July 31, 2010). (podcast on Orthodox Judaism's attempts to address homosexuality).
  • Gal Beckerman. "Debate Over Homosexuality Now Roiling Orthodox Jews: Some Rabbis Reach Out to Gays, While Others Attempt a ‘Cure.'" In The Forward. (August 6, 2010).
  • Jay Michaelson. "Are Corporations Evil?" In The Forward. (August 6, 2010). (a proposal for requiring corporate public charity).
  • Stuart Lasine. “Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
  • Lawrence Rifkin. "The Times They Are A-Changin': Jewish Religious Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Are Slowly Shifting." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 21 (number 11) (September 13, 2010): pages 10–13.
  • Eliyahu Touger, translator. The Beard in Jewish Law: Halachic Imperative or Kabbalistic Stringency? Brooklyn: Ktav Publishing House, 2010. (Leviticus 19:27).
  • Mark Washofsky. "Orthodox Minyan in a Reform Synagogue." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, page 3, page 4 note 4, page 11 note 4. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. ISBN 0-88123-160-6. (application of the commandment "Love your neighbor" to an Orthodox Jew's request to conduct a minyan without women in a Reform synagogue).
  • Mark Washofsky. "The Second Festival Day and Reform Judaism." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, pages 49, 54 note 30, 62–63 note 30. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. ISBN 0-88123-160-6. (application of a revision of a ruling, takkanah, on produce from the fourth year to the question of whether a Reform synagogue may observe the second day of a Festival).
  • Mark Washofsky. "A ‘Proper' Reform Mikveh." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, page 89, page 93 note 21, page 98 note 21. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. ISBN 0-88123-160-6. (application of the law of "Do not put a stumbling block before the blind" to the use of a non-Jewish ritual pool).
  • Mark Washofsky. "Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, pages 99, 101–05. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. ISBN 0-88123-160-6. (noting that the Torah instructs to love the ger, and give the ger sustenance, but does not explicitly call for his circumcision).
  • Brad Embry. “The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis 9.22–24.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 4) (June 2011): pages 417–33. (Leviticus 20).
  • Alexis Kashar. -not-curse-deaf “You shall Not Curse The Deaf.” The Jewish Week. (July 5, 2011).
  • William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 178 note 43, 245. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8028-6701-8.
  • Joe Lieberman and David Klinghoffer. The Gift of Rest: Rediscovering the Beauty of the Sabbath. New York: Howard Books, 2011. ISBN 1-4516-0617-6.
  • Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, page 256. New York: Pantheon, 2012. ISBN 978-0-307-37790-6. (prohibition of murder, adultery, false witness, and oath-breaking as an evolutionary advantage).
Herzfeld
  • Shmuel Herzfeld. "Remembering the Besht." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 169–74. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012. ISBN 978-965-229-558-3.
  • Daniel S. Nevins. "The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2012.
  • CCAR Responsa Committee. "Same-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin." 5774.4. (2013).
  • Adam Kirsch. "Ancient Laws for Modern Times: When is a tent just a tent and not like a bed or a hat? To update Jewish laws, the rabbis reasoned by analogy." Tablet Magazine. (February 26, 2013). (Shabbat).
  • Adam Kirsch. "Leave the Jewish People Alone: Rabbis left enforcement of their Talmudic decrees to communal standards and voluntary commitment." Tablet Magazine. (March 5, 2013). (Shabbat).
  • Adam Kirsch. "Written in the Stars (Or Not): To overcome fated lives, the Talmud's rabbis argued, perform virtuous acts according to Torah." Tablet Magazine. (March 12, 2013). (Shabbat).
  • Adam Kirsch. "Navigating the Talmud's Alleys: The range of problems and the variety of answers in the study of Oral Law lead to new pathways of reasoning." Tablet Magazine. (March 18, 2013). (Shabbat).
  • Marc Zvi Brettler. "Who's a Neighbor: Taken as a whole Kedoshim insists that all people must be ‘loved' — treated with fundamental respect and dignity." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 2) (May 6, 2013): page 45.
  • Amiel Ungar. "Gay Marriage and the Jewish Question: A conscious decision not to produce Jewish descendants is lamentable and means that liberal Judaism will have fewer stakeholders in the future." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 5) (June 17, 2013): page 22.
  • Adam Nagourney. "Gay Marriage Stirs Rebellion at Synagogue." The New York Times. (July 6, 2013): page A1.
  • Amiel Ungar. "Tel Aviv and the Sabbath." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 8) (July 29, 2013): page 37.
  • Sam Schulman. "Same-Sex Marriage and the Jews." Mosaic Magazine. (February 2014).
  • Richard Elliott Friedman. "Love Your Neighbor: Only Israelites or Everyone?" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 40 (number 5) (September/October 2014): pages 49–52.
  • Amanda Terkel. "Glenn Grothman, Wisconsin GOP Senator, Fights for a Seven-Day Workweek." The Huffington Post. (January 3, 2014, updated January 23, 2014). (Congressional candidate said, "Right now in Wisconsin, you're not supposed to work seven days in a row, which is a little ridiculous because all sorts of people want to work seven days a week.")
  • Ester Bloom. "The Crazy New App For Using Your iPhone on Shabbos." Jewniverse. (October 1, 2014).
  • "The Crazy New Invention for Using Electricity on Shabbat." Jewniverse. (April 21, 2015).
  • Shai Held. “Why Does the Torah Prohibit Cursing the Deaf?” Mosaic Magazine. (April 29, 2015).
  • Jodi Magness, “The Jewish Diaspora and the Golden Rule.” In Jesus and His Jewish Influences, lecture 6. Chantilly, Virginia: The Great Courses, 2015.
Sacks
  • Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 281–313. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015. ISBN 978-1-59264-022-5.
  • Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 157–61. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. ISBN 978-1-59264-432-2.
  • David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl. “Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,” page 7. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. (Leviticus 18–20 and modesty in dress).
  • Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 189–93. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. ISBN 978-1-59264-449-0.
  • Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 57–65. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. ISBN 978-0827612716.
  • Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 97–99. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. ISBN 978-0827612693.
  • Pekka Pitkänen. “Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42 (number 2) (December 2017): pages 139–53.
  • Leonard A. Sharzer. “Transgender Jews and Halakhah.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2017.
  • Idan Dershowitz. “The Secret History of Leviticus.” The New York Times, July 21, 2018. (Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13).
  • Bill Dauster. "Who Is Our Neighbor?" Washington Jewish Week, May 9, 2019, page 28.
  • Julia Rhyder. "Sabbath and Sanctuary Cult in the Holiness Legislation: A Reassessment." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 721–40.
  • John J. Collins. “Love Your Neighbor: How It Became the Golden Rule.” TheTorah.com. 2020.

External links

Texts

  • Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
  • Hear the parashah chanted
  • Hear the parashah read in Hebrew

Commentaries

  • Aish.com
  • Bar-Ilan University
  • Chabad.org
  • Jewish Theological Seminary
  • MyJewishLearning.com
  • Ohr Sameach
  • OzTorah, Torah from Australia
  • Professor James L. Kugel
  • Rabbi Dov Linzer
  • Rabbi Jonathan Sacks
  • RabbiShimon.com
  • Tanach Study Center
  • Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill
  • Torah from Dixie
  • Torah.org
  • TorahVort.com
  • Union for Reform Judaism
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