Las Joyas de la Corona del Reino Unido , originalmente las Joyas de la Corona de Inglaterra , son una colección de objetos ceremoniales reales guardados en la Torre de Londres , que incluyen las insignias y las vestimentas usadas por los reyes y reinas británicos en sus coronaciones . [C]
Joyas de la corona | |
---|---|
Descripción general | |
País | Reino Unido |
Localización | Jewel House y Martin Tower en la Torre de Londres [a] |
Tamaño | 142 objetos: [2] [b]
|
Más antiguo | Cuchara de coronación (siglo XII) |
El más nuevo | Armills de Isabel II (1953) |
Piedras | 23.578 |
Dueño | Isabel II a la derecha de la Corona [3] |
Gerentes | Crown Jeweler Royal Collection Trust Histórico Palacios Reales |
Sitio web | hrp.org.uk |
Símbolos de 800 años de monarquía, [6] las insignias de coronación son el único conjunto de trabajo en Europa y la colección es la más históricamente completa de todas las insignias del mundo. [7] Los objetos utilizados para investir y coronar al monarca denotan de diversas formas sus funciones como jefe de estado, gobernador supremo de la Iglesia de Inglaterra y jefe de las fuerzas armadas británicas. Cuentan con dispositivos heráldicos y emblemas nacionales de Inglaterra, Escocia, Gales e Irlanda del Norte, y piezas recientes fueron diseñadas para reflejar el papel del monarca como Jefe de la Commonwealth .
El uso de insignias por parte de los monarcas en Inglaterra se remonta a cuando se convirtió al cristianismo en la Edad Media. Un conjunto permanente de insignias de coronación, que una vez perteneció a Eduardo el Confesor , se estableció después de que fue hecho santo en el siglo XII. Eran reliquias sagradas guardadas en la Abadía de Westminster , lugar de coronaciones desde 1066. Otro conjunto se utilizó en las fiestas religiosas y las Aperturas del Parlamento del Estado . Colectivamente, estos objetos llegaron a ser conocidos como las Joyas de la Corona . La mayor parte de la colección actual data de hace unos 350 años cuando Carlos II ascendió al trono. Las insignias medievales y Tudor se vendieron o fundieron después de que la monarquía fuera abolida en 1649 durante la Guerra Civil Inglesa . Solo cuatro elementos originales son anteriores a la Restauración : una cuchara de unción de finales del siglo XII (el objeto más antiguo) y tres espadas de principios del siglo XVII. Tras las Actas de Unión de 1707 , los monarcas británicos adoptaron las Joyas de la Corona inglesa; las insignias escocesas se conocen hoy como los honores de Escocia .
Las insignias contienen 23.578 piedras, entre ellas Cullinan I (530 quilates (106 g)), el diamante de talla clara más grande del mundo, engastado en el Cetro con Cruz del Soberano. Fue tallado del diamante en bruto con calidad de gema más grande jamás encontrado, el Cullinan, descubierto en Sudáfrica en 1905 y presentado a Eduardo VII . En la Corona del Estado Imperial se encuentran Cullinan II (317 quilates (63 g)), Stuart Sapphire , St Edward's Sapphire y Black Prince's Ruby , una gran espinela que un rey español le dio a Eduardo el Príncipe Negro en 1367. El Koh- El diamante i-Noor (105 quilates (21 g)), originario de la India, pasó a manos de la reina Victoria y ha aparecido en tres coronas de consorte. Una pequeña cantidad de objetos históricos en la Torre están vacíos o engastados con vidrio y cristales.
En una coronación, el monarca es ungido con aceite sagrado vertido de una ampolla en la cuchara, revestido con túnicas y ornamentos y coronado con la Corona de San Eduardo . Posteriormente, se cambia por la Corona del Estado Imperial más ligera, que también se usa generalmente en las Aperturas del Parlamento del Estado. Las esposas de los reyes están investidas con un conjunto más sencillo de insignias, [d] y desde 1831 se ha hecho una nueva corona especialmente para cada reina consorte . También se consideran joyas de la corona las espadas de estado, las trompetas, las mazas ceremoniales, el plato de la iglesia, las insignias históricas, el plato de banquete y las pilas de bautizo real. Forman parte de la Colección Real y pertenecen a la institución de la monarquía, pasando de un soberano a otro. Cuando no están en uso, las Joyas se exhiben al público en Jewel House y Martin Tower, donde son vistas por 2,5 millones de visitantes cada año.
Historia
Historia temprana
El primer uso conocido de una corona en Gran Bretaña fue descubierto por arqueólogos en 1988 en Deal , Kent, y data de entre 200 y 150 a . C. Una espada, un broche, un escudo ceremonial y una corona de bronce decorada con un solo arco, [e] que descansaba directamente sobre la cabeza de su portador, fueron encontrados dentro de la tumba del Guerrero de Mill Hill . [9] En este punto, las coronas eran símbolos de autoridad usados por líderes religiosos y militares. Sacerdotes continuaron usando coronas después de la conquista romana de Gran Bretaña en el año 43 dC . [10] Una excavación en un campo en Hockwold cum Wilton , Norfolk, en 1957 reveló una corona de bronce con dos arcos y representaciones de rostros masculinos, [f] que data del período de ocupación romana. [11]
Edad media
A principios del siglo V, los romanos se habían retirado de Gran Bretaña y los anglos y los sajones se asentaron. Comenzó a surgir una heptárquica de nuevos reinos. Uno de los métodos utilizados por los reyes regionales para solidificar su autoridad sobre sus territorios fue el uso de ceremonias e insignias. [12] La tumba de un rey desconocido (la evidencia sugiere que puede ser Rædwald de East Anglia ) en Sutton Hoo da una idea de las insignias de un rey anglosajón precristiano. [13] Dentro de la tumba de principios del siglo VII descubierta en 1939 se encontró el ornamentado casco Sutton Hoo , compuesto por una gorra de hierro, un protector para el cuello y una máscara facial, decorado con imágenes de animales y guerreros en una aleación de cobre y con granates. . [14] También fue enterrado con un cetro pesado de piedra de afilar , [g] encima del cual hay un anillo de hierro coronado por la figura de un ciervo; una espada decorada; y un escudo ceremonial. [13]
En 597, un monje benedictino fue enviado por el Papa Gregorio I para comenzar a convertir la Inglaterra pagana al cristianismo. El monje Agustín se convirtió en el primer arzobispo de Canterbury . En dos siglos, se estableció el ritual de ungir a los monarcas con aceite sagrado y coronarlos (inicialmente con cascos) en una ceremonia cristiana, y las insignias adquirieron una identidad religiosa. Todavía no había un conjunto permanente de insignias de coronación; cada monarca generalmente tenía un nuevo conjunto hecho que generalmente se enterraba con él o ella al morir. [15] En la Europa del siglo IX, las coronas de oro en la tradición bizantina estaban reemplazando al bronce, y el oro pronto se convirtió en el material estándar para las coronas reales inglesas. [dieciséis]
Æthelstan ascendió al trono en 924 y unió los diversos reinos anglosajones para formar el Reino de Inglaterra . En la representación más antigua conocida de un rey inglés con una corona, se le muestra presentando una copia de la Vida de San Cuthbert de Beda al santo mismo. [17] Hasta su reinado, los reyes habían sido representados en monedas con cascos y anillos, [18] o diademas en forma de corona al estilo del emperador romano Constantino el Grande . Es cuestionable si usaron o no tal artículo. [11] Edgar el Pacífico fue el primer rey inglés en ser coronado con una corona real, y también se introdujo un cetro para su coronación en 973. [19] Después de las coronas, los cetros fueron los símbolos más potentes de la autoridad real en la Inglaterra medieval. [20]
Eduardo el Confesor
Eduardo el Confesor está representado en un trono con una corona y un cetro en la primera escena del Tapiz de Bayeux . [21] En 1066, Eduardo murió sin heredero, y Guillermo el Conquistador emergió como el primer rey normando de Inglaterra tras su victoria sobre los ingleses en la batalla de Hastings . Llevar una corona se convirtió en una parte importante de los esfuerzos de Guillermo I por cimentar su autoridad sobre su nuevo territorio y súbditos. [22] A su muerte en 1087, la Crónica anglosajona informó: "[William] mantuvo un gran estado ... Llevaba su corona tres veces al año con tanta frecuencia como en Inglaterra ... Era tan severo e implacable ... no debemos olvídate del buen orden que guardaba en la tierra ". [23] Esos coronamientos se llevaban a cabo en las fiestas religiosas de Pascua, Pentecostés y Navidad. [24]
En 1161, Eduardo el Confesor fue nombrado santo y los objetos relacionados con su reinado se convirtieron en reliquias sagradas. Los monjes en su lugar de enterramiento de la Abadía de Westminster afirmaron que Edward les había pedido que cuidaran sus insignias a perpetuidad y que debían usarse en las coronaciones de todos los reyes futuros. [22] Una nota a este efecto está contenida en un inventario de reliquias elaborado por un monje en la abadía en 1450, que registra una túnica , dalmática , palio y otras vestimentas; un cetro de oro, dos varas, una corona de oro, un peine y una cuchara; para la coronación de la reina una corona y dos varas; y para la Sagrada Comunión, un cáliz de piedra de ónice y una patena de oro, todos ellos considerados reliquias preciosas. [25] Aunque es probable que la afirmación de la abadía haya sido un ejercicio de autopromoción, y algunas de las insignias probablemente se habían quitado de la tumba de Edward cuando fue rehundido allí, se aceptó como un hecho, [22] estableciendo así la primera conjunto conocido de insignias de coronación hereditarias en Europa. [26] La Abadía de Westminster es propiedad de un monarca, [27] y las insignias siempre habían sido propiedad real: los abades eran meros custodios. En los siglos siguientes, algunos de estos objetos dejarían de usarse y las insignias se expandirían para incluir muchos otros usados o usados por monarcas y reinas consorte en las coronaciones. [28]
Una corona conocida como la Corona de San Eduardo se registró por primera vez como utilizada para la coronación de Enrique III en 1220, y parece ser la misma corona que usó Eduardo. Ser coronado e investido con insignias pertenecientes a un monarca anterior que también era un santo reforzó la autoridad del rey. [29] También se pensó erróneamente que había sido originalmente propiedad de Alfred el Grande porque una inscripción en la tapa de su caja, traducida del latín, decía: "Esta es la corona principal de las dos, con las que fueron coronados los reyes Alfred, Edward y otros ". [30] La corona se utilizaría en muchas coronaciones posteriores hasta su eventual destrucción 400 años después. Pocas descripciones sobreviven, aunque un historiador del siglo XVII señaló que se trataba de una "obra antigua con flores, adornada con piedras de engaste algo sencillo", [31] y un inventario lo describió como "trabajo de alambre de oro con piedras ligeras y dos campanitas ", con un peso de 2,25 kilogramos (79,5 oz). [32] Tenía arcos y puede haber sido decorado con esmaltes de filigrana y cloisonné . [33] También en la Colección Real en este período había un artículo llamado corona estatal . Junto con otras coronas, anillos y espadas, comprendía las insignias estatales del monarca que se mantenían separadas de las insignias de coronación, principalmente en los palacios reales. [34]
Baja Edad Media
La transferencia de coronas simboliza la transferencia de poder entre gobernantes. Tras la derrota en 1282 del príncipe galés Llewelyn ap Gruffydd por Eduardo I , las insignias galesas, incluida la corona del legendario rey Arturo , fueron entregadas a Inglaterra. Según la Crónica de la abadía de Aberconwy , "y así la gloria de Gales y el galés fue entregada a los reyes de Inglaterra". [35] Después de la invasión de Escocia en 1296, la Piedra de Scone fue enviada a la Torre de Londres "en reconocimiento", como dijo el cronista Walter de Guisborough , "de un reino rendido y conquistado". [36] Se colocó en una silla de madera, que llegó a utilizarse para la investidura de los reyes de Inglaterra, lo que le valió la reputación de ser la silla de la coronación . [37] Las insignias escocesas también se llevaron a Londres y se ofrecieron en el santuario de Eduardo el Confesor; [38] Escocia finalmente recuperó su independencia. [39] En el tesoro de Eduardo II en 1324 había 10 coronas. [40] Cuando Ricardo II se vio obligado a abdicar en 1399, le entregó simbólicamente la Corona de San Eduardo a Enrique IV , diciendo "Te presento y te doy esta corona ... y todos los derechos que dependen de ella". [41]
Los monarcas a menudo se comprometieron con varios artículos de regalía del estado como garantía para préstamos a lo largo de la Edad Media. Eduardo II empeñó su Gran Corona en Flandes . El obispo de Londres y el conde de Arundel tenían tres coronas y otras joyas como garantía por 10.000 libras esterlinas en la década de 1370. [42] Se entregó una corona a la Corporación de Londres a cambio de un préstamo de £ 4.000 en 1386, [43] equivalente a £ 3.150.220 en la actualidad. [44] A veces, alcaldes, caballeros, compañeros, banqueros y otros súbditos ricos de Inglaterra y Europa continental soltaban temporalmente los objetos del empeño para que el rey los usara en ocasiones estatales, y luego los devolvía después de la ceremonia. Los reyes también distribuyeron platos y joyas a sus tropas en lugar de dinero. [43]
En algún momento del siglo XIV, todas las insignias estatales se trasladaron a la Torre Blanca en la Torre de Londres debido a una serie de robos y intentos exitosos en la Abadía de Westminster. [h] Las sagradas reliquias de las insignias de coronación quedaron intactas en la Abadía. [45] Después de una larga ausencia, se agregaron dos arcos coronados con un monde y una cruz a las nuevas imágenes de la Corona de San Eduardo en la época de Enrique IV y a la corona estatal durante el reinado de su sucesor Enrique V , [42] aunque arcos no apareció en el Gran Sello hasta 1471. [46] Conocido como una corona cerrada o imperial , los arcos y la cruz simbolizaban las pretensiones del rey de ser un emperador de su propio dominio, subordinado a nadie más que a Dios, a diferencia de algunos gobernantes continentales que debía lealtad a los reyes más poderosos o al Emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico . [47]
Períodos Tudor y Stuart temprano
Las tradiciones establecidas en el período medieval continuaron más tarde. A mediados del siglo XV, se usaba formalmente una corona en seis fiestas religiosas cada año: Navidad, Epifanía , Pascua, Pentecostés, Día de Todos los Santos y una o ambas fiestas de San Eduardo. [48] [i] Se exhibió y usó una corona en la Apertura Estatal anual del Parlamento , [49] y tres se colocaron en las cabezas de los monarcas en una coronación: la Corona de San Eduardo, la corona del estado y una "corona rica" hecho especialmente para el rey o la reina. [50]
Alrededor de este tiempo, tres espadas, símbolos de la realeza desde la antigüedad, se usaban en la ceremonia de coronación para representar los poderes del rey en la administración de justicia: la Espada de la Justicia Espiritual, la Espada de la Justicia Temporal y la Espada sin filo de la Misericordia. . [51] Un elemento emergente de regalía fue el orbe, descrito en los inventarios Tudor como una bola redonda con una cruz de oro, [52] que subrayó la soberanía del monarca. Los orbes habían sido emblemas pictóricos de la autoridad real en Inglaterra desde principios de la Edad Media, pero un orbe real probablemente no se usó en ninguna coronación inglesa hasta la de Enrique VIII en 1509. [53] Después de la Reforma inglesa , la Iglesia de Inglaterra denunció la veneración. de reliquias medievales, y a partir de la coronación de Eduardo VI en 1547, la importancia de las insignias de San Eduardo se minimizó en la ceremonia. [54]
Las insignias estatales pasaban cada vez más de un rey a otro. El ejemplo más conocido de esto fue la Corona de Enrique VIII . Se desconoce su fecha de fabricación, pero probablemente se creó a principios de la dinastía Tudor, tal vez durante el reinado de Enrique VII . El concepto de regalía estatal hereditaria fue consagrado en la ley inglesa cuando James I decretó en 1606: "Los ornamentos y joyas de Roiall y Princely se anexarán individa e inseparablemente para siempre al Reino de este Reino". [52] [j] Después de la muerte de James en 1625, Carlos I sucedió en el trono. Desesperado por el dinero, uno de sus primeros actos como rey fue cargar 41 obras maestras de la Casa de las Joyas en un barco con destino a Ámsterdam , el centro del comercio de joyas de Europa. Se esperaba este tesoro de piezas únicas con joyas, como el Espejo de Gran Bretaña , el colgante del siglo XIV conocido como Los Tres Hermanos , un salero de oro de 4,7 kilogramos (10 libras) conocido como la Danza de Morris, y un plato isabelino muy fino. para aumentar las arcas del rey en 300.000 libras esterlinas, pero se vendieron por 70.000 libras esterlinas. [55]
Los numerosos conflictos de Carlos con el Parlamento, derivados de su creencia en el derecho divino de los reyes y los numerosos conflictos religiosos que invadieron su reinado, desencadenaron la Guerra Civil inglesa en 1642. [56] El Parlamento consideró las insignias como "Joyas de la Corona", otorgadas en el monarca debido a su papel público como rey, y no propiedad de él personalmente. [57] Para evitar poner en riesgo a sus propios súbditos, Charles y su esposa una vez más recaudaron dinero exportando joyas reales con un gran descuento. Al enterarse del plan del rey, ambas Cámaras del Parlamento declararon que los traficantes de las Joyas de la Corona eran enemigos del estado . [58] [k] Apenas dos años después, el Parlamento confiscó 187 kilogramos (412 libras) de piezas raras de plata dorada de la Casa de las Joyas, que incluía una pila de bautizo real, y las utilizó para financiar su propio lado de la guerra. [59]
Interregno
Después de seis años de guerra, Carlos fue derrotado y ejecutado en 1649. Menos de una semana después de la ejecución del rey, el Parlamento Rump votó para abolir la monarquía. La República Inglesa recién creada se encontró escasa de dinero. Para recaudar fondos, se promulgó la Ley de Venta de Bienes y Bienes Personales del Rey, la Reina y el Príncipe, y se nombraron fideicomisarios para valorar las Joyas, que Oliver Cromwell consideró entonces como "un símbolo de la detestable regla de reyes " [60] y" monumentos de superstición e idolatría " [61] - y venderlos al mejor postor. El objeto más valioso fue la corona de Enrique VIII, valorada en 1.100 libras esterlinas. [62] Se quitaron las piedras preciosas y las perlas, la mayor parte de la coronación y las insignias estatales se fundieron, y la Casa de la Moneda convirtió el oro en cientos de monedas . [63]
Two nuptial crowns, the Crown of Margaret of York and the Crown of Princess Blanche, survived as they had been taken out of England centuries before the Civil War when Margaret and Blanche married kings in continental Europe. Both crowns and the 9th-century Alfred Jewel give a sense of the character of royal jewellery in England in the Middle Ages.[64] Another rare survivor is the 600-year-old Crystal Sceptre, a gift from Henry V to the Lord Mayor of London, who still bears it at coronations.[65] Many pieces of English plate had been presented to visiting dignitaries and can be seen in museums throughout Europe.[66] The Scottish regalia of Charles II, who was crowned King of Scotland in 1651, also survive even though Cromwell made an attempt to seize and destroy them.[67] In England, Cromwell declined invitations by Parliament to be made king and became Lord Protector. It was marked by a ceremony in Westminster Hall in 1657, where he donned purple robes, sat on the Coronation Chair, and was invested with many traditional symbols of sovereignty, except a crown.[68] A crown—perhaps made of gilded base metal, as was typical of funerary crowns in those days—was placed beside Cromwell at his lying in state in 1660.[69]
Restoration to present day
The monarchy was restored after Cromwell's death. For the English coronation of Charles II, who had been living in exile abroad,[70] new Jewels were made based on records of the lost items.[60] They were supplied by the banker and Royal Goldsmith,[l] Sir Robert Vyner, at a cost of £12,184 7s 2d[60] – as much as three warships.[72] It was decided to fashion the replicas as much as possible like the medieval regalia and to use the original names. These 22-carat gold objects,[16] made in 1660 and 1661, form the nucleus of the Crown Jewels today: St Edward's Crown, two sceptres, an orb, an ampulla for the holy anointing oil,[m] a pair of spurs, a pair of armills or bracelets, and a walking stick. A medieval silver-gilt anointing spoon and three swords survived and were returned to the Crown,[74] and the Dutch ambassador arranged the return of extant jewels pawned in Holland.[75] The king spent additional money on 2,270 kilograms (5,000 lb) of altar and banqueting plate, and he was presented with conciliatory gifts.[76]
In 1669 the Jewels went on public display for the first time in the Jewel House at the Tower of London. The Deputy Keeper of the Jewel House took the regalia out of a cupboard and showed it to visitors for a small fee.[77] This informal arrangement was ended two years later when Thomas Blood, an Irish-born army officer loyal to Parliament, attacked the 77-year-old and stole a crown, a sceptre, and an orb. Blood and his three accomplices were apprehended at the castle perimeter, but the crown had been flattened with a mallet in an attempt to conceal it, and there was a dent in the orb.[78] He was pardoned by the king, who also gave him land and a pension; it has been suggested that Blood was treated leniently because he was a government spy.[79] Ever since, the Jewels have been protected by armed guards.[80]
Since the Restoration, there have been many additions and alterations to the regalia.[n] A new set was commissioned in 1685 for Mary of Modena, the first queen consort to be crowned since the Restoration, Charles II having been unmarried when he took the throne. Another, more elaborate set had to be made four years later when Mary II was crowned as joint sovereign with her husband William III.[60] After the Acts of Union 1707 joined England and Scotland together, the Scottish Crown Jewels were locked away in a chest,[81] and the English Crown Jewels continued to be used by British monarchs. Gemstones were hired for coronations – the fee typically being 4% of their value – and replaced with glass and crystals for display in the Jewel House, a practice that continued until the early 20th century.[60]
As enemy planes targeted London during the Second World War, the Crown Jewels were secretly moved to Windsor Castle.[82] The most valuable gemstones were taken out of their settings, sealed in a biscuit tin, and hidden in the castle's basement.[83] After the war, the Jewels were kept in a vault at the Bank of England for two years while the Jewel House was repaired. The Tower had been struck by a bomb.[84] In 1953 St Edward's Crown was placed on the head of Elizabeth II in what is now the only ceremony of its kind in Europe.[85][o] Other European monarchies have abandoned coronations in favour of secular ceremonies.[87] Today, 142 objects make up the Crown Jewels,[88] which are permanently set with 23,578 precious and semi-precious stones, and they are seen by around 2.5 million visitors every year.[89]
Coronas
Crowns are the main symbols of royal authority.[90] All crowns in the Tower are decorated with alternating crosses pattée and fleurs-de-lis, a pattern which first appears on the great seal of Richard III,[46] and their arches are surmounted with a monde and cross pattée. Most of them also have a red or purple velvet cap and an ermine border.[2]
St Edward's Crown
The centrepiece of the coronation regalia is named after Edward the Confessor and is placed on the monarch's head at the moment of crowning.[91] Made of gold and completed in 1661, St Edward's Crown is embellished with 444 stones, including amethysts, garnets, peridots, rubies, sapphires, topazes, tourmalines and zircons.[92] The crown was fashioned to closely resemble the medieval one, with a heavy gold base and clusters of semi-precious stones, but the disproportionately large arches are a Baroque affectation.[93] It was long assumed to be the original as their weight is almost identical, and an invoice was produced in 1661 for the addition of gold to an existing crown. In 2008 new research found that a coronation crown had been made in 1660, and it was enhanced the following year when Parliament increased the budget for Charles II's delayed coronation.[94] The crown is 30 cm (11.8 in) tall, and at a weight of 2.23 kg (4.9 lb) has been noted to be extremely heavy.[92] After 1689, monarchs chose to be crowned with a lighter, bespoke coronation crown (e.g., that of George IV[95]) or their state crown, while St Edward's Crown rested on the high altar. The tradition of using St Edward's Crown was revived in 1911 for the coronation of George V.[91] In 1953 Elizabeth II opted for a stylised image of this crown to be used on coats of arms, badges, logos and various other insignia in the Commonwealth realms to symbolise her royal authority. It replaced the image of a Tudor-style crown adopted in 1901 by Edward VII.[96]
Imperial State Crown
A much lighter crown is worn by the monarch when leaving Westminster Abbey, and at the annual State Opening of Parliament.[97] The current Imperial State Crown was made in 1937 for George VI and is a copy of the one made in 1838 for Queen Victoria, which had fallen into a poor state of repair,[98] and had been made using gems from its own predecessor, the State Crown of George I.[99] In 1953 the crown was resized to fit Elizabeth II, and the arches were lowered by 2.5 cm (1 in) to give it a more feminine appearance.[100] The gold, silver and platinum crown is decorated with 2,868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds and 5 rubies.[101] Among the largest stones are the 317-carat (63.4 g) Cullinan II diamond, also known as the Second Star of Africa, added to the crown in 1909. The 170-carat (34 g) Black Prince's Ruby, set in the front cross, is a large spinel given to Edward the Black Prince by a Spanish king in 1367 and worn by Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.[102] How the stone found its way back into the Royal Collection after the Interregnum is unclear, but a substantial ruby was acquired for the Crown Jewels in 1661 at a cost of £400, and this may well have been the Black Prince's Ruby.[103] On the crown's back is the 104-carat (20.8 g) Stuart Sapphire, and in the top cross is St Edward's Sapphire, reputedly taken from the ring of the Confessor when his body was re-interred at the Abbey in 1163.[102] Below the monde hang four pearls, three of which are often said to have belonged to Elizabeth I, but the association is almost certainly erroneous.[104]
Consort crowns
After the Restoration, wives of kings – queens consort – traditionally wore the State Crown of Mary of Modena, wife of James II, who first wore it at their coronation in 1685. Originally set with 561 hired diamonds and 129 pearls, it is now set with crystals and cultured pearls for display in the Jewel House along with a matching diadem that consorts wore in procession to the Abbey. The diadem once held 177 diamonds, 1 ruby, 1 sapphire, and 1 emerald.[105] By the 19th century that crown was judged to be too theatrical and in a poor state of repair, so in 1831 the Crown of Queen Adelaide was made for Queen Adelaide, wife of William IV, using gemstones from her private jewellery.[106]
Thus began a tradition of each queen consort having a crown made specially for their use.[107] In 1902 the Crown of Queen Alexandra, a European-style crown – flatter and with eight half-arches instead of the traditional four – was made for Queen Alexandra, wife of Edward VII, to wear at their coronation. Set with over 3,000 diamonds, it was the first consort crown to include the Koh-i-Noor diamond presented to Queen Victoria in 1850 following the British conquest of the Punjab. Originally 191 carats (38 g) and set in an armlet, it was cut down to an oval brilliant weighing 105 carats (21 g), which Victoria mounted in a brooch and circlet.[108] The second was the Crown of Queen Mary; also unusual for a British crown in having eight half-arches, it was made in 1911 for the coronation of Queen Mary and George V. It contains 2,200 diamonds and has contained Cullinans III and IV. In 1914, both stones and the Koh-i-Noor were replaced with crystal replicas, and the arches were made detachable, allowing it to be worn as an open crown.[109] Mary paid for the Art Deco-inspired crown herself and originally hoped it would be used by future consorts.[110]
After George V's death, Mary continued wearing the crown (without its arches) as a queen mother, and so the Crown of Queen Elizabeth was made for Queen Elizabeth, wife of George VI and later known as the Queen Mother, to wear at their coronation in 1937.[111] It is the only British crown made entirely out of platinum,[109] and was modelled on Queen Mary's Crown, but has the usual four half-arches instead of eight.[112] The crown is decorated with about 2,800 diamonds, most notably the Koh-i-Noor in the middle of the front cross. It also contains a replica of the 22.5-carat (5 g) Lahore Diamond given to Queen Victoria by the East India Company in 1851,[113] and a 17.3-carat (3 g) diamond given to her by Abdülmecid I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, in 1856.[112] Elizabeth last wore it as an open crown at the coronation of her daughter Elizabeth II in 1953. The crown was laid on top of the Queen Mother's coffin in 2002 during her lying in state and funeral.[114]
Prince of Wales coronets
A relatively modest coronet was made in 1728 for Frederick, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of George II. It takes the form laid down in a royal warrant issued by Charles II, which states that the heir apparent of the Crown shall use and bear a coronet of crosses and fleurs-de-lis with one arch surmounted by a ball and cross.[115] The single arch denotes inferiority to the monarch and shows that the prince outranks other royal children, whose coronets have no arches.[116] Frederick never wore his gold coronet; instead, it was placed on a cushion in front of him when he first took his seat in the House of Lords. It was used by his son, George III, then his son, George IV, and was last used by Edward VII when he was Prince of Wales.[117] Due to its age, a new silver-gilt coronet was made for his son, the future George V, to wear at Edward's coronation in 1902. In contrast to the earlier coronet, which has a depressed arch, the arch on this one is raised. At George's own coronation in 1911, the coronet was worn by his son, Edward, the next Prince of Wales.[118] After he became king in 1936, Edward VIII abdicated later the same year and, as the Duke of Windsor, went into exile in France,[119] taking the 1902 coronet with him; it remained abroad until his death in 1972. In its absence, another coronet had to be made for the investiture of Prince Charles in 1969,[120] which was exhibited for many years at the National Museum of Wales alongside the other Honours of Wales (a rod, ring, and sword made for the 1911 investiture and also used in 1969);[121] the coronet and rod were both added to the Jewel House in 2020.[122]
Non-coronation crowns
In the Jewel House there are two crowns that were not intended to be used at a coronation. Queen Victoria's Small Diamond Crown is just 10 cm (3.9 in) tall, and was made in 1870 using 1,187 diamonds for Victoria to wear on top of her widow's cap. She often wore it at State Openings of Parliament in place of the much heavier Imperial State Crown. After the queen's death in 1901 the crown passed to her daughter-in-law Queen Alexandra and later to Queen Mary.[123] The Imperial Crown of India was created in 1911 when George V visited the Delhi Durbar with Queen Mary to be proclaimed (but not crowned) as Emperor of India. Since the British constitution prohibits the removal of Crown Jewels from the United Kingdom, a new crown had to be made for the event, with emeralds, rubies, sapphires and 6,100 diamonds. It has not been used since and is now a part of the Crown Jewels.[124]
Objetos procesionales
A coronation begins with the procession into Westminster Abbey.[125]
Swords
The swords of state reflect a monarch's role as Head of the British Armed Forces and Defender of the Faith.[126] Three are carried before the monarch into the Abbey: the blunt Sword of Mercy (also known as Curtana), the Sword of Spiritual Justice, and the Sword of Temporal Justice.[51] All are believed to have been supplied at the time of James I between 1610 and 1620, probably by a member of the Worshipful Company of Cutlers,[127] using blades created in the 1580s by Italian bladesmiths Giandonato and Andrea Ferrara. They were deposited with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Charles II; before then, new swords had been made for each coronation since the 15th century.[51] Sold in the civil war, they were returned at the Restoration, and their first recorded use was at the coronation of James II in 1685.[127]
Two other swords are used. The two-handed Sword of State, made in 1678 (a 1660 sword was last used in the 18th century) symbolises the monarch's royal authority. It is also carried before the monarch at State Openings of Parliament.[128] Its wooden sheath, made in 1689, is bound in crimson velvet decorated with silver-gilt emblems of England, Scotland and Ireland, fleurs-de-lis and portcullises.[129] The lion of England and unicorn of Scotland form the cross-piece to the sword's handle. Before the investiture, it is exchanged for the principal Sword of Offering, of which the Sword of State is a metaphor. Commissioned by George IV for his 1821 coronation, its gilded leather sheath is encrusted with 1,251 diamonds, 16 rubies, 2 sapphires and 2 turquoises. The sword has a Damascus steel blade and is set with 2,141 diamonds, 12 emeralds and 4 rubies.[130] The precious stones are arranged to form roses, thistles, shamrocks, oak leaves and acorns. Two diamond lion heads, one at each end of the cross-piece, have ruby eyes.[131] George paid more than £5,000 for the sword out of his own pocket in a radical change from the austere £2 swords used by his 18th-century predecessors. It remained in personal ownership of the Royal family until 1903 when it was deposited with the Crown Jewels and has been used at every coronation since 1911.[130] A monarch is girded and blessed using the sword, which is returned to the Keeper of the Jewel House by the Abbey for a token sum of £5,[72] and it is borne unsheathed for the rest of the ceremony.[130]
The defunct Irish Sword of State, made in 1660, was held by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (a viceroy) prior to Ireland's independence from the United Kingdom in 1922, and also resides at the Tower of London. Its handle takes the form of a lion and a unicorn and is decorated with a celtic harp. Each new viceroy was invested with the sword at Dublin Castle, where it usually sat across the arms of a throne, representing the king or queen. It was borne in procession in front of monarchs upon their official visits to Dublin. In June 1921 the sword was present at the official opening by George V of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in Belfast. From September 2017 until April 2018 it was displayed at Dublin Castle as part of the 'Making Majesty' exhibition – the first time it had been to Ireland in 95 years.[132]
St Edward's Staff
St Edward's Staff is a 1.4-metre-long (4.6 ft) gold walking stick made for Charles II in 1661. It has a plain monde and cross at the top and a steel pike at the bottom.[133] This object is almost certainly a copy of the long rod of silver-gilt mentioned in the list of royal plate and jewels destroyed in 1649.[134] The staff's intended role in the coronation has been forgotten since medieval times, and so it is carried into the Abbey by a peer as a holy relic and laid on the altar, where it remains throughout the ceremony.[135]
Trumpets
The Crown Jewels include 16 silver trumpets dating from between 1780 and 1848.[2] Nine of these are draped with red silk damask banners embroidered with coats of arms in gold, originally made for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838. They have not been used since the Corps of State Trumpeters was disbanded as a cost-cutting measure in the 19th century.[136] The trumpeters' main job was to sound a fanfare at key points in the coronation, and they also played at the banquet afterwards in Westminster Hall.[137] Today, the Band of the Household Cavalry and the Central Band of the Royal Air Force play their own trumpets at state occasions.[138][139]
Maces
Beginning as lethal weapons of medieval knights, maces evolved into ceremonial objects carried by sergeants-at-arms and now represent a monarch's authority.[1] The House of Commons can only operate lawfully when the royal mace – dating from the reign of Charles II – is present at the table. Two other maces dating from the reigns of Charles II and William III are used by the House of Lords: One is placed on the Woolsack before the house meets and is absent when a monarch is there in person.[140] In the late 17th century there were 16 maces, but only 13 survive, 10 of which are on display at the Tower of London. Two of these are carried in the royal procession at State Openings of Parliament and coronations. Each mace is about 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long and weighs an average of 10 kg (22 lb).[141] They are silver-gilt and were made between 1660 and 1695.[2]
Objetos de unción
When a monarch is anointed, the Dean of Westminster pours holy anointing oil from an ampulla into a spoon.[142]
Ampulla
The Ampulla, 20.5 cm (8 in) tall and weighing 660 g (1 lb 7+1⁄4 oz), is a hollow gold vessel made in 1661 and shaped like an eagle with outspread wings. Its head unscrews, enabling the vessel to be filled, and the oil exits via a hole in the beak.[143] The original ampulla was a phial made of stone, sometimes worn as a pendant by kings, and otherwise kept inside a gold eagle.[144] Fourteenth-century legend has it that the Virgin Mary appeared in front of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until 1170, and presented to him a gold eagle and phial of oil for anointing English kings.[143] This ampulla was first recorded as being used at the coronation of Henry IV in 1399 and was deposited for safekeeping with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Richard III in 1483.[54] The same batch of oil was used to anoint all kings and queens (except Mary I) until it ran out in 1625. No one is quite sure why the vessel itself came to be reinterpreted as an eagle standing on a domed base after the Restoration.[144] In terms of religious importance the anointing objects are second only to St Edward's Crown,[145] and in 2013 the ampulla was placed beside the crown on the altar of Westminster Abbey at a service marking the 60th anniversary of Elizabeth II's coronation.[146]
Spoon
The 27-centimetre-long (10+1⁄2 in) Coronation Spoon, which dates from the late 12th century, is silver-gilt and set with four pearls added in the 17th century. A ridge divides the bowl in half, creating grooves into which the Archbishop of Canterbury dips two fingers and anoints the monarch, confirming him or her as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Originally, the spoon may have been used for mixing water and wine in a chalice, and it is first known to have been used to anoint a monarch at the English coronation of James I in 1603.[147] It is the oldest surviving piece of regalia, first recorded in the Royal Collection in 1349 as "a spoon of ancient form", and was probably made for Henry II or Richard I.[148] In 1649 the spoon was sold to Clement Kynnersley, Yeoman of the Removing Wardrobe, who returned it to Charles II upon the restoration of the monarchy.[149]
Batas y adornos
The anointing is followed by investment with coronation robes and ornaments.[p]
Robes
All the robes have priestly connotations and their form has changed little since the Middle Ages. A tradition of wearing St Edward's robes came to an end in 1547 after the English Reformation but was revived in 1603 by James I to emphasise his belief in the divine nature of kingship.[151] As well as robes, a monarch also wore either cloth-of-gold buskins or sandals, depending on the size of his or her feet.[152] The holy relics were destroyed along with royal crowns and ornaments in the Civil War. New robes were made for each monarch starting with Charles II, a practice that ended in 1911, when George V wore the Supertunica (a dalmatic) and the Imperial Mantle (a cope), both made for George IV in 1821.[151][q] The robes are of gold thread and together weigh approximately 10 kg (22 lb).[154] They were also worn by his successors George VI and Elizabeth II. A new stole was made in 1953 for Elizabeth II by the Worshipful Company of Girdlers. It is adorned with floral emblems of Australia, Canada, Ceylon, India, New Zealand, and the four countries of the United Kingdom – members of the Commonwealth, which is headed by the Queen.[155]
Spurs
Prick spurs remade for Charles II are presented to the monarch. They are made of solid gold, richly embossed with floral patterns and scrolls, and have straps of crimson velvet embroidered in gold. Both necks terminate in a Tudor rose with a spike at its centre. Also known as St George's Spurs, they are one of the emblems of knighthood and chivalry, and denote the sovereign's role as head of the Armed Forces. Gold spurs are first known to have been used in 1189 at the coronation of Richard I, though it is likely they were introduced for Henry the Young King in 1170, and this element of the service was probably inspired by the initiation ceremony of knights. A pair of mid 14th-century spurs were added to St Edward's regalia at the Abbey in 1399 and used at all coronations until they were destroyed in 1649.[156] Historically, spurs were fastened to a monarch's feet, but since the Restoration they are simply brushed against the heels of kings or shown to queens.[157]
Armills
The Armills are gold bracelets of sincerity and wisdom.[158] Like spurs, they were first used at English coronations in the 12th century.[159] By the 17th century, armills were no longer delivered to the monarch, but simply carried at the coronation. A new pair had to be made in 1661; they are 4 cm (1.6 in) wide, 7 cm (2.8 in) in diameter, and champlevé enamelled on the surface with roses, thistles and harps – the national symbols of England, Scotland and Ireland – as well as fleurs-de-lis.[160] For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, the medieval tradition was revived, and a new set of plain 22-karat gold armills lined with crimson velvet was presented to the Queen on behalf of various Commonwealth governments. Each bracelet is fitted with an invisible hinge and a clasp in the form of a Tudor rose. The hallmark includes a tiny portrait of the Queen,[161] who continued to wear the armills on leaving the Abbey and could be seen wearing them later, with the Imperial State Crown and Sovereign's Ring, at her appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace.[162]
Orbs
An orb, a type of globus cruciger, was first used at an English coronation by Henry VIII in 1509 and then by all subsequent monarchs apart from the early Stuart kings James I and Charles I, who opted for the medieval coronation order. The Tudor orb was deposited with St Edward's regalia at Westminster Abbey in 1625.[163] Today the Sovereign's Orb is a hollow gold sphere about 16.5 cm (6.5 in) in diameter and weighing 1.2 kg (2.6 lb) (more than twice as heavy as the original[163]) made for Charles II in 1661.[164] A band of gems and pearls runs along the equator and there is a half-band on the top hemisphere. Atop the orb is an amethyst surmounted by a jewelled cross, symbolising the Christian world, with a sapphire on one side and an emerald on the other.[165] Altogether, the orb is decorated with 375 pearls, 365 diamonds, 18 rubies, 9 emeralds, 9 sapphires, 1 amethyst and 1 piece of glass.[166] It is handed to the sovereign during the investiture rite of the coronation and is borne later in the left hand when leaving Westminster Abbey.[167] A small version, originally set with hired gems, was made in 1689 for Mary II to hold at her joint coronation with William III; it was never used again at a coronation and is now set with imitation gems and cultured pearls. The orb is 14.6 cm (5.7 in) in diameter and weighs 1.07 kg (2.4 lb).[164] Both orbs were laid on Queen Victoria's coffin at her state funeral in 1901. Officially, no reason was given for using Mary II's orb, but it may have been intended to reflect Victoria's position as Empress of India.[168]
Rings
The Sovereign's Ring has been used by all monarchs from William IV in 1831 to Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exception of Queen Victoria, whose fingers were too small to retain it.[169] In the centre is an octagonal sapphire overlaid with a cross made of rubies. Around the sapphire are 14 brilliant diamonds. The general design is intended to represent the red St George's Cross on the blue background of St Andrew's Cross.[161] Rubies symbolise all the kingly virtues and have featured on coronation rings since the early Middle Ages.[170] A small copy was made for Victoria, who wrote in a letter: "The Archbishop had (most awkwardly) put the ring on the wrong finger, and the consequence was that I had the greatest difficulty to take it off again, which I at last did with great pain".[171] Her jewellers had measured the wrong finger.[172] In 1919 it was deposited at the Tower along with the Sovereign's Ring and Queen Consort's Ring, which all wives of kings have worn from Queen Adelaide onwards.[173]
Before 1831 monarchs generally received a new ring to symbolise their "marriage" to the nation.[169] Richard II offered Westminster Abbey a "solemn jewel, a gold ring set with a precious stone called a ruby, of no small value" to be worn by his successors. Evidence suggests it was used at the coronation of Henry V.[174] Another possible exception was the Stuart Coronation Ring, probably used at the English coronations of Charles I and Charles II, and certainly that of James II, who took it into exile with him in France after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. It returned to the United Kingdom 100 years later and is now part of the Royal Collection of Gems and Jewels. The ring has a large ruby etched with a St George's Cross and bordered by 26 diamonds. Since 1830 it has been on permanent loan from Windsor Castle to Edinburgh Castle where it is displayed with the Honours of Scotland.[175] Mary II's personal coronation ring survives in the Portland Collection at Welbeck Abbey.[176]
Sceptres
The sceptre, a symbolic ornamental rod held by the monarch at a coronation, is derived from the shepherd's staff via the crozier of a bishop.[177] Two gold sceptres made in 1661 are part of the coronation regalia. The Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross is a token of his or her temporal power as head of state. The whole object is 92 cm (3 ft) long, weighs around 1.17 kg (2.6 lb), and is decorated with 333 diamonds, 31 rubies, 15 emeralds, 7 sapphires, 6 spinels and 1 composite amethyst.[178] In 1910 it was redesigned to incorporate Cullinan I, also known as the Great Star of Africa, which, at over 530 carats (106 g), is still the largest clear cut diamond in the world.[179] It was part of a rough diamond weighing 3,106 carats (621.2 g) found in South Africa in 1905 and was named after the chairman of the mining company, Thomas Cullinan. The gold clasps holding it can be opened and the stone removed to be worn as a pendant hanging from Cullinan II, which is set in the Imperial State Crown, to form a brooch – Queen Mary, wife of George V, often wore it like this.[102] Above the pear-shaped diamond is the amethyst surmounted by a cross pattée encrusted with an emerald and small diamonds.[179]
The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, which also has been known as the Rod of Equity and Mercy, is emblematic of his or her spiritual role. It is a bit longer at 1.1 m (3.6 ft) but weighs about the same as the Sceptre with Cross. The sceptre is decorated with 285 gemstones, including 94 diamonds, 53 rubies, 10 emeralds, 4 sapphires and 3 spinels.[178] Circling the rod are bands of precious stones. At the top is a gold monde set with diamonds and topped by a plain cross, upon which sits a white enamelled dove with its wings outspread, representing the Holy Ghost.[180] A sceptre like this first appeared in the 11th century, and it was probably based on the German sceptre, which was topped by an Imperial Eagle.[177] The Sceptre with Dove is the penultimate piece of regalia to be delivered. As the monarch holds both sceptres, he or she is crowned with St Edward's Crown.[172]
The Crown Jewels include two sceptres made for Mary of Modena, the wife of James II, in 1685: a gold sceptre with a cross known as the Queen Consort's Sceptre with Cross and another topped by a dove known as the Queen Consort's Ivory Rod with Dove, which, as the name suggests, is made of ivory. Unlike the sovereign's dove, this one has folded wings and is relatively small. It was last used by Queen Elizabeth, later known as the Queen Mother, at the coronation of her husband George VI in 1937. For the coronation of Mary II, the wife and joint sovereign of William III, a more elaborate gold sceptre with dove was commissioned in 1689. It has not been used since, and went missing for several decades, only to be found in 1814 at the back of a cupboard in the Tower of London.[166]
Plato de altar
In the Jewel House there is a collection of chalices, patens, flagons, candlesticks and dishes – all silver-gilt except five gold communion vessels – that are displayed on the high altar or in front of the royal box at Westminster Abbey during coronations. Some are also used at other times.[181] Although most are not held by monarchs, such items are Crown Jewels by virtue of their long association with the Jewel House.[182]
One of the most striking pieces is a large dish 95 cm (3.12 ft) across and weighing 13 kg (28.7 lb), in the centre of which is a relief depiction of the Last Supper. Around the edge are four engravings of biblical scenes: the Washing of the Feet, the Walk to Emmaus, the Coming of the Holy Ghost, and Christ's Commission to the Apostles. Made in 1664 for James, Duke of York, and later acquired by Charles II, it stands on the high altar during a coronation ceremony.[183] At each end of the altar stands a 91 cm (3 ft) tall candlestick made in the 17th century, which is engraved all over with scrolls, leaves and flowers, and they were also used at the lying in state of Edward VII at Buckingham Palace in 1910.[184]
An altar dish and flagon were made in 1691 for the royal Church of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London. The dish measures 70 cm (2.3 ft) across; it also has a depiction of the Last Supper, below which is the coat of arms of co-regents William III and Mary II.[185] The flagon stands 42.5 cm (1.4 ft) tall.[186] Both pieces are still used in the chapel on Easter, Whitsun and Christmas, and they were first displayed at a coronation in 1821.[187] Another dish still in regular use is the Maundy Dish – one of six used by the Queen at Royal Maundy for handing out alms to elderly people in recognition of their service to the church and local community. The ceremony, which takes place in a different cathedral every year, entirely replaced the ancient custom of washing the feet of the poor in 1730, and the dish, though it bears the royal cypher of William and Mary, dates from the reign of Charles II. Two purses containing specially minted coins are taken from the dish and presented to each recipient.[188]
Plato para banquetes
The last coronation banquet held at Westminster Hall took place in 1821 for George IV.[189] Silverware used at those banquets include the Plymouth Fountain, a wine fountain made around 1640 by a German goldsmith and presented to Charles II by the city of Plymouth. Gilded for George II in 1726, it is 77.5 cm (2.5 ft) tall and decorated with flowers, fruit, dolphins, mermaids and sea monsters.[190] The nautical theme is continued in the silver-gilt Wine Cistern, also known as the Grand Punch Bowl, which is cast as a giant oyster shell. It weighs 257 kg (40.5 st), is 0.76 m (2.5 ft) tall, 1.38 m (4.5 ft) long and 1.01 m (3.3 ft) wide, and can hold 144 bottles of wine on ice.[191] It was commissioned in 1829 by George IV but completed after his death. Weighing over a quarter of a ton, it is the heaviest surviving piece of English banqueting plate.[192] In 1841 the cistern was re-purposed as a punch bowl, with the addition of an ivory-stemmed ladle, which is 1.05 m (3.4 ft) long and has a silver-gilt bowl in the form of a nautilus shell.[193]
External video | |
---|---|
Video of the Exeter Salt with commentary by the Royal Collection Trust (3:23) |
The Exeter Salt is a 45-centimetre (1.5 ft) tall salt cellar in the form of a castle on a rocky outcrop. Each of its four main compartments, in the turrets, held about 29 g (1 oz) of salt, and smaller compartments in the walls held pepper and spices.[194] It was made c. 1630 in Germany and is set with 73 gems probably added later. The Salt was originally bought in Hamburg in 1657 by the city's British Resident as a peace offering to the Russian court, which had cut all ties with Britain during the Interregnum. He was turned away at the border and eventually took it back to London. In 1660 it was acquired from a private dealer for £700 by the city of Exeter and presented to Charles II.[195]
Eleven smaller salts named after St George were originally made for a St George's Day banquet of the Knights of the Garter and Charles II in the 17th century. Each one is topped with a small figure of a knight on horseback. Another, the Queen Elizabeth Salt, was made in 1572 during the reign of Elizabeth I for a member of the aristocracy; it was acquired by Charles II. Twelve spoons made for George IV in 1820 complement the salts.[196]
Plato bautismal
Three silver-gilt objects which have been used at royal christenings are displayed in the Jewel House.[2] Charles II's marriage to Catherine of Braganza produced no heir, but a font and basin made in 1661 may have been used to baptise some of his 13 illegitimate children.[197] The font stands 95.2 centimetres (3.12 ft) tall,[2] and the whole objects weighs 28.43 kilograms (62.7 lb). Its domed lid is surmounted by a figure of Philip the Evangelist baptising the Ethiopian eunuch. It was last used to baptise Princess Charlotte of Wales (child of the future George IV) in 1796, and the basin found a new role as an altar dish in the 19th century, while the font was used as a plinth for the Lily Font.[198]
A christening ewer and basin made in 1735 were used at the christening of the future George III in 1738. His father, Frederick, Prince of Wales, had been banished from the royal court by George II and was forbidden to use the Charles II Font.[197] An inscription at the front of the ewer records its use at the christening of George III's son, Prince Alfred, in 1780. The handle of the ewer is topped by a figure of Hercules slaying the Hydra, symbolising the triumph of virtue over vice;[199] it stands 45.7 centimetres (1.5 ft) tall.[2]
The Lily Font was made in 1840 for the christening of Victoria, Princess Royal, the first child of Queen Victoria, who declined to use the Charles II Font because of its unseemly history.[197] The font is decorated with water lilies, symbolising purity and new life, and cherubs plucking lyres. It has been used for the christenings of all of Elizabeth II's children and grandchildren except Princess Eugenie, with holy water from the River Jordan.[199] The font stands 43.2 centimetres (1.42 ft) tall and weighs approximately 10 kg (22 lb).[200]
Propiedad, gestión y valor
The Crown Jewels are part of the Royal Collection.[88] As with Royal palaces, ownership is regarded as inalienable and passes from one monarch to the next.[201] However, a 17th-century ruling by Sir Edward Coke, which states "the ancient jewels of the crown are heirloomes and shall descend to the next successor and are not devisable by testament", contains an exception allowing the monarch to dispose of objects via letters patent.[202][r] In practice it is unlikely the Crown Jewels will ever be sold,[201] nor are they insured against loss,[204] and are officially priceless.[205][s] Their maintenance falls to the Crown Jeweller, a member of the Royal Household who cleans them after visiting hours at the Tower of London each January. The jeweller also accompanies the regalia and plate when they leave the Tower. Older items are cleaned by experts from the British Museum.[208] The Royal Collection Trust keeps an inventory of the regalia,[4] and Historic Royal Palaces is responsible for their display.[209]
Ver también
- Cap of Maintenance
- Collar (order)
- Jewels of Elizabeth II
- George IV State Diadem
- Royal Family Orders of the United Kingdom
- The Wash § King John and his jewels
Notas
- ^ Three maces from the Jewel House are on permanent loan to the Palace of Westminster.[1] Objects can be temporarily moved to other exhibitions.
- ^ This figure counts items that have two or more parts as one object.
- ^ Technically, the Crown Jewels are the regalia and vestments used or worn by monarchs at a coronation.[4] However, since at least the 17th century, the term has been commonly used to refer to the contents of the Jewel House.[5] The inventory in Keay (2011) extends to items displayed in the Martin Tower.
- ^ Husbands of queens regnant are not crowned in the United Kingdom.[8]
- ^ British Museum number 1990,0102.24
- ^ British Museum number 1957,0207.15
- ^ British Museum number 1939,1010.160
- ^ Thomas Frederick Tout gives an illuminating second-hand account of one such theft in A Mediæval Burglary (1916).
- ^ Edward the Confessor's feast day was 13 October and Edward the Martyr's 18 March.
- ^ For a schedule of royal jewels see John Nichols (1828), The Progresses, etc. of King James the First, vol. 2, p. 45.
- ^ Full statement in John Rushworth (1721), Historical Collections, vol. 4, p. 736.
- ^ Vyner outsourced work to fellow members of the Goldsmiths' Company.[71]
- ^ A popular theory that the Ampulla pre-dates the Restoration because of its antiquated style was conclusively rejected in Claude Blair's 1998 history and catalogue raisonné on the Crown Jewels.[73]
- ^ A comprehensive list of additions and alterations up to the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 can be found in Jones, pp. 63–72. For a timeline of changes between 1855 and 1967 see Holmes and Sitwell, pp. 76–78. A thorough history is contained in Blair, vol. 2.
- ^ In 1937 and 1953, the coronation was rehearsed using a set of replicas, now on display in the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Galleries at Westminster Abbey.[86]
- ^ Objects are listed in the order in which they are presented to a monarch.
- ^ George IV did not wear the Supertunica. Westminster Abbey took custody of both robes, and they were given to the Crown by a private owner in 1911.[153]
- ^ While this common law was made before the Interregnum, it was cited by lawyers for the Crown in a 1709 legal case, and jurist Charles Viner wrote in his A General Abridgment of Law and Equity: "the King cannot dispose of … the Jewels of the Crown".[203]
- ^ In 1995, three historical crown frames then owned by Asprey and now in the Martin Tower were valued for an export licence application:[206]
- State Crown of George I, £576,000 (c. £863,000 in 2016[207])
- Crown of Queen Adelaide, £425,000 (c. £637,000 in 2016[207])
- Coronation Crown of George IV, £376,000 (c. £563,000 in 2016[207])
Referencias
- ^ a b Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 12.
- ^ a b c d e f g Keay, pp. 189–195.
- ^ "Crown Jewels". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 211. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 16 July 1992. col. 944W.
- ^ a b "Crown Jewels". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 267. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 27 November 1995. col. 447W.
- ^ Keay and Murphy, p. 3.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 5.
- ^ Keay, dust jacket.
- ^ Allison and Riddell, p. 451.
- ^ Keay, p. 9.
- ^ Parfitt, p. 86.
- ^ a b Twining, p. 102.
- ^ Keay, p. 12.
- ^ a b Barker, pp. 25–29.
- ^ "The Sutton Hoo Helmet". British Museum. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
- ^ Keay, pp. 13–18.
- ^ a b Kathryn Jones (17 December 2014). "Royal Gold: Reflections of Power" (Podcast). Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ Keay, p. 17.
- ^ Steane, p. 31.
- ^ Twining, p. 103.
- ^ Steane, p. 14.
- ^ Hinton, p. 142.
- ^ a b c Keay, pp. 18–20.
- ^ Nicholas, p. 220.
- ^ Steane, p. 71.
- ^ Strong, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Rose, p. 13.
- ^ "Profile: Westminster Abbey". BBC News. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ^ Rose, p. 16.
- ^ Rose, p. 14.
- ^ Holmes, p. 216.
- ^ Holmes, p. 217.
- ^ Twining, p. 132.
- ^ Rose, p. 24.
- ^ Keay, p. 22.
- ^ Williams, p. xxxii.
- ^ Breeze, et al., p. 201.
- ^ "The Coronation Chair". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
- ^ Breeze, et al., p. 216.
- ^ "The Wars of Independence". Scotland's History. BBC Scotland. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Twining, p. 117.
- ^ Steane, p. 34.
- ^ a b Steane, p. 35.
- ^ a b Collins, p. 75.
- ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
- ^ Keay, pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b Collins, p. 11.
- ^ Dale Hoak in Hoak, "The iconography of the crown imperial", pp. 55, 63.
- ^ Keay, pp. 27–28.
- ^ David Dean in Hoak, "Image and ritual in the Tudor parliaments", p. 243.
- ^ Arnold, pp. 731–732.
- ^ a b c Keay, p. 30.
- ^ a b Keay, p. 32.
- ^ Rose, pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 257.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 52; Collins, p. 168.
- ^ Keay, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Barker, p. 46.
- ^ Barker, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 54.
- ^ a b c d e Mears, et al., p. 6.
- ^ Rose, p. 17.
- ^ Keay, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Keay, p. 43.
- ^ Keay, pp. 20–21.
- ^ "Henry V's 'Crystal Sceptre' displayed at Guildhall Art Gallery". City of London. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
- ^ Collins, p. 196.
- ^ "The Honours of Scotland". Royal family. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
- ^ Barker, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Barclay, pp. 157–159.
- ^ Rose, p 18.
- ^ Jacobsen, p. 16.
- ^ a b "Crown Jewels factsheet 2" (PDF). Historic Royal Palaces. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ Barclay, p. 152.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 7.
- ^ Collins, p. 12.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 56.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 46–47.
- ^ Hammond, p. 20.
- ^ Rose, p. 20.
- ^ Barker, p. 66.
- ^ Douglas S. Mack in McCracken-Flesher, "Can the Scottish Subaltern Speak? Nonelite Scotland and the Scottish Parliament", p. 145.
- ^ Aronson, p. 81.
- ^ Steve Hendrix (13 January 2018). "As the Nazis bombed Britain, the royals hid the crown jewels in the least likely place". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
- ^ Hennessy, p. 237.
- ^ Royal Household. "Symbols of the Monarchy: The Crown Jewels". British Monarchy website. Archived from the original on 9 March 2015.
- ^ Farah Nayeri (11 March 2018). "A Lofty Perch Fit for a Royal Museum at Westminster Abbey". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
- ^ Morris, p. 27.
- ^ a b "BBC One: The Coronation". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
- ^ Maev Kennedy; Katy Roberts (28 March 2012). "Crown Jewels go on show for major new exhibition". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Rose, p. 22.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 23.
- ^ a b "St Edward's Crown". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31700.
- ^ Holmes, p. 220.
- ^ Barclay, pp. 150, 151, 167.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 61.
- ^ "Victorian Coat of Arms". Victoria State Government. Retrieved 15 December 2015.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 29.
- ^ Keay, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 30.
- ^ Keay, p. 183.
- ^ "The Imperial State Crown". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31701.
- ^ a b c Mears, et al., p. 30.
- ^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 102.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 38.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 25.
- ^ Keay, p. 137.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 50.
- ^ Keay, pp. 164–166.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 27.
- ^ Keay, p. 175.
- ^ Twining, p. 167.
- ^ a b Keay, p. 178.
- ^ Allison and Riddell, p. 134.
- ^ "Priceless gem in Queen Mother's crown". BBC News. 4 April 2002. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ "The Prince of Wales's Coronet (1728)". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31709.
- ^ Boutell, p. 205.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 31.
- ^ "The Prince of Wales's Coronet (1902)". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31710.
- ^ Jennifer Latson (11 December 2014). "King Edward and Wallis Simpson: The English Royal Abdication". Time. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 24.
- ^ "Prince of Wales' regalia 'should be displayed in Wales'". BBC News. 28 May 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ "His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales's Investiture Coronet to go on display at the Tower of London for the first time". Historic Royal Palaces. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
- ^ "Queen Victoria's Small Diamond Crown". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31705.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 33.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 7.
- ^ Rose, pp. 46–47.
- ^ a b Strong, p. 268.
- ^ Keay, pp. 96–97.
- ^ Twining, p. 172.
- ^ a b c Rose, pp. 49–51.
- ^ Keay, p. 127.
- ^ "The Irish Sword of State". Dublin Castle. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- ^ "St Edward's Staff". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31717.
- ^ Twining, p. 143.
- ^ Keay, p. 63.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 10.
- ^ Jones, p. 54.
- ^ "The Band of the Household Cavalry". British Army. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
- ^ "The Central Band of the RAF". Royal Air Force. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017.
- ^ "Mace (The)". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 8.
- ^ King George's Jubilee Trust, p. 25.
- ^ a b "The Ampulla". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31732.
- ^ a b Rose, pp. 95–98.
- ^ Keay, p. 48.
- ^ Gordon Rayner (4 June 2013). "Crown to leave Tower for first time since 1953 for Westminster Abbey service". The Telegraph. UK. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- ^ "The Coronation Spoon". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31733.
- ^ Strong, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Strong, p. 271.
- ^ Caroline de Guitaut (11 February 2015). "Cloth of Gold: The Use of Gold in Royal Couture" (Podcast). Royal Collection Trust. 16:50 minutes in. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ a b Rose, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Valerie Cumming in MacGregor, "'Great vanity and excesse in Apparell'. Some Clothing and Furs of Tudor and Stuart Royalty", p. 327.
- ^ Cox, p. 279.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 14.
- ^ Cox, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Rose, pp. 50–52.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 22.
- ^ Barker, p. 94.
- ^ Rose, p. 52.
- ^ "The Armills". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31723.
- ^ a b Twining, p. 171.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 17.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 45.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 19.
- ^ "The Sovereign's Orb". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31718.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 42.
- ^ King George's Jubilee Trust, pp. 26, 31.
- ^ Twining, p. 173.
- ^ a b Lawrence E. Tanner (6 June 1953). "The Queen's coronation: The story of the regalia". Country Life. pp. 52–61. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ Rose, p. 26.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 35.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 107.
- ^ "The Queen Consort's Ring". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31721.
- ^ Oman, p. 49.
- ^ Piacenti and Boardman, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Arts Council of Great Britain, p. 58.
- ^ a b Steane, p. 36.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 41.
- ^ a b "The Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31712.
- ^ "The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31713.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 34.
- ^ "Banqueting and church plate". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
- ^ "Altar Dish (1664)". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31745.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 35–36.
- ^ "Altar Dish (1691)". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31744.
- ^ "Flagon (1691)". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31752.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 64.
- ^ Office for the Royal Maundy (2011). The Maundy Service (PDF). Westminster Abbey.
- ^ "Coronation banquets". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
- ^ "The Plymouth Fountain". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31742.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 42–43.
- ^ Keay, p. 150.
- ^ "Ladle". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31769.
- ^ Keay, p. 70.
- ^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 82.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 39–40.
- ^ a b c Mears, et al., p. 44.
- ^ "Baptismal font and basin". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31739.
- ^ a b "Queen Victoria's font to be used for Princess Charlotte's baptism". The Yorkshire Post. 5 July 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
- ^ "The Lily Font". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31741.
- ^ a b Bogdanor, p. 190.
- ^ Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 259.
- ^ Collins, pp. 174–175.
- ^ "Royal Residences". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 407. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 19 June 2003. col. 353W.
- ^ "Crown Jewels factsheet" (PDF). Historic Royal Palaces. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- ^ Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art, pp. 48–50.
- ^ a b c United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth "consistent series" supplied in Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.K. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
- ^ Hoey, p. 64.
- ^ Hoey, p. 197.
Bibliografía
- Abramova, Natalya; Dmitrieva, Olga, eds. (2006). Britannia & Muscovy: English Silver at the Court of the Tsars. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30011-678-6.
- Allison, Ronald; Riddell, Sarah (1991). The Royal Encyclopedia. Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-333-53810-4.
- Arnold, Janet (1978). "The 'Coronation' Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I". Burlington Magazine. 120 (908): 726–739+741. JSTOR 879390.
- Aronson, Theo (1997). Princess Margaret: A Biography. M. O'Mara Books. ISBN 978-1-85479-248-8.
- Arts Council of Great Britain (1950). William & Mary and Their Time: An Exhibition …. Victoria and Albert Museum. ASIN B0000CHP9T.
- Barclay, Andrew (2008). "The 1661 St Edward's Crown – Refurbished, Recycled or Replaced?". The Court Historian. 13 (2): 149–170. doi:10.1179/cou.2008.13.2.002. S2CID 159809217.
- Barker, Brian (1979). The Symbols of Sovereignty. Westbridge Books. ISBN 978-0-7153-7649-2.
- Bird, Rufus; Clayton, Martin, eds. (2017). Charles II: Art and Power. Royal Collection Trust. ISBN 978-1-909741-44-7.
- Blair, Claude, ed. (1998). The Crown Jewels: The History of the Coronation Regalia …. The Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-11-701359-9.
- Bogdanor, Vernon (1997). The Monarchy and the Constitution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829334-7.
- Boutell, Charles (1983). Brooke-Little, J. P. (ed.). Boutell's Heraldry. Warne. ISBN 978-0-723-23093-9.
- Breeze, David John; Clancy, Thomas Owen; Welander, Richard (2003). The Stone of Destiny: Artefact and Icon. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. ISBN 978-0-903903-22-6.
- Collins, Arthur Jefferies (1955). Jewels and Plate of Queen Elizabeth I. Trustees of the British Museum. ISBN 978-0-714-10445-4.
- Cox, Noel (1999). "Coronation Robes of the Sovereign". Arma, the Journal of the Heraldry Society of Southern Africa. 5 (1): 271–280.
- Dixon-Smith, Sally; Edwards, Sebastian; Kilby, Sarah; Murphy, Clare; Souden, David; Spooner, Jane; Worsley, Lucy (2010). The Crown Jewels: Souvenir Guidebook. Historic Royal Palaces. ISBN 978-1-873993-13-2.
- Hammond, Peter (1981). The Tower of London: Young Visitor's Guide. HM Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-11-671054-3.
- Hennessy, Elizabeth (1992). A Domestic History of the Bank of England, 1930–1960. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39140-5.
- Hibbert, Christopher (2000). Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals. Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-2349-1.
- Hinton, David A. (2006). Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins: Possessions and People in Medieval Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926454-4.
- Hoak, Dale, ed. (2002). Tudor Political Culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52014-0.
- Hoey, Brian (1992). All the Queen's Men: Inside the Royal Household. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-246-13851-4.
- Holmes, Martin (1959). "New Light on St. Edward's Crown". Archaeologia. 97: 213–223. doi:10.1017/S0261340900010006.
- Holmes, Martin Rivington; Sitwell, Hervey Degge Wilmot (1972). The English Regalia: Their History, Custody and Display. HM Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-1167-0407-8.
- Jacobsen, Helen (2012). Luxury and Power: The Material World of the Stuart Diplomat, 1660–1714. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969375-7.
- Jones, Edward Alfred (1908). The Old Royal Plate in the Tower of London. Fox, Jones & Co. ASIN B004BWZDGY.
- Keay, Anna; Murphy, Claire (2002). The Crown Jewels: Official Guidebook. Historic Royal Palaces. ISBN 978-1-873-99320-0.
- Keay, Anna (2011). The Crown Jewels. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-51575-4.
- King George's Jubilee Trust (1937). The Coronation of … King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Odhams Press. ASIN B000NNCSEK.
- MacGregor, Arthur, ed. (1989). The Late King's Goods: Collections, Possessions and Patronage of Charles I …. Alistair McAlpine. ISBN 978-0-19-920171-6.
- McCracken-Flesher, Caroline, ed. (2007). Culture, Nation, and the New Scottish Parliament. Bucknell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8387-5547-1.
- Mears, Kenneth J.; Thurley, Simon; Murphy, Claire (1994). The Crown Jewels. Historic Royal Palaces. ASIN B000HHY1ZQ.
- Morris, Bob (2018). Inaugurating a New Reign: Planning for Accession and Coronation. University College London. ISBN 978-1-903903-82-7.
- Nicholas, David M. (2014). The Evolution of the Medieval World: Society, Government and Thought in Europe, 312–1500. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-89543-5.
- Oman, Charles (1974). British Rings, 800–1914. Batsford. ISBN 978-0-874-71449-4.
- Parfitt, Keith (1995). Iron Age Burials from Mill Hill, Deal. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-2304-2.
- Piacenti, Kirsten Aschengreen; Boardman, John (2008). Ancient and Modern Gems and Jewels in the Collection of Her Majesty The Queen (PDF). Royal Collection Trust. ISBN 978-1-902163-47-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
- Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art (1995). Export of Works of Art: 1994–95. HM Stationery Office.
- Rose, Tessa (1992). The Coronation Ceremony and the Crown Jewels. HM Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-117-01361-2.
- Steane, John (2003). The Archaeology of the Medieval English Monarchy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-64159-8.
- Strong, Roy (2006). Coronation: From the 8th to the 21st Century. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-716055-6.
- Twining, Edward Francis (1960). A History of the Crown Jewels of Europe. B. T. Batsford. ASIN B00283LZA6.
- Williams, Patricia (2012). Historical Texts from Medieval Wales. Modern Humanities Research Association. ISBN 978-1-907322-60-0.
enlaces externos
- Royal Collection Trust
- Crown Jewels at Historic Royal Palaces
Videos:
- Royal Regalia from The Coronation (2018) with commentary by Anna Keay
- The Crown Jewels (1967) by British Pathé
- The Crown Jewels (1937) by British Pathé