La Guerra Civil Estadounidense (12 de abril de 1861 - 9 de mayo de 1865, también conocida por otros nombres ) fue una guerra civil en los Estados Unidos que se libró entre los estados del norte y el Pacífico ("la Unión" o "el norte") y los estados del sur que votó para separarse y formar los Estados Confederados de América ("la Confederación" o "el Sur"). [e] La causa central de la guerra fue el estado de la esclavitud , especialmente en los territorios . La nación se dividió cada vez más a mediados del siglo XIX entre un Sur esclavista y unabolicionista del Norte.
Guerra civil americana | |||||||
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En el sentido de las agujas del reloj desde la parte superior izquierda: | |||||||
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Beligerantes | |||||||
Estados Unidos | Estados Confederados | ||||||
Comandantes y líderes | |||||||
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant y otros ... | Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee y otros ... | ||||||
Fuerza | |||||||
2.200.000 [b] 698.000 (pico) [2] [3] | 750.000-1.000.000 [b] [4] 360.000 (pico) [2] [5] | ||||||
Víctimas y pérdidas | |||||||
365.000+ muertos en total [8]
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290.000+ muertos en total
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Después de que Abraham Lincoln ganó las elecciones presidenciales de noviembre de 1860 en una plataforma contra la esclavitud, siete estados esclavistas iniciales declararon su secesión del país para formar la Confederación. La guerra estalló en abril de 1861 cuando las fuerzas secesionistas atacaron Fort Sumter en Carolina del Sur , poco más de un mes después de la inauguración de Lincoln . Otros cuatro estados esclavistas se unieron a la Confederación en los dos meses siguientes. La Confederación llegó a controlar al menos la mayoría del territorio en esos once estados (de los 34 estados de EE. UU. En febrero de 1861), y reclamó los estados adicionales de Kentucky y Missouri mediante afirmaciones de secesionistas nativos que huían de la autoridad de la Unión . A estos estados se les dio plena representación en el Congreso Confederado durante la Guerra Civil. Los dos estados esclavistas restantes, Delaware y Maryland , fueron invitados a unirse a la Confederación, pero Delaware declinó y no se desarrolló nada sustancial en Maryland debido a la intervención de las tropas federales .
Los estados confederados nunca fueron reconocidos diplomáticamente como una entidad conjunta por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos , ni por el de ningún país extranjero. [f] Los estados que permanecieron leales a los Estados Unidos fueron conocidos como la Unión. [g] La Unión y la Confederación levantaron rápidamente ejércitos de voluntarios y de reclutamiento que lucharon principalmente en el sur durante cuatro años. El intenso combate dejó entre 620.000 y 750.000 soldados muertos, [14] junto con un número indeterminado de civiles . [h] La Guerra Civil sigue siendo el conflicto militar más mortífero en la historia de Estados Unidos, [i] y representó más muertes militares estadounidenses que todas las demás guerras combinadas hasta la Guerra de Vietnam . [j]
La guerra terminó efectivamente el 9 de abril de 1865, cuando el general confederado Robert E. Lee se rindió al general de la Unión Ulysses S. Grant en la batalla de Appomattox Court House . Los generales confederados en todos los estados del sur hicieron lo mismo, la última rendición en tierra ocurrió el 23 de junio. Gran parte de la infraestructura del sur fue destruida, especialmente sus ferrocarriles. La Confederación colapsó , la esclavitud fue abolida y cuatro millones de negros esclavizados fueron liberados. La nación devastada por la guerra entró luego en la era de la Reconstrucción en un intento parcialmente exitoso de reconstruir el país y otorgar derechos civiles a los esclavos liberados.
La Guerra Civil es uno de los episodios más estudiados y escritos sobre la historia de Estados Unidos , y sigue siendo objeto de debate cultural e historiográfico . De particular interés son las causas de la Guerra Civil y el mito persistente de la Causa Perdida de la Confederación . La Guerra Civil estadounidense fue una de las primeras guerras industriales . Se emplearon ampliamente los ferrocarriles, el telégrafo , los barcos de vapor y los barcos blindados , y las armas producidas en masa. La movilización de fábricas civiles, minas, astilleros, bancos, transporte y suministros de alimentos presagió el impacto de la industrialización en la Primera Guerra Mundial , la Segunda Guerra Mundial y los conflictos posteriores.
Descripción general
La práctica de la esclavitud en los Estados Unidos fue uno de los temas políticos clave del siglo XIX. La esclavitud había sido un tema controvertido durante la redacción de la Constitución , pero el tema quedó sin resolver. [17] En vísperas de la Guerra Civil en 1860, cuatro millones de los 32 millones de estadounidenses (casi el 13%) eran esclavos negros. [18]
En las elecciones presidenciales de 1860 , los republicanos , encabezados por Abraham Lincoln , apoyaron la prohibición de la esclavitud en todos los territorios de EE. UU. (Partes de EE. UU. Que no son estados). Los estados del sur vieron esto como una violación de sus derechos constitucionales y como el primer paso en un plan republicano más amplio para eventualmente abolir la esclavitud. Los tres candidatos pro-Unión juntos recibieron una abrumadora mayoría del 82% de los votos emitidos a nivel nacional: los votos del republicano Lincoln se centraron en el norte, los votos del demócrata Stephen A. Douglas se distribuyeron a nivel nacional y los votos del unionista constitucional John Bell se centraron en Tennessee , Kentucky y Virginia . El Partido Republicano, dominante en el Norte, consiguió una pluralidad de votos populares y una mayoría de votos electorales a nivel nacional; así Lincoln fue elegido presidente. Fue el primer candidato del Partido Republicano en ganar la presidencia. El Sur estaba indignado, y antes de su toma de posesión , siete estados esclavistas con economías basadas en el algodón declararon la secesión y formaron la Confederación . Los primeros seis en declarar la secesión tenían las proporciones más altas de esclavos en sus poblaciones, con un promedio del 49 por ciento. [19] De los estados cuyas legislaturas resolvieron la secesión, los primeros siete votaron con mayorías divididas por los candidatos unionistas Douglas y Bell ( Georgia con 51% y Louisiana con 55%), o con minorías considerables para esos unionistas ( Alabama con 46%, Mississippi con el 40%, Florida con el 38%, Texas con el 25% y Carolina del Sur , que emitió los votos del Colegio Electoral sin un voto popular para presidente). [20]
Los ocho estados esclavistas restantes continuaron rechazando los llamados a la secesión. El presidente demócrata saliente James Buchanan y los republicanos entrantes rechazaron la secesión como ilegal. El discurso inaugural de Lincoln del 4 de marzo de 1861 declaró que su administración no iniciaría una guerra civil . Hablando directamente a los "Estados del Sur", intentó calmar sus temores de cualquier amenaza a la esclavitud, reafirmando: "No tengo ningún propósito, directa o indirectamente, de interferir con la institución de la esclavitud en los Estados Unidos donde existe. Creo que no tengo ningún derecho legal para hacerlo, y no tengo ninguna inclinación a hacerlo ". [21] Después de que las fuerzas confederadas se apoderaron de numerosos fuertes federales dentro del territorio reclamado por la Confederación, los esfuerzos de compromiso fracasaron y ambos bandos se prepararon para la guerra. Los confederados asumieron que los países europeos eran tan dependientes del " Rey Algodón " que intervendrían, [22] pero ninguno lo hizo, y ninguno reconoció a los nuevos Estados Confederados de América.
Las hostilidades comenzaron el 12 de abril de 1861, cuando las fuerzas confederadas dispararon contra Fort Sumter . Mientras que en el Western Theatre la Unión logró importantes avances permanentes, en el Eastern Theatre el conflicto no fue concluyente durante 1861-1862. En septiembre de 1862, Lincoln emitió la Proclamación de Emancipación , que convirtió el fin de la esclavitud en un objetivo de guerra. [23] Hacia el oeste, la Unión destruyó la armada fluvial Confederada en el verano de 1862, entonces gran parte de sus ejércitos occidentales, y se apoderó de Nueva Orleans . El exitoso asedio de la Unión de 1863 a Vicksburg dividió a la Confederación en dos en el río Mississippi . En 1863, la incursión confederada hacia el norte de Robert E. Lee terminó en la Batalla de Gettysburg . Los éxitos occidentales llevaron a Ulysses S. Grant al mando de todos los ejércitos de la Unión en 1864. Al infligir un bloqueo naval cada vez más estricto de los puertos confederados, la Unión reunió recursos y mano de obra para atacar a la Confederación desde todas las direcciones, lo que llevó a la caída de Atlanta a William Tecumseh Sherman y su marcha hacia el mar . Las últimas batallas importantes se desarrollaron en torno al Sitio de Petersburgo . El intento de fuga de Lee terminó con su rendición en Appomattox Court House , el 9 de abril de 1865. Mientras la guerra militar llegaba a su fin, la reintegración política de la nación tomaría otros 12 años, conocida como la era de la Reconstrucción .
Causas de la secesión
Las causas de la secesión fueron complejas y han sido controvertidas desde que comenzó la guerra, pero la mayoría de los académicos identifican la esclavitud como la causa central de la guerra. James C. Bradford escribió que el tema se ha complicado aún más por los revisionistas históricos , que han tratado de ofrecer una variedad de razones para la guerra. [24] La esclavitud fue la fuente central de la creciente tensión política en la década de 1850 . El Partido Republicano estaba decidido a prevenir cualquier extensión de la esclavitud a los estados recién formados, y muchos líderes del Sur habían amenazado con la secesión si el candidato republicano, Lincoln, ganaba las elecciones de 1860 . Después de la victoria de Lincoln, muchos líderes del Sur sintieron que la desunión era su única opción, temiendo que la pérdida de representación obstaculizara su capacidad para promover políticas y actos a favor de la esclavitud. [25] [26]
Esclavitud
La esclavitud fue la principal causa de desunión. [27] [28] El tema de la esclavitud había confundido a la nación desde sus inicios, y separó cada vez más a los Estados Unidos en un Sur esclavista y un Norte libre. La cuestión se vio agravada por la rápida expansión territorial del país, que en repetidas ocasiones puso de relieve la cuestión de si el nuevo territorio debería ser esclavista o libre. El tema había dominado la política durante décadas antes de la guerra. Los intentos clave para resolver el problema incluyeron el Compromiso de Missouri y el Compromiso de 1850 , pero estos solo pospusieron un enfrentamiento inevitable sobre la esclavitud. [29]
Las motivaciones de la persona promedio no eran inherentemente las de su facción, [30] [31] algunos soldados del Norte fueron incluso indiferentes sobre el tema de la esclavitud, pero se puede establecer un patrón general. [32] Los soldados confederados lucharon en la guerra principalmente para proteger una sociedad sureña de la que la esclavitud era una parte integral. [33] [34] Desde la perspectiva de la lucha contra la esclavitud, la cuestión era principalmente si el sistema de esclavitud era un mal anacrónico que era incompatible con el republicanismo . La estrategia de las fuerzas contra la esclavitud fue la contención: detener la expansión y así poner a la esclavitud en el camino hacia la extinción gradual. [35] Los intereses esclavistas en el Sur denunciaron esta estrategia por violar sus derechos constitucionales. [36] Los blancos del sur creían que la emancipación de los esclavos destruiría la economía del sur, debido a la gran cantidad de capital invertido en esclavos y al temor de integrar a la población negra ex esclava. [37] En particular, muchos sureños temían una repetición de la masacre de 1804 en Haití , (también conocida como "los horrores de Santo Domingo"), [38] [39] en la que ex esclavos asesinaron sistemáticamente a la mayor parte de lo que quedaba de los blancos del país. población, incluidos hombres, mujeres, niños e incluso muchos simpatizantes de la abolición después de la exitosa revuelta de esclavos en Haití . El historiador Thomas Fleming señala la frase histórica "una enfermedad en la mente pública" utilizada por los críticos de esta idea y propone que contribuyó a la segregación en la era de Jim Crow después de la emancipación. [40] Estos temores se vieron exacerbados por el intento de 1859 de John Brown de instigar una rebelión de esclavos armados en el sur.
La esclavitud era ilegal en gran parte del norte, habiendo sido prohibida a finales del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX. También se estaba desvaneciendo en los estados fronterizos y las ciudades del sur, pero se estaba expandiendo en los distritos algodoneros altamente rentables de las zonas rurales del sur y suroeste. Los escritores posteriores sobre la Guerra Civil estadounidense analizaron varios factores que explican la división geográfica. [ cita requerida ]
Abolicionistas
Los abolicionistas , los que abogaban por el fin de la esclavitud, fueron muy activos en las décadas previas a la Guerra Civil. Siguieron sus raíces filosóficas hasta los puritanos , quienes creían firmemente que la esclavitud era moralmente incorrecta. Uno de los primeros escritos puritanos sobre este tema fue La venta de José, de Samuel Sewall en 1700. En él, Sewall condenó la esclavitud y la trata de esclavos y refutó muchas de las justificaciones típicas de la época para la esclavitud. [42] [43]
La Revolución Americana y la causa de la libertad agregaron un ímpetu tremendo a la causa abolicionista. La esclavitud, que había existido durante miles de años, se consideraba "normal" y no era un tema importante de debate público antes de la Revolución. La Revolución cambió eso y lo convirtió en un tema que había que abordar. Como resultado, poco después de la Revolución, los estados del norte rápidamente comenzaron a prohibir la esclavitud. Incluso en los estados del sur, se cambiaron las leyes para limitar la esclavitud y facilitar la manumisión. La cantidad de servidumbre por contrato (esclavitud temporal) se redujo drásticamente en todo el país. Una ley que prohíbe la importación de esclavos pasó por el Congreso con poca oposición. El presidente Thomas Jefferson lo apoyó y entró en vigor el 1 de enero de 1808. Benjamin Franklin y James Madison ayudaron a fundar sociedades de manumisión. Influenciados por la Revolución, muchos propietarios individuales de esclavos, como George Washington , liberaron a sus esclavos, a menudo por voluntad propia. El número de negros libres como proporción de la población negra en el sur superior aumentó de menos del 1 por ciento a casi el 10 por ciento entre 1790 y 1810 como resultado de estas acciones. [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49]
El establecimiento del Territorio del Noroeste como "suelo libre" - sin esclavitud - por Manasseh Cutler y Rufus Putnam (ambos provenientes de la Nueva Inglaterra puritana) también resultaría crucial. Este territorio (que se convirtió en los estados de Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin y parte de Minnesota) duplicó el tamaño de los Estados Unidos. Si estos hubieran sido estados esclavistas, y sus votos electorales hubieran ido al principal oponente de Abraham Lincoln, Lincoln no habría sido elegido presidente. [50] [51] [43]
En las décadas previas a la Guerra Civil, los abolicionistas, como Theodore Parker , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry David Thoreau y Frederick Douglass , utilizaron repetidamente la herencia puritana del país para reforzar su causa. El periódico más radical contra la esclavitud, El Libertador , invocó los puritanos y los valores puritanos más de mil veces. Parker, al instar a los congresistas de Nueva Inglaterra a apoyar la abolición de la esclavitud, escribió que "El hijo del puritano ... es enviado al Congreso para defender la verdad y el derecho ..." [52] [53] La literatura sirvió como un significa difundir el mensaje a la gente común. Las obras clave incluyeron Doce años de esclavitud , la narrativa de la vida de Frederick Douglass , la esclavitud estadounidense como es , y la más importante: La cabaña del tío Tom , el libro más vendido del siglo XIX, aparte de la Biblia. [54] [55] [56]
En 1840, más de 15.000 personas eran miembros de sociedades abolicionistas en los Estados Unidos. El abolicionismo en los Estados Unidos se convirtió en una expresión popular del moralismo y condujo directamente a la Guerra Civil. En iglesias, convenciones y periódicos, los reformadores promovieron un rechazo absoluto e inmediato de la esclavitud. [57] [58] Sin embargo, el apoyo a la abolición entre los religiosos no fue universal. A medida que se acercaba la guerra, incluso las principales denominaciones se dividieron a lo largo de líneas políticas, formando iglesias rivales del sur y del norte. Por ejemplo, los bautistas se dividieron en bautistas del norte y bautistas del sur por el tema de la esclavitud en 1845. [59] [60]
El sentimiento abolicionista no tenía un origen estrictamente religioso o moral. El Partido Whig se opuso cada vez más a la esclavitud porque la veía inherentemente contra los ideales del capitalismo y el libre mercado. El líder whig William H. Seward (quien serviría en el gabinete de Lincoln) proclamó que había un "conflicto irreprimible" entre la esclavitud y el trabajo libre, y que la esclavitud había dejado al Sur atrasado y subdesarrollado. [61] Cuando el partido Whig se disolvió en la década de 1850, el manto de la abolición cayó sobre su sucesor recién formado, el Partido Republicano . [62]
Crisis territorial
El destino manifiesto agudizó el conflicto por la esclavitud, ya que cada nuevo territorio adquirido tenía que enfrentarse a la espinosa cuestión de si permitir o rechazar la "institución peculiar". [63] Entre 1803 y 1854, Estados Unidos logró una vasta expansión de territorio a través de la compra, negociación y conquista. Al principio, los nuevos estados extraídos de estos territorios que entraban en la unión se repartían equitativamente entre estados esclavistas y estados libres. Las fuerzas a favor y en contra de la esclavitud chocaron sobre los territorios al oeste del Mississippi. [64]
La guerra entre México y Estados Unidos y sus secuelas fueron un evento territorial clave en el período previo a la guerra. [65] Cuando el Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo finalizó la conquista del norte de México al oeste de California en 1848, los intereses esclavistas esperaban expandirse a estas tierras y quizás también a Cuba y América Central. [66] [67] Proféticamente, Ralph Waldo Emerson escribió que "México nos envenenará", refiriéndose a la apremiante cuestión de si las tierras recién conquistadas terminarían siendo esclavas o libres. [68] Los intereses del "suelo libre" del norte buscaron enérgicamente restringir cualquier expansión adicional del territorio de esclavos. El Compromiso de 1850 sobre California equilibró un estado de suelo libre con leyes de esclavos fugitivos más fuertes para un acuerdo político después de cuatro años de lucha en la década de 1840. Pero los estados admitidos después de California eran todos libres: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) y Kansas (1861). En los estados del sur, la cuestión de la expansión territorial de la esclavitud hacia el oeste volvió a ser explosiva. [69] Tanto el Sur como el Norte llegaron a la misma conclusión: "El poder de decidir la cuestión de la esclavitud de los territorios era el poder de determinar el futuro de la esclavitud en sí". [70] [71]
Para 1860, habían surgido cuatro doctrinas para responder a la cuestión del control federal en los territorios, y todas afirmaban que estaban sancionadas por la Constitución, implícita o explícitamente. [72] La primera de estas teorías "conservadoras", representada por el Partido de la Unión Constitucional , argumentó que la distribución del territorio del Compromiso de Missouri al norte para suelo libre y al sur para la esclavitud debería convertirse en un mandato constitucional. El Compromiso de Crittenden de 1860 fue una expresión de este punto de vista. [73]
La segunda doctrina de la preeminencia del Congreso, defendida por Abraham Lincoln y el Partido Republicano, insistía en que la Constitución no obligaba a los legisladores a una política de equilibrio: que la esclavitud podía excluirse en un territorio como se hizo en la Ordenanza del Noroeste de 1787 en la discreción del Congreso; [74] por lo tanto, el Congreso podría restringir la servidumbre humana, pero nunca establecerla. El malogrado Wilmot Proviso anunció esta posición en 1846. [75] El Proviso fue un momento crucial en la política nacional, ya que fue la primera vez que la esclavitud se convirtió en un tema importante del Congreso basado en el seccionalismo, en lugar de las líneas partidistas. Su apoyo bipartidista de los demócratas del norte y los whigs, y la oposición bipartidista de los sureños era un presagio oscuro de las divisiones que se avecinaban. [76]
El senador Stephen A. Douglas proclamó la doctrina de la soberanía territorial o "popular", que afirmaba que los colonos de un territorio tenían los mismos derechos que los estados de la Unión para establecer o eliminar la esclavitud como un asunto puramente local. [77] La Ley Kansas-Nebraska de 1854 legisló esta doctrina. [78] En el Territorio de Kansas, estallaron años de violencia a favor y en contra de la esclavitud y conflicto político; la Cámara de Representantes del Congreso votó a favor de admitir a Kansas como un estado libre a principios de 1860, pero su admisión no fue aprobada por el Senado hasta enero de 1861, después de la salida de los senadores del sur. [79]
La cuarta teoría fue defendida por el senador de Mississippi Jefferson Davis , [80] una de la soberanía estatal ("derechos de los estados"), [81] también conocida como la "doctrina Calhoun", [82] nombrada en honor al teórico político y estadista de Carolina del Sur. John C. Calhoun . [83] Rechazando los argumentos a favor de la autoridad federal o el autogobierno, la soberanía estatal facultaría a los estados para promover la expansión de la esclavitud como parte de la unión federal bajo la Constitución de los Estados Unidos. [84] Los "derechos de los estados" eran una ideología formulada y aplicada como un medio para promover los intereses del estado esclavista a través de la autoridad federal. [85] Como señala el historiador Thomas L. Krannawitter, "la demanda sureña de protección federal para esclavos representó una demanda de una expansión sin precedentes del poder federal". [86] [87] Estas cuatro doctrinas comprendieron las ideologías dominantes presentadas al público estadounidense sobre los asuntos de la esclavitud, los territorios y la Constitución de los Estados Unidos antes de las elecciones presidenciales de 1860. [88]
Derechos de los estados
El Sur argumentó que así como cada estado había decidido unirse a la Unión, un estado tenía el derecho de separarse — dejar la Unión — en cualquier momento. Los norteños (incluido el presidente Buchanan) rechazaron esa noción en oposición a la voluntad de los Padres Fundadores , quienes dijeron que estaban estableciendo una unión perpetua. [89] El historiador James McPherson escribe sobre los derechos de los estados y otras explicaciones que no son esclavistas:
Si bien una o más de estas interpretaciones siguen siendo populares entre los Hijos de los Veteranos Confederados y otros grupos patrimoniales del Sur, pocos historiadores profesionales ahora las suscriben. De todas estas interpretaciones, el argumento de los derechos de los estados es quizás el más débil. No hace la pregunta, ¿los derechos de los estados con qué propósito? Los derechos de los Estados, o la soberanía, fueron siempre más un medio que un fin, un instrumento para lograr un determinado objetivo más que un principio. [90]
Faccionalismo
El seccionalismo resultó de las diferentes economías, estructuras sociales, costumbres y valores políticos del Norte y del Sur. [91] [92] Las tensiones regionales llegaron a un punto crítico durante la Guerra de 1812 , lo que resultó en la Convención de Hartford , que manifestó el descontento del Norte con un embargo de comercio exterior que afectó al Norte industrial de manera desproporcionada, el Compromiso de las Tres Quintas , la dilución del poder del Norte por nuevos estados y una sucesión de presidentes del sur . El seccionalismo aumentó constantemente entre 1800 y 1860 a medida que el norte, que eliminó la esclavitud gradualmente, industrializó, urbanizó y construyó granjas prósperas, mientras que el sur profundo se concentró en la agricultura de plantación basada en el trabajo esclavo, junto con la agricultura de subsistencia para los blancos pobres. En las décadas de 1840 y 1850, la cuestión de aceptar la esclavitud (con el pretexto de rechazar a los obispos y misioneros esclavistas) dividió las denominaciones religiosas más grandes de la nación (las iglesias metodista, bautista y presbiteriana) en denominaciones separadas del norte y del sur. [93]
Los historiadores han debatido si las diferencias económicas entre el norte principalmente industrial y el sur principalmente agrícola ayudaron a provocar la guerra. La mayoría de los historiadores ahora no están de acuerdo con el determinismo económico del historiador Charles A. Beard en la década de 1920 y enfatizan que las economías del Norte y del Sur eran en gran medida complementarias. Aunque socialmente diferentes, las secciones se beneficiaron económicamente entre sí. [94] [95]
Proteccionismo
Los propietarios de esclavos preferían el trabajo manual de bajo costo sin mecanización. Los intereses manufactureros del norte apoyaron los aranceles y el proteccionismo, mientras que los plantadores del sur exigieron el libre comercio. [96] Los demócratas en el Congreso, controlados por sureños, redactaron las leyes arancelarias en las décadas de 1830, 1840 y 1850, y siguieron reduciendo las tasas para que las tasas de 1857 fueran las más bajas desde 1816. Los republicanos pidieron un aumento de los aranceles en el Elección de 1860. Los aumentos solo se promulgaron en 1861 después de que los sureños renunciaran a sus escaños en el Congreso. [97] [98] La cuestión de los aranceles fue un agravio del Norte. Sin embargo, los escritores neo-confederados [ ¿quién? ] lo han reclamado como un agravio sureño. En 1860-1861, ninguno de los grupos que propusieron compromisos para evitar la secesión planteó la cuestión de los aranceles. [99] Los panfletistas del Norte y del Sur rara vez mencionaron la tarifa. [100]
Nacionalismo y honor
El nacionalismo fue una fuerza poderosa a principios del siglo XIX, con portavoces famosos como Andrew Jackson y Daniel Webster . Si bien prácticamente todos los norteños apoyaron a la Unión, los sureños se dividieron entre los leales a todo Estados Unidos (llamados "unionistas") y los leales principalmente a la región sur y luego a la Confederación. [101]
Los insultos percibidos al honor colectivo sureño incluyeron la enorme popularidad de La cabaña del tío Tom [102] y las acciones del abolicionista John Brown al intentar incitar a una rebelión de esclavos en 1859 [103].
Mientras el Sur avanzaba hacia un nacionalismo sureño, los líderes del Norte también tenían una mentalidad más nacional y rechazaron cualquier idea de dividir la Unión. La plataforma electoral nacional republicana de 1860 advirtió que los republicanos consideraban la desunión como traición y no la tolerarían. [104] El Sur ignoró las advertencias; Los sureños no se dieron cuenta de cuán ardientemente lucharía el Norte para mantener unida a la Unión. [105]
Elección de Lincoln
La elección de Abraham Lincoln en noviembre de 1860 fue el desencadenante final de la secesión. [106] Los esfuerzos para llegar a un compromiso, incluida la Enmienda Corwin y el Compromiso Crittenden , fracasaron. Los líderes del sur temían que Lincoln detuviera la expansión de la esclavitud y la encaminara hacia la extinción. Los estados esclavistas, que ya se habían convertido en minoría en la Cámara de Representantes, se enfrentaban ahora a un futuro como minoría perpetua en el Senado y el Colegio Electoral contra un Norte cada vez más poderoso. Antes de que Lincoln asumiera el cargo en marzo de 1861, siete estados esclavistas habían declarado su secesión y se unieron para formar la Confederación.
Según Lincoln, el pueblo estadounidense había demostrado que había tenido éxito en establecer y administrar una república, pero la nación enfrentaba un tercer desafío: mantener una república basada en el voto del pueblo contra un intento de derrocarla. [107]
Estallido de la guerra
Crisis de secesión
La elección de Lincoln provocó que la legislatura de Carolina del Sur convocara una convención estatal para considerar la secesión. Antes de la guerra, Carolina del Sur hizo más que cualquier otro estado del sur para promover la noción de que un estado tenía derecho a anular las leyes federales e incluso a separarse de Estados Unidos. La convención votó unánimemente a favor de la secesión el 20 de diciembre de 1860 y adoptó una declaración de secesión . Abogaba por los derechos de los estados para los propietarios de esclavos en el sur, pero contenía una queja sobre los derechos de los estados en el norte en forma de oposición a la Ley de esclavos fugitivos , alegando que los estados del norte no estaban cumpliendo con sus obligaciones federales bajo la Constitución. Los "estados algodoneros" de Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia, Louisiana y Texas siguieron su ejemplo y se separaron en enero y febrero de 1861. [ cita requerida ]
Entre las ordenanzas de secesión aprobadas por los estados individuales, las de tres —Tejas, Alabama y Virginia— mencionaron específicamente la difícil situación de los "estados esclavistas" a manos de los abolicionistas del Norte. El resto no hace mención al tema de la esclavitud y a menudo son breves anuncios de la disolución de vínculos por parte de las legislaturas. [108] Sin embargo, al menos cuatro estados —Carolina del Sur, [109] Mississippi, [110] Georgia, [111] y Texas [112] —también aprobaron explicaciones largas y detalladas de sus causas de secesión, todas las cuales echaron la culpa directamente sobre el movimiento para abolir la esclavitud y la influencia de ese movimiento sobre la política de los estados del norte. Los estados del sur creían que la tenencia de esclavos era un derecho constitucional debido a la cláusula constitucional sobre esclavos fugitivos . Estos estados acordaron formar un nuevo gobierno federal, los Estados Confederados de América , el 4 de febrero de 1861. [113] Tomaron el control de los fuertes federales y otras propiedades dentro de sus límites con poca resistencia del presidente saliente James Buchanan , cuyo mandato terminó el 4 de marzo de 1861. Buchanan dijo que la decisión de Dred Scott era una prueba de que el Sur no tenía motivos para la secesión y que la Unión "estaba destinada a ser perpetua", pero que "el poder por la fuerza de las armas para obligar a un Estado a permanecer en la Unión "no estaba entre los" poderes enumerados otorgados al Congreso ". [114] Una cuarta parte del ejército de los Estados Unidos, toda la guarnición en Texas, fue entregada en febrero de 1861 a las fuerzas estatales por su comandante general, David E. Twiggs , quien luego se unió a la Confederación. [115]
Cuando los sureños renunciaron a sus escaños en el Senado y la Cámara, los republicanos pudieron aprobar proyectos que habían sido bloqueados por los senadores sureños antes de la guerra. Estos incluían la Tarifa Morrill , colegios de concesión de tierras (la Ley Morrill ), una Ley de Homestead , un ferrocarril transcontinental (las Leyes del Ferrocarril del Pacífico ), [116] la Ley del Banco Nacional , la autorización de los Bonos de los Estados Unidos por la Ley de Oferta Legal de 1862 y el fin de la esclavitud en el Distrito de Columbia . La Ley de Ingresos de 1861 introdujo el impuesto sobre la renta para ayudar a financiar la guerra. [ cita requerida ]
El 18 de diciembre de 1860, se propuso el Compromiso de Crittenden para restablecer la línea del Compromiso de Missouri al prohibir constitucionalmente la esclavitud en los territorios al norte de la línea y garantizarla al sur. La adopción de este compromiso probablemente habría evitado la secesión de todos los estados del sur excepto Carolina del Sur, pero Lincoln y los republicanos lo rechazaron. [117] [ Se necesita una mejor fuente ] Luego se propuso celebrar un referéndum nacional sobre el compromiso. Los republicanos rechazaron nuevamente la idea, aunque la mayoría de los norteños y sureños probablemente habría votado a favor de ella. [118] [Se necesita una mejor fuente ] Una Conferencia de Paz de febrero de 1861 antes de la guerra se reunió en Washington, proponiendo una solución similar a la del compromiso de Crittenden; fue rechazado por el Congreso. Los republicanos propusieron un compromiso alternativo para no interferir con la esclavitud donde existía, pero el Sur la consideró insuficiente. No obstante, los ocho estados esclavistas restantes rechazaron las peticiones para unirse a la Confederación luego de un voto negativo de dos a uno en la Primera Convención Secesionista de Virginia el 4 de abril de 1861. [119]
El 4 de marzo de 1861, Abraham Lincoln prestó juramento como presidente. En su discurso inaugural , argumentó que la Constitución era una unión más perfecta que los anteriores Artículos de Confederación y Unión Perpetua , que era un contrato vinculante y calificó cualquier secesión como "legalmente nula". [120] No tenía la intención de invadir los estados del sur, ni tenía la intención de poner fin a la esclavitud donde existía, pero dijo que usaría la fuerza para mantener la posesión de la propiedad federal. El gobierno no haría ningún movimiento para recuperar las oficinas de correos y, si se resistía, la entrega de correo terminaría en las fronteras estatales. Cuando las condiciones populares no permitieran la aplicación pacífica de la ley federal, los alguaciles y jueces estadounidenses serían retirados. No se mencionó la pérdida de lingotes de las casas de moneda estadounidenses en Luisiana, Georgia y Carolina del Norte. Dijo que sería política de Estados Unidos recaudar derechos de importación únicamente en sus puertos; No podía haber ningún daño grave para el Sur que justificara la revolución armada durante su administración. Su discurso concluyó con un pedido de restauración de los lazos de unión, invocando "los místicos acordes de la memoria" que unen las dos regiones. [120]
El Sur envió delegaciones a Washington y se ofreció a pagar las propiedades federales [ ¿cuál? ] y firmar un tratado de paz con los Estados Unidos. Lincoln rechazó cualquier negociación con agentes confederados porque afirmó que la Confederación no era un gobierno legítimo y que hacer cualquier tratado con ella equivaldría a reconocerla como gobierno soberano. [121] El secretario de Estado William Seward , quien en ese momento se veía a sí mismo como el verdadero gobernador o "primer ministro" detrás del trono del inexperto Lincoln, entabló negociaciones indirectas y no autorizadas que fracasaron. [121] El presidente Lincoln estaba decidido a mantener todos los fuertes restantes ocupados por la Unión en la Confederación: Fort Monroe en Virginia, Fort Pickens , Fort Jefferson y Fort Taylor en Florida, y Fort Sumter , ubicado en la cabina de la secesión en Charleston, Carolina del Sur. . [ cita requerida ]
Batalla de Fort Sumter
Fort Sumter está ubicado en el medio del puerto de Charleston , Carolina del Sur. Su guarnición se había trasladado recientemente allí para evitar incidentes con las milicias locales en las calles de la ciudad. Lincoln le dijo a su comandante, el mayor Anderson, que aguantara hasta que le dispararan. El presidente confederado Jefferson Davis ordenó la rendición del fuerte. Anderson dio una respuesta condicional que el gobierno confederado rechazó, y Davis ordenó al general PGT Beauregard que atacara el fuerte antes de que pudiera llegar una expedición de socorro. Bombardeó Fort Sumter del 12 al 13 de abril, lo que obligó a capitular.
El ataque a Fort Sumter reunió al Norte en defensa del nacionalismo estadounidense. El historiador Allan Nevins subrayó la importancia del evento:
"El trueno de Sumter produjo una cristalización sorprendente del sentimiento del Norte ... La ira barrió la tierra. De todos lados llegaron noticias de reuniones masivas, discursos, resoluciones, licitaciones de apoyo empresarial, la reunión de compañías y regimientos, la acción decidida de gobernadores y legislaturas ". [122]
Lincoln pidió a todos los estados que envíen fuerzas para recuperar el fuerte y otras propiedades federales. La escala de la rebelión parecía ser pequeña, por lo que pidió solo 75.000 voluntarios durante 90 días. [123] El gobernador de Massachusetts tenía regimientos estatales en trenes que se dirigían al sur al día siguiente. En el oeste de Missouri, los secesionistas locales se apoderaron de Liberty Arsenal . [124] El 3 de mayo de 1861, Lincoln solicitó 42.000 voluntarios adicionales por un período de tres años. [125]
Cuatro estados del sur medio y superior habían rechazado repetidamente las propuestas confederadas, pero ahora Virginia , Tennessee , Arkansas y Carolina del Norte se negaron a enviar fuerzas contra sus vecinos, declararon su secesión y se unieron a la Confederación. Para recompensar a Virginia, la capital confederada se trasladó a Richmond . [126]
Actitud de los estados fronterizos
Maryland , Delaware , Missouri y Kentucky eran estados esclavistas que se oponían tanto a la secesión como a coaccionar al Sur. Virginia Occidental se unió a ellos como un estado fronterizo adicional después de que se separó de Virginia y se convirtió en un estado de la Unión en 1863.
El territorio de Maryland rodeaba la capital de los Estados Unidos, Washington, DC , y podría aislarlo del norte. [127] Tenía numerosos funcionarios anti-Lincoln que toleraron los disturbios contra el ejército en Baltimore y la quema de puentes, ambos con el objetivo de obstaculizar el paso de las tropas hacia el sur. La legislatura de Maryland votó abrumadoramente (53-13) para permanecer en la Unión, pero también rechazó las hostilidades con sus vecinos del sur, votando para cerrar las líneas ferroviarias de Maryland para evitar que se utilicen para la guerra. [128] Lincoln respondió estableciendo la ley marcial y suspendiendo unilateralmente el hábeas corpus en Maryland, junto con el envío de unidades de milicia desde el norte. [129] Lincoln rápidamente tomó el control de Maryland y el Distrito de Columbia al apoderarse de muchas figuras prominentes, incluido el arresto de 1/3 de los miembros de la Asamblea General de Maryland el día que se volvió a reunir. [128] [130] Todos fueron detenidos sin juicio, ignorando un fallo del presidente de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos, Roger Taney , un nativo de Maryland, que solo el Congreso (y no el presidente) podía suspender el hábeas corpus ( Ex parte Merryman ). Las tropas federales encarcelaron a un destacado editor de un periódico de Baltimore, Frank Key Howard , nieto de Francis Scott Key, después de que criticara a Lincoln en un editorial por ignorar el fallo del presidente del Tribunal Supremo. [131]
En Missouri, una convención electa sobre la secesión votó de manera decisiva para permanecer dentro de la Unión. Cuando el gobernador proconfederado Claiborne F. Jackson llamó a la milicia estatal, fue atacada por las fuerzas federales bajo el mando del general Nathaniel Lyon , quien persiguió al gobernador y al resto de la Guardia Estatal hasta la esquina suroeste del estado ( ver también : Secesión de Missouri ). En el vacío resultante, la convención sobre la secesión volvió a reunirse y tomó el poder como el gobierno provisional unionista de Missouri. [132]
Kentucky no se separó; durante un tiempo, se declaró neutral. Cuando las fuerzas confederadas entraron en el estado en septiembre de 1861, la neutralidad terminó y el estado reafirmó su estatus de Unión mientras trataba de mantener la esclavitud. Durante una breve invasión de las fuerzas confederadas en 1861, los simpatizantes confederados organizaron una convención de secesión, formaron el Gobierno Confederado de Kentucky en la sombra , tomaron posesión de un gobernador y obtuvieron el reconocimiento de la Confederación. Su jurisdicción se extendió solo hasta las líneas de batalla confederadas en la Commonwealth y se exilió definitivamente después de octubre de 1862. [133]
Después de la secesión de Virginia, un gobierno unionista en Wheeling pidió a 48 condados que votaran una ordenanza para crear un nuevo estado el 24 de octubre de 1861. Una participación de votantes del 34 por ciento aprobó el proyecto de ley de estadidad (aprobación del 96 por ciento). [134] La inclusión de 24 condados secesionistas [135] en el estado y la subsiguiente guerra de guerrillas involucró a unas 40.000 tropas federales durante gran parte de la guerra. [136] [137] El Congreso admitió a Virginia Occidental en la Unión el 20 de junio de 1863. Virginia Occidental proporcionó entre 20 000 y 22 000 soldados tanto a la Confederación como a la Unión. [138]
Un intento de secesión unionista ocurrió en el este de Tennessee , pero fue reprimido por la Confederación, que arrestó a más de 3.000 hombres sospechosos de ser leales a la Unión. Fueron detenidos sin juicio. [139]
Características generales de la guerra
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought". In many cases, without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier.[140]
Mobilization
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias.[141] The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.[142][143][144]
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt.[145] The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.[146]
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.[147] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their services conscripted.[148]
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.[149] At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent; Southern desertion was high because, according to one historian writing in 1991, the highly localized Southern identity meant that many Southern men had little investment in the outcome of the war, with individual soldiers caring more about the fate of their local area than any grand ideal.[150] In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.[151]
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and without the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.[152]
Motivation
Perman and Taylor (2010) write that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.[153]
Prisoners
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their army. They were paid, but they were not allowed to perform any military duties.[154] The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.[155]
Women
Hundreds of women enlisted in both the Union and Confederate armies, though not all as soldiers.[156] The number of women who served as soldiers during the war is estimated at between 400 and 750, although an accurate count is impossible because the women had to disguise themselves as men.[157]
Women also served on the Union hospital ship Red Rover and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.[158]
Mary Edwards Walker, the only woman to ever receive the Medal of Honor, served in the Union Army and was given the medal for her efforts to treat the wounded during the war. Her name was deleted from the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 (along with over 900 other, male MOH recipients); however, it was restored in 1977.[159][160]
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396.[161][162] Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy.[163] Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually gained control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution. Many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.[164] Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.[165]
In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.[166]
The Confederacy experimented with the submarine CSS Hunley, which did not work satisfactorily,[167] and with building an ironclad ship, CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three-hour Battle of Hampton Roads was a draw, but it proved that ironclads were effective warships.[168] Not long after the battle, the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Great Britain. However, this failed as Great Britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation that was at war with a far stronger enemy, and it meant it could sour relations with the U.S..[169]
Union blockade
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.[170] Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.[171]
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.[172]
Blockade runners
British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out.[173] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British, and they were released.[174]
Economic impact
The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.
Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.[175]
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.[176] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade, so they stopped calling at Confederate ports.[177]
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships in Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.[165] After the war ended, the U.S. government demanded that Britain compensate them for the damage done by the raiders outfitted in British ports. Britain acquiesced to their demand, paying the U.S. $15 million in 1871.[178]
Diplomacia
Although the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.[179][180] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward, worked to block this and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.[181]
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.[181] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and ships to transport weapons.[182]
Lincoln's administration failed to appeal to European public opinion. Diplomats explained that the United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."[183]
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to openly challenge the Union blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery in Britain created a political liability for British politicians, where the anti-slavery movement was powerful.[184]
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British government considered mediating between the Union and Confederacy, though even such an offer would have risked war with the United States. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on what his decision would be.[185]
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Realizing that Washington could not intervene in Mexico as long as the Confederacy controlled Texas, France invaded Mexico in 1861. Washington repeatedly protested France's violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers and ensured that they would remain neutral.[186]
Russia supported the Union, largely due to the view that the U.S. served as a counterbalance to their geopolitical rival, the United Kingdom. In 1863, the Russian Navy's Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.[187]
Teatro oriental
The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the Appalachian Mountains, including the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina.
Background
- Army of the Potomac
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:[188]
- McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.
- Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.
- The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.
- The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.
- Army of Northern Virginia
The primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the Army of Northern Virginia. The Army originated as the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac, which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in northern Virginia. On July 20 and 21, the Army of the Shenandoah and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the Army of the Northwest were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed Army of Northern Virginia on March 14. The Army of the Peninsula was merged into it on April 12, 1862.
When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, Robert E. Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command.
Lee's biographer, Douglas S. Freeman, asserts that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862.[189] However, Freeman does admit that Lee corresponded with Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, his predecessor in army command, before that date and referred to Johnston's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact that Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia (as of October 22, 1861) and the name Army of Northern Virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent department's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but it is clear that the organization of units as of March 14 was the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and thus it is generally referred to today as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect.
On July 4 at Harper's Ferry, Colonel Thomas J. Jackson assigned Jeb Stuart to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah. He eventually commanded the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry.
Battles
- First Bull Run
In one of the first highly visible battles, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces led by Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard near Washington was repulsed at the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as First Manassas).
The Union had the upper hand at first, nearly pushing confederate forces holding a defensive position into a rout, but Confederate reinforcements under Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall".
- McClellan's Peninsula Campaign; Jackson's Valley Campaign
Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[190][191][192]
Also in the spring of 1862, in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson led his Valley Campaign. Employing audacity and rapid, unpredictable movements on interior lines, Jackson's 17,000 men marched 646 miles (1,040 km) in 48 days and won several minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies (52,000 men), including those of Nathaniel P. Banks and John C. Fremont, preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson's men earned them the nickname of "foot cavalry".
Johnston halted McClellan's advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. General Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.[193]
- Second Bull Run
The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[194] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
- Antietam
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North with the Maryland Campaign. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[193][195] Lee's army checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[196]
- First Fredericksburg
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[197] on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
- Chancellorsville
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, his Chancellorsville Campaign proved ineffective and he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.[198] Chancellorsville is known as Lee's "perfect battle" because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications.[199] Lee famously said: "He has lost his left arm, but I have lost my right arm."
The fiercest fighting of the battle—and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War—occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, John Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Marye's Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a successful delaying action at the Battle of Salem Church.
- Gettysburg
Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863).[200] This was the bloodiest battle of the war and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[201] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat.
Teatro occidental
The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including the states of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Carolina and Tennessee, as well as parts of Louisiana.
Background
- Army of the Tennessee and Army of the Cumberland
The primary Union forces in the Western theater were the Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Cumberland, named for the two rivers, the Tennessee River and Cumberland River. After Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
- Army of Tennessee
The primary Confederate force in the Western theater was the Army of Tennessee. The army was formed on November 20, 1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi. While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West.
Battles
- Fort Henry and Fort Donelson
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry (February 6, 1862) and Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. Nathan Bedford Forrest rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland. Nashville and central Tennessee thus fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" at Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.
- Shiloh
At the Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.[202] The Confederates lost Albert Sidney Johnston, considered their finest general before the emergence of Lee.
- Union Navy captures Memphis
One of the early Union objectives in the war was the capture of the Mississippi River, to cut the Confederacy in half. The Mississippi River was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee.
In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans.[203] "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South's largest port [and] greatest industrial center."[204] U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.[205] which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
- Perryville
Bragg's second invasion of Kentucky in the Confederate Heartland Offensive included initial successes such as Kirby Smith's triumph at the Battle of Richmond and the capture of the Kentucky capital of Frankfort on September 3, 1862.[206] However, the campaign ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville. Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of logistical support and lack of infantry recruits for the Confederacy in that state.[207]
- Stones River
Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee, the culmination of the Stones River Campaign.[208]
- Vicksburg
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at the Battle of Vicksburg in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war.[209]
- Chickamauga
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. After Rosecrans' successful Tullahoma Campaign, Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.
- Third Chattanooga
Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged in the Chattanooga Campaign. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[210] eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his Knoxville Campaign and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Teatro Trans-Mississippi
Background
The Trans-Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi River, not including the areas bordering the Pacific Ocean.
Battles
- Missouri
The first battle of the Trans-Mississippi theater was the Battle of Wilson's Creek. The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[212]
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.[213] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements.[214] The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.[215]
- New Mexico
Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass was the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy and smaller numbers for the Union.[216] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.[217]
- Texas
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union, in turn, did not directly engage him.[218] Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana, was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
Teatro de la costa baja
Background
The Lower Seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas) as well as the southern part of the Mississippi River (Port Hudson and south). Union Naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.
Battles
- South Carolina
One of the earliest battles of the war was fought at Port Royal Sound, south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing Charleston. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches; by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each Union attack. One of the most famous of the land attacks was the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, in which the 54th Massachusetts Infantry took part. The Federals suffered a serious defeat in this battle, losing 1,500 men while the Confederates lost only 175.
- Georgia
Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain Quincy A. Gillmore, forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing it.
- Louisiana
In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander David D. Porter attacked Forts Jackson and St. Philip, which guarded the river approach to New Orleans from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Major General Benjamin Butler landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast".
The following year, the Union Army of the Gulf commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks laid siege to Port Hudson for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in US military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the Bayou Teche Campaign but surrendered after Vicksburg. These two surrenders gave the Union control over the entire Mississippi.
- Florida
Several small skirmishes were fought in Florida, but no major battles. The biggest was the Battle of Olustee in early 1864.
Teatro de la costa del pacífico
The Pacific Coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.
Conquista de virginia
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[219] This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."[220] Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.[221]
Grant's Overland Campaign
Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign intending to draw Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. At the Battle of Yellow Tavern, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.
An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though, unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.[222]
Sheridan's Valley Campaign
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. vice president and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.[223]
Sherman's March to the Sea
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[224] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin–Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.[225]
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia, in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.[226]
The Waterloo of the Confederacy
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek.[227]
La Confederación se rinde
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House.[230] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning. Lincoln's vice president, Andrew Johnson, was unharmed as his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, lost his nerve, so he was immediately sworn in as president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[231] On April 26, 1865, the same day Boston Corbett killed Booth at a tobacco barn, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William Tecumseh Sherman at Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces. On May 4, all remaining Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi surrendered. President Johnson officially declared an end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, was captured the following day.[1][232] On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department.[233] On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.[234]
Frentes de casa
Victoria sindical y secuelas
Explaining the Union victory
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich Southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second-class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.[235]
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[236] McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.[237]
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[237] Lincoln was not a military dictator and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.[238]
Year | Union | Confederacy | |
---|---|---|---|
Population | 1860 | 22,100,000 (71%) | 9,100,000 (29%) |
1864 | 28,800,000 (90%)[k] | 3,000,000 (10%)[240] | |
Free | 1860 | 21,700,000 (81%) | 5,600,000 (19%) |
Slave | 1860 | 490,000 (11%) | 3,550,000 (89%) |
1864 | negligible | 1,900,000[l] | |
Soldiers | 1860–64 | 2,100,000 (67%) | 1,064,000 (33%) |
Railroad miles | 1860 | 21,800 (71%) | 8,800 (29%) |
1864 | 29,100 (98%)[241] | negligible | |
Manufactures | 1860 | 90% | 10% |
1864 | 98% | 2% | |
Arms production | 1860 | 97% | 3% |
1864 | 98% | 2% | |
Cotton bales | 1860 | negligible | 4,500,000 |
1864 | 300,000 | negligible | |
Exports | 1860 | 30% | 70% |
1864 | 98% | 2% |
Some scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.[242][243] Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[244]
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."[245][246] According to Charles H. Wilson, in The Collapse of the Confederacy, "internal conflict should figure prominently in any explanation of Confederate defeat."[247] Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict.[248] However, most historians reject the argument.[249] McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.[250] Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let-up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."[251]
Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[252] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.[253]
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history.[254] The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond."[255]
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.[256] The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.[256] However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.[256]
Casualties
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians.[9] Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.[14][12] The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.[257]
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white men aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.[258][259] About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War.[260] An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.[261]
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:[6]
- 110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).
- 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)
- 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps
- 9,058 killed by accidents or drowning
- 15,741 other/unknown deaths
- 359,528 total dead
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).[7]
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.[6] Losses among African Americans were high. In the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.[262]:16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
[We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two million troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate" amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, even though the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.[262]:16
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths.[6] However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:[2]
Union: 853,838
- 110,100 killed in action
- 224,580 disease deaths
- 275,154 wounded in action
- 211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs)
Confederate: 914,660
- 94,000 killed in action
- 164,000 disease deaths
- 194,026 wounded in action
- 462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs)
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, superintendent of the 1870 census, used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5% and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.[12]
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war.[15] This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, or exposure and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.[263]
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls, and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.[264]
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.[265]
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds were forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. The income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considered, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[266] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
During the Reconstruction era, national unity was slowly restored, the national government expanded its power, and civil and political rights were granted to freed black slaves through amendments to the Constitution and federal legislation.
Emancipation
Slavery as a war issue
Abolishing slavery was not a Union war goal from the outset, but it quickly became one.[28] Lincoln's initial claims were that preserving the Union was the central goal of the war.[267] In contrast, the South saw itself as fighting to preserve slavery.[28] While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.[268] However, as the war dragged on it became clear that slavery was the central factor of the conflict. Lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal, which culminated in the Emancipation Proclamation.[28][269] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.[269] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.[270]
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.[m]
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. Lincoln's fears of making slavery a war issue were based on a harsh reality: abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west, the territories, and the border states.[272][273] In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[273] Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.[274]
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[275] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[276] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.[277]
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[278] Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."[279]
Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[280] Still, the proclamation did not enjoy universal support. It caused much unrest in the Western states, where racist sentiments led to a great fear of abolition. There was some concern that the proclamation would lead to the secession of Western states, and prompted the stationing of Union troops in Illinois in case of rebellion.[272]
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[281] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.[282] By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.[283]
Texas v. White
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null", under the constitution.[284]
Reconstruction
The war had utterly devastated the South, and posed serious questions of how the South would be re-integrated to the Union. Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877.[285] It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution: the 13th outlawing slavery (1865), the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to slaves (1868) and the 15th ensuring voting rights to slaves (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government" for the ex-Confederate states, and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.[286]
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865 when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended.[287] With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was ushered in.
The Civil War would have a huge impact on American politics in the years to come. Many veterans on both sides were subsequently elected to political office, including five U. S. Presidents: General Ulysses Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley.[288]
Memoria e historiografía
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[289] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world.[290]
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and who write for the general public, rather than the scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers.[291][292] Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.[293]
Lost Cause
The memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was a just and heroic one. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.[294] Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.[295] Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism" of the 19th century, sacrificing black American progress to white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance.[296] The Lost Cause myth was formalized by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, whose The Rise of American Civilization (1927) spawned "Beardian historiography". The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. Though this interpretation was abandoned by the Beards in the 1940s, and by historians generally by the 1950s, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.[297][298]
Battlefield preservation
The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen Brigade Monument near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, built in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead following the Battle of Stones River.[299] In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.[300]
The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation. Although the two non-profit organizations joined forces on several battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust.[301] In 2011, the organization was renamed, again becoming the Civil War Trust. After expanding its mission in 2014 to include battlefields of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, the non-profit became the American Battlefield Trust in May 2018, operating with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust.[302] From 1987 through May 2018, the Trust and its predecessor organizations, along with their partners, preserved 49,893 acres of battlefield land through the acquisition of property or conservation easements at more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.[303][304]
The five major Civil War battlefield parks operated by the National Park Service (Gettysburg, Antietam, Shiloh, Chickamauga/Chattanooga and Vicksburg) had a combined 3.1 million visitors in 2018, down 70% from 10.2 million in 1970. Attendance at Gettysburg in 2018 was 950,000, a decline of 86% since 1970.[305]
Civil War commemoration
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. [306]Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns's PBS television series The Civil War (1990) is especially well remembered, though criticized for its historiography.[307][308]
Technological significance
Numerous technological innovations during the Civil War had a great impact on 19th-century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war.[309] New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel.[310][311] It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect.[312] It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history.[313] Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare. The war was also the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.[314]
En obras de cultura y arte
The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous.[315] This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works.
Literature
- The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis
- The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain
- Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne
- An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890) by Ambrose Bierce
- The Red Badge of Courage (1895) by Stephen Crane
- Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell
- North and South (1982) by John Jakes
Film
- The Birth of a Nation (1915, US)
- The General (1926, US)
- Operator 13 (1934, US)
- Gone with the Wind (1939, US)
- The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US)
- The Horse Soldiers (1959, US)
- Shenandoah (1965, US)
- The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)
- The Beguiled (1971, US)
- Glory (1989, US)
- The Civil War (1990, US)
- Gettysburg (1993, US)
- The Last Outlaw (1993, US)
- Ride with the Devil (1999, US)
- Cold Mountain (2003, US)
- Gods and Generals (2003, US)
- North and South (miniseries)
- Lincoln (2012, US)
- 12 Years a Slave (2013, US)
- Free State of Jones (2016, US)
- The Beguiled (2017, US)
Music
- Dixie
- Battle Hymn of the Republic
- The Bonnie Blue Flag
- John Brown's Body
- When Johnny Comes Marching Home
- Marching Through Georgia
Video games
- North & South (1989, FR)
- Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, US)
- Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, US)
- American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US)
- Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US)
- The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US)
- Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR)
- History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US)
- Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US)
- Darkest of Days (2009, US)
- Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, US)
- Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR)
- Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR)
- Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR)
Ver también
General reference
Union
Confederacy
Ethnic articles
Topical articles
| National articles
State articles
Memorials
Other modern civil wars in the world
|
Referencias
Notes
- ^ Last shot fired June 22, 1865.
- ^ a b Total number that served
- ^ 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.
- ^ 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.
- ^ Although a formal Declaration of War was never issued by either the United States Congress nor the Congress of the Confederate States, as their legal positions were such that it was unnecessary.
- ^ Although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status.
- ^ Including the border states where slavery was legal.
- ^ A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war.[15]
- ^ Assuming Union and Confederate casualties are counted together – more Americans were killed in World War II than in either the Union or Confederate Armies if their casualty totals are counted separately.
- ^ At least until approximately the Vietnam War.[16]
- ^ "Union population 1864" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded.
- ^ "Slave 1864, CSA" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley.
- ^ In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented.[271]
Citations
- ^ a b "The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End. All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers. If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports. Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia. The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 10, 1865. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f "Facts". National Park Service.
- ^ "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War": Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.
- ^ Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. OCLC 68283123. p. 705.
- ^ "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2", United States. War Dept 1900.
- ^ a b c d e f Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War (1889)
- ^ a b c d "DCAS Reports – Principal Wars, 1775 – 1991". dcas.dmdc.osd.mil.
- ^ Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849.
- ^ a b Nofi, Al (June 13, 2001). "Statistics on the War's Costs". Louisiana State University. Archived from the original on July 11, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Professor James Downs. "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War". University of Connecticut, April 13, 2012. "The rough 19th-century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating Black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of Black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths." 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.
- ^ Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 4.
- ^ a b c Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011). "Recounting the Dead". The New York Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on September 25, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
- ^ Professor James Downs. "Colorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War". Oxford University Press, April 13, 2012. "A 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ..."
- ^ a b "U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests". Science Daily. September 22, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
- ^ a b Hacker 2011, p. 307–48.
- ^ "Civil War Facts". American Battlefield Trust. American Battlefield Trust. August 16, 2011. Retrieved October 7, 2018.
- ^ Keith L. Dougherty, and Jac C. Heckelman. "Voting on slavery at the Constitutional Convention." Public Choice 136.3–4 (2008): 293.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 9.
- ^ "Date of Secession Related to 1860 Black Population", America's Civil War
- ^ Burnham, Walter Dean. Presidential Ballots, 1836–1892. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, pp. 247–57
- ^ Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 325.
- ^ Yearns, Wilfred Buck. The Confederate Congress. University of Georgia Press, 1960, 2010, pp. 165–166
- ^ Frank J. Williams, "Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically," in Harold Holzer, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006), pp. 74–75.
- ^ James C. Bradford, A Companion to American Military History (2010), vol. 1, p. 101.
- ^ Freehling, William W. (October 1, 2008). The Road to Disunion: Volume II: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–24. ISBN 978-0-19-983991-9.Martis, Kenneth C. (1989). Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress: 1789-1988. Simon & Schuster Books For Young Readers. pp. 111–115. ISBN 978-0-02-920170-1. and Foner, Eric (October 2, 1980). Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War. Oxford University Press. pp. 18–20, 21–24. ISBN 978-0-19-972708-7.
- ^ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 22, 2015). "What This Cruel War Was Over". The Atlantic. Retrieved December 21, 2016.
- ^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Remembering the Civil War (Speech). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War. Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span. Retrieved August 29, 2017.
Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession... It was not states' rights. It was not a tariff. It was not unhappiness with manner and customs that led to secession and eventually to war. It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery.
- ^ a b c d McPherson 1988, p. vii–viii.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 7-8.
- ^ McPherson, James M. (March 1, 1994). What They Fought For 1861–1865. Louisiana State University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8071-1904-4. |
- ^ McPherson, James M. (April 3, 1997). For Cause and Comrades. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-509023-9.
- ^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Remembering the Civil War (Speech). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War. Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span. Retrieved August 29, 2017.
The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union. Most loyal citizens, though profoundly prejudice by 21st century standards, embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slaveholders, weaken the confederacy, and protect the union from future internal strife. A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery, though their arguments carried far less popular weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union.
- ^ Eskridge, Larry (January 29, 2011). "After 150 years, we still ask: Why 'this cruel war'?". Canton Daily Ledger. Canton, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
- ^ Kuriwaki, Shiro; Huff, Connor; Hall, Andrew B. (2019). "Wealth, Slaveownership, and Fighting for the Confederacy: An Empirical Study of the American Civil War". American Political Science Review. 113 (3): 658–673. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000170. ISSN 0003-0554.
- ^ Weeks 2013, p. 240.
- ^ Olsen 2002, p. 237.
- ^ Chadwick, French Esnor. Causes of the civil war, 1859–1861 (1906) p. 8
- ^ Kevin C Julius, The Abolitionist Decade, 1829-1838: A Year-by-Year History of Early Events in the Antislavery Movement; MacFarland and Company; 2004
- ^ Six Days in April: Lincoln and the Union in Peril; Frank B. Marcotte; Algora Publishing; 2004; page 171
- ^ Fleming, Thomas (2014). A Disease in the Public Mind: A New Understanding of Why We Fought the Civil War. ISBN 978-0-306-82295-7.
- ^ , "Harriet Beecher Stowe: The Little Lady Who Started the Civil War". New England Historical Society. Retrieved October 6, 2020.
- ^ Sewall, Samuel. The Selling of Joseph, pp. 1–3, Bartholomew Green & John Allen, Boston, Massachusetts, 1700.
- ^ a b McCullough, David. John Adams, p. 132-3, Simon & Schuster, New York, New York, 2001. ISBN 0-684-81363-7.
- ^ Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, pp. 625–6, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. ISBN 0-945707-33-9.
- ^ "Benjamin Franklin Petitions Congress". National Archives and Records Administration.
- ^ Franklin, Benjamin (February 3, 1790). "Petition from the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery". Archived from the original on May 21, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2006.
- ^ John Paul Kaminski (1995). A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate Over the Constitution. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-945612-33-9.
- ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (2007). Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. p. 72.
- ^ Wilson, Black Codes (1965), p. 15. "By 1775, inspired by those 'self-evident' truths which were to be expressed by the Declaration of Independence, a considerable number of colonists felt that the time had come to end slavery and give the free Negroes some fruits of liberty. This sentiment, added to economic considerations, led to the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery in six northern states, while there was a swelling flood of private manumissions in the South. Little actual gain was made by the free Negro even in this period, and by the turn of the century, the downward trend had begun again. Thereafter the only important change in that trend before the Civil War was that after 1831 the decline in the status of the free Negro became more precipitate."
- ^ Hubbard, Robert Ernest. General Rufus Putnam: George Washington's Chief Military Engineer and the "Father of Ohio," pp. 1–4, 105–6, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2020. ISBN 978-1-4766-7862-7.
- ^ McCullough, David. The Pioneers: The Heroic Story of the Settlers Who Brought the American Ideal West, pp. 4, 9, 11, 13, 29–30, Simon & Schuster, New York, New York, 2019. ISBN 978-1-5011-6868-0.
- ^ Gradert, Kenyon. Puritan Spirits in the Abolitionist Imagination, pp. 1–3, 14–5, 24, 29–30, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, and London, 2020. ISBN 978-0-226-69402-3.
- ^ Commager, Henry Steele. Theodore Parker, pp. 206, 208–9, 210, The Beacon Press, Boston, Massachusetts, 1947.
- ^ Anderson, Mic. "8 Influential Abolitionist Texts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved January 7, 2021.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 38.
- ^ "The Sentimental Novel: The Example of Harriet Beecher Stowe" by Gail K. Smith, The Cambridge Companion to Nineteenth-Century American Women's Writing by Dale M. Bauer and Philip Gould, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 221. Book preview.
- ^ Shapiro, William E. (1993). The Young People's Encyclopedia of the United States. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press. ISBN 1-56294-514-9. OCLC 30932823.
- ^ Robins, R.G. (2004). A.J. Tomlinson: Plainfolk Modernist. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988317-2.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 40.
- ^ "Report on Slavery and Racism in the History of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary" (PDF). Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. December 2018. Retrieved July 29, 2019.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 39.
- ^ Donald 1995, p. 188-189.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 41-46.
- ^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 49–50.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 49-77.
- ^ McPherson 2007, p. 14.
- ^ Stampp 1990, p. 190–93.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 51.
- ^ McPherson 2007, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 19.
- ^ McPherson 2007, p. 16.
- ^ Bestor 1964, pp. 19–21.
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 20.
- ^ Russell 1966, p. 468–69.
- ^ Bestor, Arthur (1988). "The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis". In Friedman, Lawrence Meir; Scheiber, Harry N. (eds.). American Law and the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives. The American Historical Review. 69. Harvard University Press. pp. 327–352. doi:10.2307/1844986. ISBN 978-0-674-02527-1. JSTOR 1844986.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 52-54.
- ^ Bestor 1964, pp. 21–23.
- ^ Johannsen 1973, p. 406.
- ^ "Territorial Politics and Government". Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society. Retrieved July 10, 2014.Finteg
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 21.
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 23.
- ^ Varon 2008, p. 58.
- ^ Russell 1966, p. 470.
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 23–24.
- ^ McPherson 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 232.
- ^ Gara, 1964, p. 190
- ^ Bestor 1964, p. 24–25.
- ^ Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002).
- ^ McPherson 2007, pp. 3–9.
- ^ Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948).
- ^ Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973).
- ^ Ahlstrom 1972, p. 648–649.
- ^ Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969).
- ^ Woodworth 1996, pp. 145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684.
- ^ Thornton & Ekelund 2004, p. 21.
- ^ Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 115–61
- ^ Hofstadter 1938, p. 50–55.
- ^ Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861. (1961)
- ^ Jon L. Wakelyn (1996). Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. 23–30. ISBN 978-0-8078-6614-6.
- ^ Potter 1962, p. 924–50.
- ^ Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000).
- ^ Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953).
- ^ "Republican Platform of 1860," in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956). p. 32.
- ^ Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005).
- ^ Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 485.
- ^ Jaffa, Harry V. (2004). A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8476-9953-7.[dead link]
- ^ Ordinances of Secession by State Archived June 11, 2004, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- ^ The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union.
- ^ The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- ^ The text of Georgia's secession declaration. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- ^ The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 24.
- ^ President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
- ^ Winters, John D. The Civil War in Louisiana (1991) LSU, ISBN 978-0-8071-1725-5, p.28 viewed April 28, 2020.
- ^ "Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River". World Digital Library. 1865. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
- ^ Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 41–66
- ^ Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 147–52
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 234–266.
- ^ a b Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.
- ^ a b Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 572–73.
- ^ Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (1959), pp. 74–75.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 274.
- ^ Howard Louis Conard (1901). Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri. p. 45.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 276–307.
- ^ "Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly, Maryland State Archives". msa.maryland.gov. Retrieved May 28, 2017.
- ^ a b "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 284–87.
- ^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71,
- ^ Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863). Fourteen Months in American Bastiles. London: H.F. Mackintosh. Retrieved August 18, 2014.
- ^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–29.
- ^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–36.
- ^ "A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia". West Virginia Archives & History. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ^ Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 303.
- ^ Weigley 2004, p. 55.
- ^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p. 28.
- ^ Neely 1993, p. 10–11.
- ^ Keegan, "The American Civil War", p. 73. Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee. See Gabor Boritt, ed. War Comes Again (1995), p. 247.
- ^ "With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army ..." Civil War Extracts pp. 199–221, American Military History.
- ^ Nicolay, John George; Hay, John (1890). Abraham Lincoln: A History. Century Company.
- ^ Coulter, E. Merton (June 1, 1950). The Confederate States of America, 1861—1865: A History of the South. LSU Press. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-8071-0007-3.
- ^ Nicolay, John George; Hay, John (1890). Abraham Lincoln: A History. Century Company. state: "Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made ... In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000 ..." Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent.
- ^ Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition.
- ^ Faust, Albert Bernhardt (1909). The German Element in the United States: With Special Reference to Its Political, Moral, Social, and Educational Influence. Houghton Mifflin Company. The railroads and banks grew rapidly. See Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War. 2. 1907. pp. 378–430.. See also Oberholtzer, Ellis Parson (1926). A history of the United States since the Civil War. The Macmillan company. pp. 69–12.
- ^ Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007).
- ^ Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971).
- ^ Judith Lee Hallock, "The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion." Civil War History (1983) 29#2 pp. 123–34. online
- ^ Bearman, Peter S. (1991). "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War". Social Forces. 70 (2): 321–342. doi:10.1093/sf/70.2.321. JSTOR 2580242.
- ^ Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74.
- ^ Keegan 2009, p. 57.
- ^ Perman & Taylor 2010, p. 177.
- ^ Roger Pickenpaugh (2013). Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–73. ISBN 978-0-8173-1783-6.
- ^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 1466.
- ^ Leonard, Elizabeth D. (2002). "To 'Don the Breeches, and Slay Them with a Will!' A Host of Women Soldiers". In Barton, Michael; Logue, Larry M. (eds.). The Civil War Soldier: A Historical Reader. New York University Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-8147-9879-9. JSTOR j.ctt9qgfhv.
- ^ "Female Soldiers in the Civil War". Civilwar.org. January 25, 2013. Archived from the original on August 15, 2015. Retrieved August 9, 2015.
- ^ "Highlights in the History of Military Women". Women In Military Service For America Memorial. Archived from the original on April 3, 2013. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
- ^ Pennington, Reina (2003). Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women (Volume Two). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 474–475. ISBN 0-313-32708-4.
- ^ "The Case of Dr. Walker, Only Woman to Win (and Lose) the Medal of Honor". The New York Times. June 4, 1977. Retrieved January 6, 2018.
- ^ Welles 1865, p. 152.
- ^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 462.
- ^ Canney 1998, p. ?.
- ^ Nelson 2005, p. 92.
- ^ a b Anderson 1989, p. 300.
- ^ Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009).
- ^ Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989)
- ^ Nelson 2005, p. 345.
- ^ Fuller 2008, p. 36.
- ^ Richter 2009, p. 49.
- ^ Johnson 1998, p. 228.
- ^ Anderson 1989, pp. 288–89, 296–98.
- ^ Stern 1962, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Mark E. Neely, Jr. "The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War," Civil War History (1986) 32#2, pp. 101–18 in Project MUSE
- ^ Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (1991)
- ^ Surdam, David G. (1998). "The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered". Naval War College Review. 51 (4): 85–107.
- ^ David G. Surdam, Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (University of South Carolina Press, 2001).
- ^ Jones 2002, p. 225.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 546–57.
- ^ Herring 2011, p. 237.
- ^ a b McPherson 1988, p. 386.
- ^ Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–64.
- ^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014), pp. 8 (quote), 69–70.
- ^ Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013)
- ^ Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125.
- ^ Herring 2011, p. 261.
- ^ Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie. Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914 p 95. ISBN 0-8262-1097-X, 9780826210975
- ^ Anderson 1989, p. 91.
- ^ Freeman, Vol. II, p. 78 and footnote 6.
- ^ Foote 1974, p. 464–519.
- ^ Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–96.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 424–27.
- ^ a b McPherson 1988, pp. 538–44.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 528–33.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 543–45.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 557–558.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 571–74.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 639–45.
- ^ Jonathan A. Noyalas (December 3, 2010). Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign. Arcadia Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-61423-040-3.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 653–663.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 664.
- ^ Frank & Reaves 2003, p. 170.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 418–20.
- ^ Kennedy, p. 58.
- ^ Symonds & Clipson 2001, p. 92.
- ^ Brown, Kent Masterson. The Civil War in Kentucky: Battle for the Bluegrass State. p. 95.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 419–20.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 480–83.
- ^ Ronald Scott Mangum, "The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations," Parameters: U.S. Army War College (1991) 21#3, pp. 74–86 online Archived November 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 677–80.
- ^ Keegan 2009, p. 100.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 404–05.
- ^ James B. Martin, Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012). See also, Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War (1989). Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.
- ^ Bohl, Sarah (2004). "A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri". Prologue. 36 (1): 44–51.
- ^ Keegan 2009, p. 270.
- ^ Graves, William H. (1991). "Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 69 (2): 134–145.
- ^ Neet, J. Frederick; Jr (1996). "Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation". Great Plains Journal. 6 (1): 36–51.
- ^ Keegan 2009, p. 220–21.
- ^ Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004, pp. 434+.
- ^ U.S. Grant (1990). Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters. Library of America. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-940450-58-5.
- ^ Ron Field (2013). Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege. Osprey Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4728-0305-4.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 724–42.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 778–79.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 773–76.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 812–15.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 825–30.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 846–47.
- ^ "Union / Victory! / Peace! / Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army". The New York Times. April 10, 1865. p. 1.
- ^ a b "Most Glorious News of the War / Lee Has Surrendered to Grant ! / All Lee's Officers and Men Are Paroled". Savannah Daily Herald. Savannah, Georgia, U.S. April 16, 1865. pp. 1, 4.
- ^ William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002), pp. 158–81.
- ^ Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia, and the Battle of West Point.
- ^ Arnold, James R.; Wiener, Roberta (2016). Understanding U.S. Military Conflicts through Primary Sources [4 volumes]. American Civil War: ABC-CLIO. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-61069-934-1.
- ^ "Ulysses S. Grant: The Myth of 'Unconditional Surrender' Begins at Fort Donelson". American Battlefield Trust. April 17, 2009. Archived from the original on February 7, 2016.
- ^ Morris, John Wesley (1977). Ghost Towns of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8061-1420-0.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 851.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. 855.
- ^ a b James McPherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose?. p. ?.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 771–72.
- ^ Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed.), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860 U.S. Census and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.
- ^ Martis K, enneth C. (1994). The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865. Simon & Schuster. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-13-389115-7.. At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one-third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave-populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.
- ^ Digital History Reader, U.S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880 Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012. "Total Union railroad miles" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.
- ^ Murray, Bernstein & Knox 1996, p. 235.
- ^ HeidlerHeidlerColes 2002, p. 1207–10.
- ^ Ward 1990, p. 272.
- ^ E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (1950), p. 566.
- ^ Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1991), ch 1.
- ^ Wesley, Charles H. (2001) [1937]. The Collapse of the Confederacy. Washington: Associated Publishers. pp. 83–84.
- ^ Armstead Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (University of Virginia Press, 2004)
- ^ see Alan Farmer, History Review (2005), No. 52: 15–20.
- ^ McPherson 1997, pp. 169–72.
- ^ Gallagher 1999, p. 57.
- ^ Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). "Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days". Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association. University of Illinois. 9 (1). Retrieved October 16, 2007.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 382–88.
- ^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014).
- ^ Fergus M. Bordewich, "The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege", Wall Street Journal (February 7–8, 2015).
- ^ a b c Dupont, Brandon; Rosenbloom, Joshua L. (2018). "The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite". Explorations in Economic History. 68: 119–131. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002.
- ^ McPherson 1988, p. xix.
- ^ Vinovskis 1990, p. 7.
- ^ Richard Wightman Fox (2008). "National Life After Death". Slate.com.
- ^ "U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands". National Geographic News. July 1, 2003.
- ^ Riordan, Teresa (March 8, 2004). "When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing". The New York Times. Associated Press. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
- ^ a b Herbert Aptheker, "Negro Casualties in the Civil War", The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 32, No. 1. (January 1947).
- ^ Professor James Downs. "Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction". January 1, 2012.
- ^ Ron Field and Peter Dennis (2013). American Civil War Fortifications (2): Land and Field Fortifications. Osprey Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4728-0531-7.
- ^ Claudia Goldin, "The economics of emancipation." The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85.
- ^ The Economist, "The Civil War: Finally Passing", April 2, 2011, pp. 23–25.
- ^ Foner 2010, p. 74.
- ^ Foner 1981, p. ?.
- ^ a b McPherson, pp. 506–8.
- ^ McPherson. p. 686.
- ^ McPherson 1988, pp. 831–37.
- ^ a b Donald 1995, p. 417-419.
- ^ a b Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861. Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery especially among Forty-Eighters, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union. " Wittke, Carl (1952). "Refugees of Revolution". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) ", Christian B. Keller, "Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers", Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 117–45; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds, Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). "On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought." Baker, Kevin (March 2003). "Violent City", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010. "Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities." Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6. Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862. - ^ Baker, Kevin (March 2003). "Violent City", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
- ^ McPherson, James, in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. Lincoln, the War President, pp. 52–54.
- ^ Oates, Stephen B., Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106.
- ^ "Lincoln Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862".
- ^ Pulling, Sr. Anne Francis. "Images of America: Altoona, 2001, 10.
- ^ Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864.
- ^ Harper, Douglas (2003). "SLAVERY in DELAWARE". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2007.
- ^ " James McPherson, The War that Never Goes Away"
- ^ Asante & Mazama 2004, p. 82.
- ^ Holzer & Gabbard 2007, p. 172–174.
- ^ Murray, pp. 155–59.
- ^ Hans L. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders.
- ^ Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey.
- ^ C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd edn 1991).
- ^ "Presidents Who Were Civil War Veterans". Essential Civil War Curriculum.
- ^ Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press).
- ^ David W. Blight, Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory (2001).
- ^ Woodworth 1996, p. 208.
- ^ Cushman, Stephen (2014). Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1-4696-1878-4.
- ^ Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries
- ^ Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913.
- ^ Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history (2000), pp. 12–19.
- ^ Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54.
- ^ Richard Hofstadter (2012) [1968]. Progressive Historians. Knopf Doubleday. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-307-80960-5.
- ^ [1] Murfreesboro Post, April 27, 2007, "Hazen's Monument a rare, historic treasure." Accessed May 30, 2018.
- ^ Timothy B. Smith, "The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press).
- ^ [2] The Washington Post, July 21, 2007, ""Behind the bitter war to preserve Civil War battlefields." Accessed May 30, 2018.
- ^ [3] American Battlefield Trust announcement, May 8, 2018. Accessed May 30, 2018.
- ^ Bob Zeller, "Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust," (2017: Knox Press)
- ^ [4] American Battlefield Trust "Saved Land" page. Accessed May 30, 2018.
- ^ Cameron McWhirter, "Civil War Battlefields Lose Ground as Tourist Draws" The Wall Street Journal May 25, 2019
- ^ Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).
- ^ "Debate over Ken Burns Civil War doc continues over decades | The Spokesman-Review". spokesman.com. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
- ^ Merritt, Keri Leigh. "Why We Need a New Civil War Documentary". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
- ^ Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: The American Pageant, p. 434. 1987
- ^ Dome, Steam (1974). "A Civil War Iron Clad Car". Railroad History. The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society. 130 (Spring 1974): 51–53.
- ^ William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, ed. Christopher H. Sterling(New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1:63.
- ^ Buckley, John (May 9, 2006). Air Power in the Age of Total War. Routledge. p. 6,24. ISBN 978-1-135-36275-1.
- ^ Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77.
- ^ Keegan, John (October 20, 2009). The American Civil War. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-307-27314-7.
- ^ Hutchison, Coleman (2015). A History of American Civil War Literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-43241-9.
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- Hacker, J. David (December 2011). "A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead". Civil War History. 57 (4): 307–48. doi:10.1353/cwh.2011.0061. PMID 22512048.
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- Hofstadter, Richard (1938). "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War". American Historical Review. 44 (1): 50–55. doi:10.2307/1840850. JSTOR 1840850.
- Holt, Michael F. (2005). The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-4439-9.
- Holzer, Harold; Gabbard, Sara Vaughn (2007). Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2764-5.
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- Johannsen, Robert W. (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501620-8.
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- Jones, Howard (1999). Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2582-4.
- Jones, Howard (2002). Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913. Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8420-2916-2.
- Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26343-8.
- Krannawitter, Thomas L. (2008). Vindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-5972-1.
- Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960). Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.
- McPherson, James M. (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503863-7.
- McPherson, James M. (1992). Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (2 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-045842-0.
- McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974105-2.
- McPherson, James M. (2007). This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539242-5.
- Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004). Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Murray, Robert Bruce (2003). Legal Cases of the Civil War. Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0059-7.
- Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, MacGregor (1996). The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War. Cabmbridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56627-8.
- Neely, Mark (1993). Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press. ISBN 978-0-87462-325-3.
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- Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner
- 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 online; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. online; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865
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- Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. A Companion to the U.S. Civil War 2 vol. (April 2014) Wiley-Blackwell, New York ISBN 978-1-444-35131-6. 1232pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography.
- Stampp, Kenneth M. (1990). America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503902-3.
- Stern, Phillip Van Doren (1962). The Confederate Navy. Doubleday & Company, Inc.
- Stoker, Donald. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (2010) excerpt
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- Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. (2010). The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-338-5.
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- Vinovskis, Maris (1990). Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5.
- Ward, Geoffrey R. (1990). The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56285-8.
- Weeks, William E. (2013). The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00590-7.
- Weigley, Frank Russell (2004). A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33738-2.
- Welles, Gideon (1865). Secretary of the Navy's Report. 37–38. American Seamen's Friend Society.
- Winters, John D. (1963). The Civil War in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0834-5.
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Otras lecturas
- Browning, Judkin and Timothy Silver. An Environmental History of the Civil War (2020) online review
- Gugliotta, Guy. New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll, The New York Times, April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03 online.
- Bibliography of American Civil War naval history
- . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
- Tidball, John Caldwell. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion 1861–1865 (reprint 2011) Westholm Publishing ISBN 978-1-59416-149-0.
- The Civil War: A Visual History, DK 2011
- Weeks, Michael. The Complete Civil War Road Trip Guide: More than 500 Sites from Gettysburg to Vicksburg, Countryman Press 2016
- Shaara, Jeff. Civil War Battlefields: Discovering America's Hallowed Ground Ballantine Books 2006
- Edwards, F Laura. A Legal History of the Civil War and Reconstruction: A Nation of Rights, Cambridge University Press 2015
- McPherson, M James. The War That Forged a Nation: Why the Civil War Still Matters Oxford University Press 2017
enlaces externos
- American Civil War at Curlie
- West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles
- Civil War photos at the National Archives
- View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress
- American Battlefield Trust – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions.
- Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.
- Civil War 150 – Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.
- Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries
- The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War
- The short film A House Divided (1960) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library
- Civil War Manuscripts
- Civil War soldiers' Letters Collection at Dartmouth College Library
- Mather Cleveland Civil War Collection at Dartmouth College Library
- Joseph S. Dolson Correspondence, Surgeon 161st N.Y. Volunteers at Dartmouth College Library
- Statements of each state as to why they were seceding
- S. Griswold Flagg collection (MS 216). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. Collection: S. Griswold Flagg collection | Archives at Yale
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