Los cierres gubernamentales en los Estados Unidos ocurren cuando no se aprueba una legislación de financiamiento para financiar al gobierno para su próximo año fiscal o una medida de financiamiento temporal. Desde una interpretación de 1980 de la Ley de Antideficiencia de 1884 , un "lapso de asignación" debido a un impasse político en los proyectos de ley de asignación propuestos requiere que el gobierno federal de los EE. UU. Reduzca las actividades y servicios de la agencia, cierre las operaciones no esenciales, cese los trabajadores no esenciales y solo retenga a los empleados esenciales en los departamentos que cubren la seguridad de la vida humana o la protección de la propiedad. [1] Los servicios voluntarios solo pueden aceptarse cuando sean necesarios para la seguridad de la vida o la propiedad. [1] Los cierres también pueden ocurrir dentro y perturbar los niveles de gobierno estatal, territorial y local.
Desde la promulgación del presupuesto actual y el proceso de asignaciones del gobierno de los EE. UU. En 1976, ha habido un total de 22 brechas de financiamiento en el presupuesto federal, diez de las cuales han dado lugar a que los empleados federales sean suspendidos. Antes de 1980, las brechas de financiamiento no llevaron a cierres del gobierno, hasta que el Fiscal General Benjamin Civiletti emitió una opinión legal que exigía que el gobierno se cerrara cuando se produjera una brecha de financiamiento. [2] Esta opinión no se cumplió de manera constante durante la década de 1980, pero desde 1990 todas las brechas de financiamiento que duran más de unas pocas horas han llevado a un cierre.
Algunos de los cierres más importantes en la historia de Estados Unidos han incluido el cierre de 21 días de 1995-1996 durante la administración de Bill Clinton debido a la oposición a importantes recortes de gastos; el cierre de 16 días en 2013 durante la administración de Barack Obama causado por una disputa sobre la implementación de la Ley del Cuidado de Salud a Bajo Precio (ACA); [3] y el cierre de 35 días de 2018-2019 durante la administración de Donald Trump , el cierre más largo en la historia de Estados Unidos, [4] causado por una disputa sobre el monto de financiamiento para una expansión de la barrera fronteriza entre Estados Unidos y México . [5] [6]
Los cierres provocan la interrupción de los servicios y programas gubernamentales, incluido el cierre de parques e instituciones nacionales (en particular, debido a la escasez de empleados federales). Una pérdida importante de ingresos del gobierno proviene de la mano de obra perdida de los empleados sin licencia que aún reciben su pago, así como la pérdida de tarifas que se habrían pagado durante el cierre. Los cierres también provocan una reducción significativa en el crecimiento económico (dependiendo de la duración del cierre). Durante el cierre de 2013, Standard & Poor's , la agencia de calificación financiera, declaró el 16 de octubre que el cierre "hasta la fecha había sacado $ 24 mil millones de la economía" y "redujo al menos un 0,6 por ciento del crecimiento anualizado del PIB del cuarto trimestre de 2013". . [7]
Gobierno federal
Descripción general
Bajo la separación de poderes creada por la Constitución de los Estados Unidos , la apropiación y control de los fondos gubernamentales para los Estados Unidos es responsabilidad exclusiva del Congreso de los Estados Unidos . El Congreso inicia este proceso proponiendo un proyecto de ley de asignaciones destinado a determinar los niveles de gasto para cada departamento federal y programa gubernamental. La versión final del proyecto de ley es luego votada tanto por la Cámara de Representantes como por el Senado . Después de que pasa por ambas cámaras, procede al presidente de los Estados Unidos para firmar el proyecto de ley.
Los cierres gubernamentales tienden a ocurrir cuando hay un desacuerdo sobre las asignaciones presupuestarias antes de que finalice el ciclo existente. Dichos desacuerdos pueden provenir del presidente - mediante el veto de cualquier proyecto de ley de asignación finalizado que reciban - o de una o ambas cámaras del Congreso, [8] [9] a menudo del partido político que tiene control sobre esa cámara. Un cierre se puede evitar temporalmente mediante la promulgación de una resolución continua (CR), que puede extender el financiamiento para el gobierno por un período determinado, durante el cual se pueden realizar negociaciones para suministrar un proyecto de ley de apropiación que todas las partes involucradas en el estancamiento político. el gasto puede acordar. Sin embargo, un CR puede ser bloqueado por las mismas partes si hay problemas con el contenido del proyecto de ley de resolución sobre el que cualquiera de las partes tiene un desacuerdo, en cuyo caso se producirá inevitablemente un cierre si la Cámara, el Senado o la Cámara no pueden aprobar un CR. Presidente. El Congreso puede, en casos raros, intentar anular un veto presidencial de un proyecto de ley de asignaciones o CR, pero tal acto requiere que haya un apoyo mayoritario de dos tercios de ambas cámaras.
Inicialmente, muchas agencias federales continuaron operando durante los cierres, mientras minimizaban todas las operaciones y obligaciones no esenciales, creyendo que el Congreso no tenía la intención de que las agencias cerraran mientras esperaban la promulgación de leyes de asignaciones anuales o asignaciones temporales. Sin embargo, el Procurador General Benjamin Civiletti emitió dos opiniones en 1980 y 1981, que interpretaron de manera más estricta la Ley de Antideficiencia en el contexto de una brecha de financiamiento, junto con sus excepciones. Las opiniones indicaron que, con algunas excepciones, el jefe de una agencia podría evitar violar la Ley solo suspendiendo las operaciones de la agencia hasta la promulgación de una asignación. En ausencia de apropiaciones, se permitirían excepciones sólo cuando exista alguna conexión razonable y articulable entre la función a desempeñar y la seguridad de la vida humana o la protección de la propiedad. [10] Sin embargo, incluso después de las opiniones de Civiletti, no todas las brechas de financiamiento llevaron a cierres. De las nueve brechas de financiamiento entre 1980 y 1990, solo cuatro dieron lugar a licencias . [11]
Los cierres del tipo experimentado por Estados Unidos son casi imposibles en otras formas de gobierno:
- Bajo los sistemas parlamentarios utilizados en la mayoría de las naciones europeas y asiáticas, los estancamientos dentro del gobierno son mucho menos probables, ya que el jefe ejecutivo del gobierno (es decir, el primer ministro) debe ser miembro de la mayoría de la legislatura y debe mantener la aprobación de la legislatura. permanecer en el poder ( confianza y suministro ). Por lo general, una legislatura se suspende si un presupuesto no se aprueba ( pérdida de oferta ) y el jefe de gobierno debe renunciar. Luego, el jefe de estado puede nombrar a otro miembro de la legislatura que pueda obtener el apoyo de la mayoría, o disolver la legislatura y llevar a cabo nuevas elecciones generales.
- En otros sistemas presidenciales , el poder ejecutivo generalmente tiene la autoridad para mantener el funcionamiento del gobierno incluso sin un presupuesto aprobado. [12]
Efectos
Si bien los cierres del gobierno antes de los cierres de 1995-1996 tuvieron efectos muy leves, un cierre total del gobierno federal provoca que un gran número de empleados federales civiles sean suspendidos . Durante un cierre del gobierno, los empleados del gobierno que han sido licenciados tienen prohibido incluso revisar su correo electrónico desde casa. Para hacer cumplir esta prohibición, muchas agencias requieren que los empleados devuelvan sus dispositivos electrónicos emitidos por el gobierno mientras dure el cierre. [13]
Because of the size of the government workforce, the effects of a shutdown can be seen in macroeconomic data. For example, with payment delayed to 1.3 million workers, and 800,000 employees locked out,[14] confidence in the job market decreased but recovered within a month of the 2013 shutdown,[15][16] and GDP growth slowed 0.1–0.2%.[14] Still, the loss of GDP from a shutdown is a bigger sum than it would cost to keep the government open.[17]
However, the complete effects of a shutdown are often clouded by missing data that cannot be collected while specific government offices are closed.[14]
Additionally, some effects of the shutdown are difficult to directly measure, and are thought to cause residual impacts in the months following a shutdown. Some examples include destroyed scientific studies, lack of investment, and deferred maintenance costs.[18][19] The length of the 2018–2019 shutdown curtailed safety and law enforcement investigations, caused air travel delays as essential workers stopped showing up, shut down some facilities for Native Americans and tourists, and delayed regulatory approvals and immigration hearings for non-detainees.
The exact details of which government functions stop during a shutdown is determined by the Office of Management and Budget.[20]
What stays open
- "Emergency personnel" continue to be employed, including the active duty (Title 10) military, federal law enforcement agents, doctors and nurses working in federal hospitals, and air traffic controllers.[20]
- Members of Congress continue to be paid, because their pay cannot be altered except by direct law.[21]
- Mail delivery is not affected as it is self-funded and the funds are not appropriated by Congress.[22]
- Sometimes the Washington, D.C. municipal government remains open. For example, during the 2013 shutdown, the city remained open because mayor Vincent C. Gray declared the entire municipal government to be essential.[23]
What shuts down
- For the Department of Defense, at least half of the civilian workforce, and the full-time, dual-status military technicians in the US National Guard and traditional Guardsmen (those on Title 32 status) are furloughed and not paid while the shutdown is in effect.[24][25]
- Programs that are funded by laws other than annual appropriations acts (like Social Security) may also be affected by a funding gap, if program execution relies on activities that receive annually appropriated funding.[10]
- Sometimes parts of the Washington, D.C. municipal government shut down, closing schools and suspending utilities such as garbage collection.[26]
Arguments for and against
During the 2013 shutdown, the moral philosopher Peter Singer argued in Slate, that shutdowns were evidence that the U.S. Constitution's separation of powers constituted "a fundamental flaw."[27]
In 2019, following the end of the 2018–19 shutdown, Michael Shindler argued in The American Conservative that shutdowns protect popular sovereignty. He writes, "No other political phenomena so forcefully and dramatically obliges the whole people to recognize that their ideological divisions have become so great that the exercise of their sovereignty has become virtually impossible," and "During a shutdown, the government, which is bound by elaborate mechanisms to the national will, becomes confused. For a moment, it seems as if the march of American history is at a standstill. There are only two means of moving forward: either government officials follow the will of something other than the nation or the nation engages in a momentous reconciliation of its will."[28]
List of federal shutdowns
Shutdown | Days | Agencies affected | Employees furloughed | Cost to government | President | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1980 | 1 | FTC only | 1,600 | $700,000 | Carter | [29][30] |
1981 | 1 | 241,000 | $80–90 million | Reagan | [31] | |
1984 | 1 (approx. 4 hrs.) | 500,000 | $65 million | [31] | ||
1986 | 1 (approx. 4 hrs.) | all | 500,000 | $62.2 million | [31] | |
1990 | 3 | all | 2,800 | $2.57 million | H.W. Bush | [32] |
Nov 1995 | 5 | some | 800,000 | $400 million | Clinton | [10][33] |
1995–1996 | 21 | some | 284,000 | |||
2013 | 16 | all | 800,000 | $2.1 billion | Obama | [34][35] |
Jan 2018 | 3 | all | 692,900 | Trump | [36] | |
2018–19 | 35 | some | 380,000 | $5 billion | [37][38] |
This list includes only major funding gaps which led to actual employee furloughs within federal departments of the US government. It does not include funding gaps that did not involve shutdowns of government departments, in which examples include: a brief funding gap in 1982, in which nonessential workers were told to report to work but to cancel meetings and not perform their ordinary duties;[39] a three-day funding gap in November 1983 that did not disrupt government services;[11] and a 9-hour funding gap in February 2018 that did not disrupt government services.[40][41]
1980
On 1 May 1980, during the Presidential term of Jimmy Carter, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was shut down for one day after Congress failed to pass an appropriations bill for the agency, due to differing opinions towards its oversight of the US economy. Prior to the shutdown, a review had been made of the 1884 Antideficiency Act regarding Congressional approval of agency funding, in which initial opinion on the subject had been that this did not require a government agency to be closed down in the wake of the expiration of their funding, before Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti overruled this opinion with his own on 25 April 1980, stating that a provision of this act stipulated to the contrary.[29] Five days later, the FTC was shutdown after Congress delayed funding for the agency in order to seek approval for an authorization bill to limit the agency's investigative and rule-making abilities following criticism of the FTC's aggressive monitoring of the economy.[42]
The 1980 shutdown was the first time a federal agency shut down due to a budget dispute,[43] with around 1,600 federal workers for the FTC being furloughed as a result,[29][30] and Federal Marshals deployed to some FTC facilities to enforce their closure.[44] The shutdown ended after one day when Carter threatened to close down the entire US government if Congress did not pass spending bills by 1 October later that year, with economists of the time estimating that the 1-day shutdown of the FTC cost the government around $700,000, the majority of which was towards back pay for the furloughed workers.[29][30] In the aftermath of the shutdown, Civiletti issued a revised edition of his original opinion on 18 January 1981, detailing that shutdowns would still require agencies that protect human safety or property to continue operating if funding for them expired.[30]
1981, 1984, and 1986
In 1981, 1984, and 1986, thousands of federal employees were furloughed for a period of between 12 and 24 hours during both Presidential terms of Ronald Reagan. The deadlocks focused on disagreements by Reagan towards Congressional bills that went against his political beliefs and goals. The first shutdown took place on 23 November 1981, lasting for a day and placing 241,000 federal employees into furlough,[31] after Reagan vetoed a proposed appropriation bill that contained a reduced set of spending cuts than he had proposed for select government departments.[45] While the shutdown affected only a number of government departments,[46] economists of the time believed that it cost taxpayers an estimated $80–90 million in back pay and other expenses over the entire day.[31]
The second shutdown occurred on the afternoon of 4 October 1984, with 500,000 federal employees placed on furlough during this period, after Reagan mounted opposition towards the inclusion of a water projects package and a civil rights measure within the proposed appropriations bill that day.[31] While the shutdown covered around nine of the 13 appropriations bills that had not been passed at that point, Congress was forced to remove both of the opposed elements of the bill and include funding of the Nicaraguan Contras as a compromise to end the shutdown,[45] with economists believing that the short period cost taxpayers an estimated $65 million in backpay.[31]
The third shutdown took place over a similar period and furloughed the same number of federal employees on 17 October 1986. Economists estimated that this period cost the US government $62 million in lost work.[31] All government agencies were affected by this shutdown.[47]
1990
The shutdown of 1990 occurred during the Presidential term of George H. W. Bush and focused on a disagreement over several measures he proposed for the 1991 appropriations bill - the inclusion of major tax increases, despite Bush's campaign promise against no new taxes,[48] and major cuts in spending towards benefit programs, including Medicare, to combat deficit reduction. On 5 October 1990, liberal Democrats and conservative Republicans, led by then House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich, opposed the initial appropriations package,[49][50] with Bush vetoing the second resolution to the spending bill the following day on 6 October.[51]
The shutdown lasted until 9 October, when Bush agreed to remove his proposed tax increases and reduce the amount of spending cuts, in return for Congress providing a concession on the amended bill to allow for increasing income tax on the wealthy.[51] The effects of the deadlock were lessened due to the fact that the shutdown occurred across the Columbus Day weekend - 6 October to 8 October. Only 2,800 workers were furloughed over this period, with national parks and museums, such as the Smithsonian, being closed, and a handful of departments unable to function, with the cost to the government for lost revenue and back wages being estimated to around $2.57 million.[32]
1995–1996
Between 1995 and 1996, the US government faced two shutdowns during the Presidential term of Bill Clinton, who opposed proposed appropriation bills for 1996 by congressional Republicans (who had a majority in both chambers) and House Speaker Newt Gingrich. Both Gingrich and the majority of Congress sought to pass bills that would reduce government spending, much against Clinton's political objectives for 1996. Clinton objected to funding cuts affecting education, the environment, and public health. One proposed bill threatened to block a scheduled reduction he had planned towards premiums within Medicare.[52] Both sides had differing opinions over the impact the proposed House bills would have over economic growth, medical inflation, and anticipated revenues,[53] with Clinton vetoing the bills over amendments added to them by congressional Republicans, despite Gingrich threatening to refuse to raise the country's debt ceiling.[53]
The first shutdown took place on 14 November 1995, after a CR issued on 1 October had expired, and meetings between Democrat and Republican leaders failed to end the deadlock.[53] The effect of the deadlock led to the majority of government departments being closed down and 800,000 federal workers being furloughed as a result. Although the shutdown ended five days later on 19 November,[10] the political friction between Clinton and Gingrich over the US budget remained unresolved, and on 16 December 1995, after further spending bills failed to secure approval, a second shutdown took place. Although lasting 21 days, fewer departments were closed down, and around 284,000 federal workers were furloughed during this period.[10] The shutdown was eventually ended on 6 January 1996,[10] when White House and Congressional negotiators worked out a balanced budget agreement, which included approval towards modest spending cuts and tax increases.
Both shutdowns had a contrasting impact on the major political players in the deadlock. Gingrich's political career was negatively impacted by the shutdowns, in part due to a comment he made during the deadlock that made it sound like his reasons for it were petty.[54][55] Clinton's presidential term was positively improved by the shutdown and cited as part of the reason behind his successful re-election to the White House in 1996.[56]
Some effects of the shutdowns included the government, tourism, and airline industry losing millions of dollars in revenue during this period, with disruptions made towards the processing of passports and visas, and work on medical research and toxic waste cleanup being halted.
2013
The shutdown of 2013 occurred during the Presidential term of Barack Obama, focusing on a disagreement between Republican-led House of Representatives and the Democratic-led Senate towards the contents of the 2014 Continuing Appropriations Resolution bill, alongside other political issues. Congressional Republicans, encouraged by conservative senators such as Ted Cruz,[57] and conservative groups such as Heritage Action,[58][59][60] sought to include several measures to the bill in late 2013 that could delay funding for the 2013 Affordable Care Act (ACA) and thus allow time for changes to be made to the act. However, both Obama and Democratic senators refused to agree to these measures, seeking instead for the bill to maintain government funding at then-current sequestration levels with no additional conditions.[61][62][63]
The shutdown took place on 1 October 2013, as a result of an impasse over the contents of the bill, with the House unable to approve any CRs before this date. Democrats opposed further efforts by congressional Republicans, led by House Speaker John Boehner, to delay funding of the ACA, and rejected piecemeal Resolution bills proposed by them to resolve the shutdown.[64][65] As Congress was at an impasse amidst rising concerns that the US would default on public debt, US senators - particularly then Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and then Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid - negotiated a deal to end the deadlock. Their proposal, which won a Senate vote,[66] approved an amended Resolution bill that would keep funding at sequestration levels, temporarily suspend the debt limit until 7 February 2014, and include a concession to congressional Republicans on the ACA by applying stricter income verification rules in regards to health insurance. Boehner eventually withdrew further objections and delaying attempts against the ACA upon the country being within hours of breaking its debt limit on 16 October 2013,[67] with Congress approving the bill for Obama's signature the following day.[68]
The 16-day shutdown had considerable impact upon the United States: approximately 800,000 federal employees were put on furlough, while an additional 1.3 million had to report to work without any known payment dates during this period,[34] costing the government millions in back pay;[69] major government programmes concerning Native Americans,[70][71] children,[72] and domestic violence victims,[73] alongside the legal processing of asylum and immigration cases,[74][75] and sexual assault cases handled by the Office of Civil Rights,[76] were badly disrupted by the shutdown; tourism was greatly impacted due to the closure of national parks and institutions during the shutdown and cost the government millions in lost revenue; and US economic growth was reduced during this period. In political circles, the shutdown had a negative impact on Republicans, as over half of Americans held Republicans accountable for the deadlock, in comparison to public opinion on the accountability of both the Democrats and Obama during this period.[77]
January 2018
The shutdown of January 2018 was the first to occur during the Presidential term of Donald Trump and was centered around a disagreement on the issue of immigration. By the start of October 2017, Congress had failed to approve an appropriation bill to fund the US government in 2018, and instead passed three CRs to keep federal agencies open until 19 January 2018. The failure to establish a permanent spending bill was due to Democratic senators insisting that any proposed House bill needed to include funding for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy and assurances against deportation for immigrants that fell under the DREAM Act. Republicans refused to pass such bills, citing that discussions on immigration and those individuals under DACA would not be held until mid-March of the following year.[78][79] A senate vote to extend the 2018 Continuing Appropriations Resolution on 19 January 2018, which had passed a congressional vote the previous day, failed to achieve a majority,[80] after Democratic senators led a filibuster aimed at forcing Republicans to invoke a shorter duration of CR and thus invoke negotiations that could lead to extensions of the DACA policy.[81] but failed to achieve a majority, as Democrats sought a shorter duration of CAR to force negotiations
The shutdown took place on 20 January 2018, and led to approximately 692,000 federal workers being furloughed.[36] An attempt by Democrats to protect the payment of military personnel during the deadlock was rejected by Republicans, after Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell stated that funding had to be restored for the entire US government rather than for individual government branches.[82][83] Despite the bill's failure, both sides engaged in negotiations that eventually culminated with a deal on a proposed stopgap measure to fund the government for four weeks - as part of the proposal, Democrats agreed to end their filibuster and approve the Republican's measure, in exchange for fresh talks on the DACA policy and DREAM Act within newly proposed Resolution bill. The measure was approved in the House and passed a Senate vote, effectively ending the shutdown on 23 January.[84]
The impact of the shutdown was not as severe as in previous deadlocks - most government departments, such as the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency, were able to continue their functions during the 3-day deadlock despite their workers needing back-pay in the aftermath,[85] and only a third of National Parks in the United States were closed down.[86] In the aftermath of the shutdown, the Senate debated on a bill for the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act to provide 2-year funding for the military, and provide an extension to the Resolution to keep the government funded for another six weeks, but suffered delays that triggered the brief 9 February spending gap, though caused little disruptions and did not prevent the signing of the bill after it came to an end within nine hours.
December 2018–January 2019
The shutdown of December 2018–January 2019 was the second to occur during the Presidential term of Donald Trump, and was due to a disagreement on border security amongst Republicans. Trump sought to have the appropriation bill for 2019 include a funding measure on border security, providing $5.7 billion toward construction of a new wall extending the barrier along the Mexican border.[87][88] Democrats refused to support the bill, citing that the funding would be a waste of taxpayer money and questioned the effectiveness the new wall would have, opting to propose bills that would include funding for border security, but towards improving pre-existing security measures. Trump initially backed down on demands for border wall funding, but reversed this decision on 20 December 2018 over pressure from supporters, refusing to sign any CRs that did not include it.[89][90]
The shutdown began on 22 December 2018, after Democrats refused to support a new CR in the Senate that included approximately $5 billion for the new border wall,[91][92] and continued to block further attempts upon taking control of Congress on 3 January 2019 following the 2018 mid-term elections. Although he had support from several Republicans, including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Trump faced stiff opposition to border wall funding from House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, with neither party able to break the political impasse through negotiations,[93] rallying public support through televised addresses,[94][95] offering proposals on alternative border security funding measures,[96] or making concessions for a proposed appropriation bill with regards to the DACA policy.[97][98] The deadlock eventually ended on 25 January 2019, when both chambers of Congress approved a plan to reopen the US government for 3 weeks, in order to facilitate a period of negotiations to determine a suitable appropriation bill that both parties could agree upon, with Trump endorsing the deal amidst rising security and safety concerns.[99][100][101]
The 35-day shutdown, the longest in US history after surpassing the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996,[102] led to 380,000 federal workers being furloughed, and an additional 420,000 workers were required to work without any known payment dates during this period, forcing many to find other paid work or protest against the extended period of the deadlock.[103][104] The extent of the funding gap had further major impacts - sharp reductions had to be made on SNAP payments,[105][106] and the Internal Revenue Service faced extensive delays on processing tax refunds worth around $140 billion;[107] a lack of resources due to the funding gap impacted the work of several agencies, with the FBI facing major disruptions that risked compromising a number of investigations being conducted at the time;[107][108] staff shortages in the Transportation Security Administration caused a number of airports to be closed down as a result; and economic growth was severely reduced by billions of dollars.[109][110][111][112]
According to the Congressional Budget Office, the shutdown cost the government $3 billion in back pay for furloughed workers, plus $2 billion in lost tax revenues due to reduced tax evasion compliance activities by the Internal Revenue Service, and a smaller amount of lost fees such as for visits to national parks, for a total of about $5 billion.[38]
Gobiernos estatales y territoriales
Year | Start date | End date | Total days | Location | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1991 | Jul 1 | Jul 17 | 17 | Maine | [113] |
1991 | Jul 1 | Aug 23 | 54 | Connecticut | [113] |
1991 | Jul 2 | Aug 4 | 34 | Pennsylvania | [113] |
1992 | Jul 1 | Sep 1 | 63 | California | [114] |
2002 | Jul 1 | Jul 3 | 3 | Tennessee | [113][115] |
2005 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 | 9 | Minnesota | [116] |
2006 | May 1 | May 13 | 13 | Puerto Rico | [117] |
2006 | Jul 1 | Jul 8 | 8 | New Jersey | [118] |
2007 | Oct 1 | Oct 1 | 1 (approx. 4hrs) | Michigan | [119] |
2007 | Jul 11 | Jul 12 | 1 (approx. 6hrs) | Pennsylvania | [120][121] |
2009 | Oct 1 | Oct 1 | 1 (approx. 6hrs) | Michigan | [122] |
2011 | Jul 1 | Jul 20 | 20 | Minnesota | [113] |
2015 | Jul 1 | Jul 6 | 6 | Illinois | [citation needed] |
2017 | Jul 1 | Jul 4 | 3 | New Jersey | [123][124] |
2017 | Jul 1 | Jul 4 | 4 | Maine | [125] |
Gobiernos del condado
Year | Start date | End date | Total days | Location | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2005 | Feb 7 | Feb 7 | 1 | Erie County, NY | [126][127][128] |
Ver también
- Loss of supply
- Budget crisis
- Budget deficit
- Cabinet crisis
- Constitutional crisis
- Gridlock (politics)
- Fiscal policy
- Generational accounting
- Lockout
- 1975 Australian constitutional crisis
U.S.
- Deficit hawk
- Taxation in the United States
- Fiscal policy in the United States
- National debt by U.S. presidential terms
- Starve the beast
- United States federal budget
- United States public debt
- Appropriations bill (United States)
Referencias
- ^ a b The Odd Story of the Law That Dictates How Government Shutdowns Work
- ^ Make government shutdowns impossible again - The Week
- ^ Curry, Tom (September 29, 2013). "Chances of averting government shutdown appear slim". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 1, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
- ^ Zaveri, Mihir; Gates, Guilbert; Zraick, Karen (January 9, 2019). "The Government Shutdown Was the Longest Ever. Here’s the History". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
- ^ "Government to shut down in fight over Trump's border wall". Reuters. December 22, 2018. Archived from the original on December 22, 2018. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
- ^ Matthews, Dylan (January 19, 2018). "Government shutdown 2018: All 18 previous government shutdowns, explained". Vox.
- ^ Walshe, Shushannah (October 17, 2013). "The Costs of the Government Shutdown". ABC News. Archived from the original on September 12, 2017. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
- ^ Wearden, Graeme (September 30, 2013). "US Shutdown: A Guide for Non-Americans – The American Government Has Begun Shutting Its Non-Essential Services. Why? And What Will It Mean?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on October 6, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
- ^ "What will happen if the government shuts down: Late paychecks, closed museums and more". Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 22, 2018. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f Brass, Clinton T. (November 30, 2017). "Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects" (PDF). Congressional Research Service (via Federation of American Scientists). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 4, 2017. Retrieved December 2, 2017.
- ^ a b Tollestrup, Jessica (October 11, 2013). "Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview". Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Archived from the original on January 9, 2018. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
- ^ Zurcher, Anthony (October 1, 2013). "US Shutdown Has Other Nations Confused and Concerned". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 3, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
- ^ Liberto, Jennifer (September 25, 2013). "Federal workers: Hand over BlackBerry during shutdown". CNNMoney.com. CNN. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
- ^ a b c Economist, The (October 5, 2013). "Closed until further notice". The Economist. Archived from the original on August 4, 2014. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
- ^ Randstad USA. "U.S. Worker Confidence Level Weakens Amid Government Shutdown". www.randstadusa.com. Randstad USA. Archived from the original on July 2, 2014. Retrieved July 26, 2014.
- ^ Randstad USA. "Employee Confidence Rebounds in Month Following Shutdown". www.randstadusa.com. Randstad USA. Archived from the original on August 21, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2014.
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enlaces externos
- Congressional Research Service: Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects