El arte de Mesopotamia ha sobrevivido en el registro arqueológico desde las primeras sociedades de cazadores-recolectores (octavo milenio antes de Cristo) hasta las culturas de la Edad del Bronce de los imperios sumerio , acadio , babilónico y asirio . Estos imperios fueron reemplazados más tarde en la Edad del Hierro por los imperios neoasirio y neobabilónico . Ampliamente considerada como la cuna de la civilización , Mesopotamia trajo desarrollos culturales significativos, incluidos los ejemplos más antiguos de escritura.
El arte de Mesopotamia rivalizó con el del Antiguo Egipto como el más grandioso, sofisticado y elaborado de Eurasia occidental desde el cuarto milenio antes de Cristo hasta que el Imperio persa aqueménida conquistó la región en el siglo VI a. C. El énfasis principal estuvo en varias formas de escultura en piedra y arcilla, muy duraderas; ha sobrevivido poca pintura, pero lo que sugiere que, con algunas excepciones, [1] la pintura se usó principalmente para esquemas decorativos geométricos y basados en plantas, aunque la mayoría de las esculturas también fueron pintadas. Los sellos cilíndricos han sobrevivido en grandes cantidades, muchos de los cuales incluyen escenas complejas y detalladas a pesar de su pequeño tamaño.
El arte mesopotámico sobrevive en varias formas: sellos cilíndricos, figuras redondas relativamente pequeñas y relieves de varios tamaños, incluidas placas baratas de cerámica moldeada para el hogar, algunas religiosas y otras aparentemente no. [2] Los sujetos favoritos incluyen deidades, solas o con adoradores, y animales en varios tipos de escenas: repetidas en filas, solteras, peleando entre sí o con un humano, animales enfrentados solos o flanqueando a un humano o dios en el motivo Master of Animals. , o un árbol de la vida . [3]
En los templos también se encuentran estelas de piedra , exvotos o probablemente conmemorativos de victorias y festivales, que a diferencia de los más oficiales carecen de inscripciones que los expliquen; [4] la estela fragmentaria de los buitres es un ejemplo temprano del tipo inscrito, [5] y el obelisco negro asirio de Salmanasar III uno tardío grande y bien conservado. [6]
Mesopotamia prehistórica
Las regiones montañosas de Mesopotamia estuvieron ocupadas desde la época de los neandertales , por ejemplo, en el sitio de la cueva Shanidar (hace 65.000–35.000 años), pero sin creación artística conocida. [7] [8] Las primeras producciones artísticas de Mesopotamia aparecen sólo en el área de la Alta Mesopotamia , al final del Neolítico durante el período Pre-Cerámico Neolítico A , con representaciones simples de humanos y animales, así como megalitos (9.500– 8.000 a.C.). Esto sucede a un período anterior de desarrollo en el Levante , como en la cueva de Hayonim , donde se conocen tallas de animales como caballos desde las primeras fechas del Paleolítico superior , con fechas que van desde el 40.000 hasta el 18.500 antes de Cristo. [9] [10] [11] [12]
En la Mesopotamia prehistórica y antigua, el clima era más fresco que en Egipto o el valle del Indo , lo que significa que los valles de los ríos Tigris y Éufrates eran muy diferentes de los desiertos de hoy; en las tierras altas había franjas de bosque entremezcladas con estepas y sabanas ricas en flora y en las que abundaban cabras, jabalíes, ciervos y zorros. Después de la invención de la agricultura , los agricultores trabajaron en el valle, pero la comunidad vivía en las colinas más fáciles de fortificar. A diferencia de China y la civilización del valle del Indo , las aldeas tenían dos orientaciones económicas, cuesta abajo hacia los campos de grano y cuesta arriba hacia las montañas de Anatolia con sus ricas minas de oro y cobre. Por tanto, las culturas mesopotámicas estaban continuamente en un estado de cambio, lo que tenía sus propias ventajas y dificultades.
Arte del período neolítico anterior a la alfarería (circa 9000-7000 a. C.)
Neolítico precerámico A
Después del período epipaleolítico en el Cercano Oriente , se conocen varios sitios del Neolítico A precerámico en las áreas de la Alta Mesopotamia y las franjas montañosas del norte de Mesopotamia, marcadas por la aparición alrededor del 9000 a.C. en las orillas del Éufrates superior de las zonas más antiguas del mundo. megalitos conocidos en Göbekli Tepe , [16] y el primer uso conocido de la agricultura por la misma época en Tell Abu Hureyra , un sitio de la cultura natufiana anterior . [17]
Numerosos relieves realistas y algunas esculturas de animales, así como fragmentos de relieves de humanos o deidades, se conocen de Göbekli Tepe y datan de alrededor del 9000 a. C. El Hombre Urfa encontrado en otro sitio cercano data del período del Neolítico Pre-Cerámico alrededor del 9000 aC, y es considerado como "la escultura naturalista de tamaño natural más antigua de un ser humano". [13] [14] [15] Un poco más tarde, se han encontrado estatuillas humanas tempranas en piedra y arcilla cocida en otros sitios de la Alta Mesopotamia como Mureybet , que datan de 8500-8000 aC. [18] [19]
Neolítico anterior a la alfarería B
Alrededor del 8000 a. C., durante el período siguiente del Neolítico anterior a la alfarería B , aún antes de la invención de la alfarería, varios asentamientos tempranos se convirtieron en expertos en la elaboración de recipientes de piedra hermosos y muy sofisticados, utilizando materiales como el alabastro o el granito , y empleando arena para dar forma. y pulir. Los artesanos utilizaron las venas del material para lograr el máximo efecto visual. Este objeto se ha encontrado en abundancia en la parte superior del río Éufrates , en lo que hoy es el este de Siria, especialmente en el sitio de Bouqras . [20]
En el noreste de Mesopotamia, la cultura Jarmo (7500 aC), centrada en el sitio de Jarmo (Qal'at Jarmo) es un sitio arqueológico prehistórico ubicado en el Irak moderno en las estribaciones de las montañas Zagros . Las excavaciones revelaron que Jarmo era una comunidad agrícola , que se remonta al 7500 a. C., basada en el riego mediante lluvias naturales. Precedió la expansión humana hacia las llanuras aluviales de Mesopotamia central. En general, fue contemporáneo de otros importantes sitios neolíticos como Jericó en el sur de Levante , Çatal Hüyük en Anatolia o Tell Sabi Abyad en el norte de Siria . También se han encontrado en Jarmo algunos fragmentos de vasijas de piedra y vasijas de alabastro, que datan de alrededor del 7500 a. C., antes de la invención de la cerámica hacia el 7000 a. C. [21] [22] [23]
Jarra en alabastro de calcita, Siria, finales del VIII milenio antes de Cristo.
Estatuilla femenina, octavo milenio antes de Cristo, Siria.
Olla de alabastro región del Éufrates Medio, 6500 a.C., Museo del Louvre
Jarrón trípode de calcita , mediados del Éufrates, probablemente de Tell Buqras , 6000 aC, Museo del Louvre AO 31551. [24]
Primeros experimentos con cerámica (hacia 7000 a.C.)
Los sitios del norte de Mesopotamia de Tell Hassuna y Jarmo son algunos de los sitios más antiguos del Cercano Oriente donde se ha encontrado cerámica , apareciendo en los niveles más recientes de excavación, que data del séptimo milenio antes de Cristo. [21] Esta alfarería es artesanal, de diseño simple y con lados gruesos, y tratada con un solvente vegetal. [25] Hay figuras de arcilla, zoomorfas o antropomorfas, que incluyen figuras de mujeres embarazadas que se toman como diosas de la fertilidad, similares a la Diosa Madre de culturas neolíticas posteriores en la misma región.
Cultura Halaf (6000–5000 a. C., noroeste de Mesopotamia)
La cerámica estaba decorada con patrones y adornos geométricos abstractos, especialmente en la cultura Halaf , también conocida por sus figurillas de arcilla de fertilidad, pintadas con líneas. La arcilla estaba por todas partes y era el material principal; Las figuras a menudo modeladas se pintaron con decoración negra. Se intercambiaron ollas cuidadosamente elaboradas y teñidas, especialmente jarras y cuencos. Como colorantes, las arcillas que contienen óxido de hierro se diluyeron en diferentes grados o se mezclaron varios minerales para producir diferentes colores.
La cultura Halaf vio la primera aparición conocida de sellos de sello . [26] Presentaban patrones esencialmente geométricos. [26]
Las figurillas femeninas de la fertilidad en arcilla pintada, posiblemente diosas, también aparecen en este período, alrededor del 6000 al 5100 a. C. [27]
Tarro decorado con diversos patrones geométricos; 4900-4300 a. C.; cerámico; por la cultura Halaf; Museo de la Civilización de Erbil ( Erbil , Irak)
Casco; 5600-5000 a. C.; cerámica pintada; 7,19 × 4,19 cm; por la cultura Halaf
Figuras femeninas de la cultura Halaf, 6000–5100 a. C. Museo del Louvre
Sello de sello y patrón geométrico de impresión moderna. Cultura halaf
Cultura Hassuna (6000-5000 aC, norte de Mesopotamia)
La cultura Hassuna es una cultura arqueológica neolítica en el norte de Mesopotamia que data de principios del sexto milenio antes de Cristo. Lleva el nombre del sitio tipo de Tell Hassuna en Irak . Otros sitios donde se ha encontrado material de Hassuna incluyen Tell Shemshara . La decoración de la cerámica consiste esencialmente en formas geométricas y algunos diseños de cabra montés .
Cultura de Samarra (6000–4800 a. C., Mesopotamia central)
La cultura Samarra es una cultura arqueológica calcolítica en el norte de Mesopotamia que data aproximadamente de 5500-4800 a. C. Se superpone parcialmente con Hassuna y principios de Ubaid .
Plato de Samarra, con un diseño que consta de un borde, un círculo de ocho peces, y cuatro peces nadando hacia el centro siendo capturados por cuatro pájaros, en el centro hay un símbolo de la esvástica ; circa 4000 AC; cerámica pintada; diámetro: 27,7 cm; Museo Vorderasiatisches (Berlín)
Loza fina del período Samarra, con motivo central de Ibex ; circa 6200-5700 a. C.; Museo Vorderasiatisches
Figurilla femenina encontrada en Tell es Sawwan ( Tigris medio , cerca de Samarra ), nivel 1; circa 6000 AC; alabastro; Lumbrera
Fragmento de cerámica de Samarra con diseños geométricos en el Instituto Oriental de la Universidad de Chicago (EE. UU.)
Cultura Ubaid (c. 6500-3800 a. C., sur de Mesopotamia)
El período Ubaid (c. 6500-3800 aC) [28] es un período prehistórico de Mesopotamia . El nombre deriva de Tell al-'Ubaid en el sur de Mesopotamia, donde la primera gran excavación de material del período Ubaid fue realizada inicialmente por Henry Hall y luego por Leonard Woolley . [29]
En el sur de Mesopotamia, el período es el período más antiguo conocido en la llanura aluvial, aunque es probable que existan períodos anteriores oscurecidos bajo el aluvión . [30] En el sur tiene una duración muy larga entre aproximadamente 6500 y 3800 aC cuando es reemplazado por el período Uruk . [31]
En el norte de Mesopotamia, la cultura Ubaid se expandió durante el período entre 5300 y 4300 a. C. [31] Está precedido por el período Halaf y el período de transición Halaf-Ubaid y seguido por el período Calcolítico tardío. El nuevo período se llama Northern Ubaid para distinguirlo del Ubaid adecuado en el sur de Mesopotamia. [32]
Con Ubaid 3 (alrededor del 4500 a. C.) se han encontrado numerosos ejemplos de cerámica Ubaid a lo largo del Golfo Pérsico, hasta Dilmun , donde también se ha encontrado cerámica de la civilización del valle del Indo . [33]
Los sellos de sellos comienzan a representar animales de manera estilística, y también llevan la primera representación conocida del Maestro de los Animales al final del período, alrededor del 4000 aC. [34] [35] [36]
Frasco; Período Ubaid tardío (4500-4000 a. C.); cerámica; del sur de Irak; Museo de Bellas Artes de Boston (EE. UU.)
Fragmento de cerámica con una pintura de un Ibex ; 4700-4200 a. C.; cerámica pintada; de Girsu ; Louvre [37]
Mujer desnuda con cabeza de lagarto amamantando a un niño, Ur , período Ubaid 4, 4500-4000 a. C., Museo de Irak . "La cabeza alargada, similar a las figuras encontradas en Eridu , podría representar un elaborado tocado o posiblemente una unión craneal". [38]
Sello de terracota con motivo del Maestro de los Animales , Tello, antiguo Girsu , Fin del período Ubaid, Museo del Louvre AO14165. circa 4000 AC. [34]
Mesopotamia histórica
Período sumerio (c. 4000-2270 a. C.)
El surgimiento de la cultura sumeria de habla no semítica abarca un período de aproximadamente dos milenios y vio el desarrollo de tradiciones artísticas sofisticadas, así como la invención de la escritura , primero a través de signos pictográficos y luego a través de cuneiformes .
Período predinástico: Uruk (c. 4000 a 3100 a. C.)
El período Protoliterado o Uruk , que lleva el nombre de la ciudad de Uruk en el sur de Mesopotamia, (ca. 4000 a 3100 a.C.) existió desde el Calcolítico protohistórico hasta el período de la Edad del Bronce Temprano , después del período Ubaid y sucedido por el período Jemdet Nasr generalmente fechado en 3100. –2900 AC. [39] Vio el surgimiento de la vida urbana en Mesopotamia y los comienzos de la civilización sumeria , [40] y también la primera "gran era creativa" del arte mesopotámico. [41] Un poco antes, la ciudad norteña de Tell Brak , hoy en Siria , también vio urbanización y el desarrollo de un templo con importancia regional. Esto se llama el Templo del Ojo por los muchos "ídolos oculares", de hecho ofrendas votivas , que se encuentran allí, un tipo distintivo de este sitio. La piedra Tell Brak Head , de 7 pulgadas de alto, muestra un rostro simplificado; cabezas similares están en yeso . Evidentemente, se colocaron en cuerpos que no han sobrevivido, probablemente de madera. [42] Como los templos más al sur, el Templo del Ojo estaba decorado con mosaicos cónicos hechos de cilindros de arcilla de unos diez centímetros de largo, de diferentes colores para crear patrones simples. [43]
Obras importantes de las ciudades del sur de Sumer son el Vaso de Warka y el Comedero de Uruk , con escenas complejas de múltiples figuras de humanos y animales, y la Máscara de Warka . Esta es una cabeza más realista que los ejemplos de Tell Brak, como los que se hicieron para coronar un cuerpo de madera; lo que sobrevive de esto es solo el marco básico, al que se agregaron incrustaciones de colores, cabello con pan de oro, pintura y joyas. [44] Podría representar a una diosa del templo. Las conchas pueden haber servido como el blanco de los ojos, y el lapislázuli, una hermosa piedra preciosa azul semipreciosa, puede haber formado las pupilas. [45] La Leona Guennol es una pequeña figura excepcionalmente poderosa de un monstruo con cabeza de león, [46] quizás desde el comienzo del siguiente período.
Hay una serie de vasijas de piedra o alabastro talladas en relieve profundo y frisos de piedra de animales, ambos diseñados para templos, donde las vasijas contenían ofrendas. Los sellos de cilindros ya son complejos y están muy bien ejecutados y, como más tarde, parecen haber influido en obras más grandes. Los animales que se muestran son a menudo representaciones de los dioses, otra característica continua del arte mesopotámico. [47] El final del período, a pesar de ser una época de considerable expansión económica, vio un declive en la calidad del arte, tal vez porque la demanda superó la oferta de artistas. [48]
Ídolo del ojo; 3700-3500 a. C.; alabastro de yeso; 6,5 × 4,2 × 0,6 cm; Museo Metropolitano de Arte
Dignatario sumerio, Uruk, circa 3300-3000 a. C. Museo Nacional de Irak. [49] [50]
El jarrón Warka original , en el Museo Nacional de Irak . Es una de las primeras obras supervivientes de escultura en relieve narrativo , fechada en c. 3200-3000 a. C. [51]
Impresión de sello cilíndrico de Uruk, que muestra un "rey-sacerdote" con sombrero de ala y abrigo largo alimentando a la manada de la diosa Inanna , simbolizada por dos carneros, enmarcados por haces de juncos como en el Vaso Uruk . Período Uruk tardío, 3300-3000 a. C. [52] [53] Un rey-sacerdote similar también aparece de pie en un barco. [54]
The Mask of Warka; 3300–3000 BC; gypsum alabaster; National Museum of Iraq (Baghdad)
Sculpture of the ritually nude 'Priest-King', Late Uruk, Louvre.
Cylinder seal with serpopards (monstrous lions) and lion-headed eagles; 4100–3000 BC; jasper; Louvre. This design was also adopted in Egypt as a consequence of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.
Tablets with proto-cuneiform pictographic characters, were used for noting commercial transactions (end of 4th millennium BC), Uruk III.
Early artistic exchanges with Egypt (c. 3500–3200 BC)
(3400–3200 BC)
Egypt–Mesopotamia relations seem to have developed from the 4th millennium BCE, starting in the Uruk period for Mesopotamia and the Gerzean culture of pre-literate Prehistoric Egypt (circa 3500–3200 BC).[59][60] Influences can be seen in the Pre-Dynastic Art of Ancient Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt,[60] and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.[61]
Distinctly Mesopotamian objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating exchanges and contacts. The designs that were emulated by Egyptian artists are numerous: the Uruk "priest-king" with his tunique and brimmed hat in the posture of the Master of animals, the serpopards or sepo-felines, winged griffins, snakes around rosettes, boats with high prows, all characteristic of Mesopotamian art of the Late Uruk (Uruk IV, c. 3350–3200 BC) period.[62][63] The same "Priest-King" in visible in several Mesopotamian works of art of the end of the Uruk period, such as the Blau Monuments, cylinder seals and statues.[64]
Pre-Dynastic period: Jemdet Nasr (3100–2900 BC)
The Jemdet Nasr Period covers the period from 3100–2900 BC. It is named after the type site Tell Jemdet Nasr, where the assemblage typical for this period was first recognized. Its geographical distribution is limited to south-central Iraq. The culture of the proto-historical Jemdet Nasr period is a local development out of the preceding Uruk period and continues into the Early Dynastic I period. The period is characterized by splendidly painted monochrome and polychrome pottery, as well as the appearance of large proto-cuneiform tablets, clearly going beyond the initial pictographic writing.
Djemdet Nasr stone bowl, once inlaid with mother-of-pearl, red paste, and bitumen.
Cup with Nude Hero, Bulls and Lions, Tell Agrab, Jamdat Nasr to Early Dynastic period, 3000–2600 BC.
Stele of lion hunt, Uruk, Iraq, 3000-2900 BCE. National Museum of Iraq
The Blau Monuments combine proto-cuneiform characters and illustrations, 3100–2700 BC. British Museum.
Pre-Dynastic dress (4000-2700 BC): kilts and "net-dresses"
The earliest type of dress attested in early Sumerian art is not the kaunakes, but rather a sort of kilt or "net dress" which is quite closely fitting the lower body, while the upper body remains bare.[65] This early type of net dress looks much more similar to standard textile then the later kaunakes, which looks more like sheepskin with ample bell-shaped volume around the waist and the legs.[65][66]
Cylinder seal from Uruk, with "net-dress", 3100 BC
A "net dress" being worn on the Blau Monuments (3000-2900 BC)
A kilt or "net-dress" on the Blau Monuments (3000-2900 BC)
Early Dynastic period (2900–2350 BC)
The Early Dynastic Period is generally dated to 2900–2350 BC. While continuing many earlier trends, its art is marked by an emphasis on figures of worshippers and priests making offerings, and social scenes of worship, war and court life. Copper becomes a significant medium for sculpture, probably despite most works having later being recycled for their metal.[68] Few if any copper sculptures are as large as the Tell al-'Ubaid Lintel, which is 2.59 metres wide and 1.07 metres high.[69]
Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.[70] The so-called Standard of Ur, actually an inlaid box or set of panels of uncertain function, is finely inlaid with partly figurative designs.[71]
A group of 12 temple statues known as the Tell Asmar Hoard, now split up, show gods, priests and donor worshippers at different sizes, but all in the same highly simplified style. All have greatly enlarged inlaid eyes, but the tallest figure, the main cult image depicting the local god, has enormous eyes that give it a "fierce power".[72] Later in the period this geometric style was replaced by a strongly contrasting one giving "a detailed rendering of the physical peculiarities of the subject"; "Instead of sharply contrasting, clearly articulated masses, we see fluid transitions and infinitely modulated surfaces".[73]
Man carrying a box, possibly for offerings. Metalwork, ca. 2900–2600 BCE, Sumer. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Bull's head from the Queen's Lyre from Pu-abi's grave, Ur, c. 2600 BC
Ram in a Thicket; 2600–2400 BC; gold, copper, shell, lapis lazuli and limestone; height: 45.7 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; British Museum
Master of animals motif in a panel of the soundboard of the Ur harp
Battle scene, with phalanx led by King Eannatum, on the Stele of the Vultures, Early Dynastic III period, 2600–2350 BC
Gold helmet of Meskalamdug, ruler of the First Dynasty of Ur, circa 2500 BC, Early Dynastic period III.
King Ur-Nanshe, seated, wearing flounced skirt. Limestone, Early Dynastic III (2550–2500 BC). Found in Telloh (ancient city of Girsu). Louvre Museum.[74][75][76]
Standard of Ur; 2600–2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; British Museum
Ring of Gold, Carnelian, Lapis Lazuli, Tello, ancient Girsu, mid-3rd millennium BC.
Cylinder-seal of the "lady" or "queen" Puabi, Royal Cemetery at Ur, c. 2600 BC; British Museum
Statue of Iku-Shamagan king of Mari, c.2500 BC.[77][78] National Museum of Damascus
Akkadian Empire period (c. 2271–2154 BC)
The Akkadian Empire was the first to control not only all Mesopotamia, but other territories in the Levant, from about 2271 to 2154 BC. The Akkadians were not Sumerian, and spoke a Semitic language. In art there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased,[79] but the seals show a "grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art..."[80]
King Naram-Sin's famous Victory Stele depicts him as a god-king (symbolized by his horned helmet) climbing a mountain above his soldiers, and his enemies, the defeated Lullubi. Although the stele was broken off at the top when it was stolen and carried off by the Elamite forces of Shutruk-Nakhunte, it still strikingly reveals the pride, glory, and divinity of Naram-Sin. The stele seems to break from tradition by using successive diagonal tiers to communicate the story to viewers, however, the more traditional horizontal frames are visible on smaller broken pieces. It is six feet and seven inches tall, and made from pink sandstone.[81][82] From the same reign, the bare legs and lower torso of the copper Bassetki Statue show an unprecedented level of realism, as does the imposing bronze head of a bearded ruler (Louvre).[83]
The Louvre head is a life-size, bronze bust found in Nineveh. The intricate curling and patterning of the beard and the complex hairstyle suggests royalty, power, and wealth from an ideal male in society. Aside from its aesthetic traits, this piece is spectacular because it is the earliest hollow-cast sculpture item known to use the lost-wax casting process.[84] There is deliberate damage on the left side of the face and eye, indicating that the bust was intentionally slashed at a later period to demonstrate political iconoclasm.[85]
Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.[86]
The copper Bassetki Statue
Detail of a victory stele of Akkadian king Rimush
Seal impression with gods and water buffaloes, thought to have been imported from the Indus Valley Civilization, an example of Indus-Mesopotamia relations at the time.
Cylinder seal and modern impression – bull-man combatting lion; nude hero combatting water buffalo; 2250–2150 BC; albite; height: 3.4 cm, diameter: 2.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Naked captives, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin.[87]
Goddess Ishtar on an Akkadian Empire seal, 2350–2150 BC. She is equipped with weapons in her back, has a horned helmet, and is trampling a lion.
Neo-Sumerian period (c. 2112–2004 BC)
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, a local dynasty emerged in Lagash. Gudea, ruler of Lagash (reign ca. 2144 to 2124 BC), was a great patron of new temples early in the period, and an unprecedented 26 statues of Gudea, mostly rather small, have survived from temples, beautifully executed, mostly in "costly and very hard diorite" stone. These exude a confident serenity.[88]
The northern Royal Palace of Mari produced a number of important objects from before about 1800 BC, including the Statue of Iddi-Ilum,[89] and the most extensive remains of Mesopotamian palace frescos.[90]
The Neo-Sumerian art of the Third Dynasty of Ur reached new heights, especially in terms of realism and fine craftmanship.
Statue of Gudea P; circa 2090 BC; diorite; height: 44 cm, width: 21.5 cm, depth: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Portrait of Ur-Ningirsu. Louvre Museum
Foundation figure of Ur-Namma holding a basket; 2112-2095 BC; copper alloy; height: 27.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Seal of Hash-hamer, showing enthroned king Ur-Nammu, with modern impression; circa 2100 BC; greenstone; height: 5.3 cm; British Museum (London)
Amorite and Kassite periods (c. 2000–1100 BC)
The political history of this period of nearly 1000 years is complicated, marked by the rise of Semitic-speaking polities originating in northwestern Mesopotamia. The period includes the Amorites Isin-Larsa Period and the First Babylonian Dynasty or Old Babylonian period (c.1830–1531 BC), an interlude under the rule of the Kassites (c. 1531–1155 BC) followed by invasions of the Elamite, while the Middle Assyrian Empire (1392–934 BC) developed in the northern part of Mesopotamia. The period ended with the decisive advent of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Adad-nirari II, whose reign began in 911 BC.
Isin-Larsa period (c. 2000–1800 BC)
The Isin-Larsa period is a period of turmoil, marked by the rise of the influence of the Amorites for the northwest of Mesopotamia. Life was often unstable, and non-Sumerian invasions a recurring theme.
Cylinder seal and modern impression. Presentation scene, c. 2000–1750 B.C. Isin-Larsa
King Iddin-Sin of the Kingdom of Simurrum, holding an axe and a bow, trampling a foe, in front of Goddess Ishtar. Circa 2000 BCE.
Four-faced god, Ishchali, Isin-Larsa to Old Babylonia periods, 2000–1600 BC, bronze - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago
First Babylonian Dynasty (1830–1531 BC)
From the 18th century BC, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite ruler of Babylon, turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. During the period Babylon became a great city, which was often the seat of the dominant power. The period was not one of great artistic development, these invaders failing to bring new artistic impetus,[91] and much religious art was rather self-consciously conservative, perhaps in a deliberate assertion of Sumerian values.[92] The quality of execution is often lower than in preceding and later periods.[93] Some "popular" works of art displayed realism and mouvement, such as the statuette of a walking four-headed god from Ishchali, attributed to the period between 2000–1600 BC.[94]
The Burney Relief is an unusual, elaborate, and relatively large (20×15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BC, and may also be moulded. Similar pieces, small statues or reliefs of deities, were made for altars in homes or small wayside shrines, and small moulded terracotta ones were probably available as souvenirs from temples.[95]
The Investiture of Zimri-Lim, now in the Louvre, is a large palace fresco that is the outstanding survival of Mesopotamian wall-painting, although comparable schemes were probably common in palaces.
After the death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis, after which the Kassites took control.
Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer[96] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws).
Detail of a limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the British Museum
"The Worshipper of Larsa", a votive statuette dedicated to the god Amurru for Hammurabi's life; circa 2760 BC; bronze and gold; 19 x 15 cm; Louvre
Cylinder seal, ca. 18th–17th century BC. Babylonia
Kassites (1600–1155 BC)
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well-known, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran. This was generally not a period of the highest quality for cylinder seal images; at different times the inscription took prominence over the image, and the variety of scenes shown reduced, with the "presentation scene" of a king before a god, or an official before a seated king, becoming the norm at times.[97] Especially from the Kassite period several stone kudurru stelae survive, mostly taken up with inscriptions recording grants of land, boundary lines, and other official records, but often with figures and emblems of the gods or the king as well; a land grant by Meli-Shipak II is an example.[98]
Kassite king Meli-Shipak II on his throne on a kudurru-Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya. The eight-pointed star was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside the solar disk of her brother Shamash (Sumerian Utu) and the crescent moon of her father Sin (Sumerian Nanna).
Kassite Kudurru stele of Kassite king Marduk-apla-iddina I. Louvre Museum.
Cylinder seal of Kassite king Kurigalzu II (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105
Kassite cylinder seal, ca. 16th–12th century BC.
Assyrian period (c. 1500 – 612 BC)
An Assyrian artistic style distinct from that of Babylonian art, which was the dominant contemporary art in Mesopotamia, began to emerge c. 1500 BC, well before their empire included Sumer, and lasted until the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC.
The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. From around 879 BC the Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone or gypsum alabaster, originally painted, for palaces. The precisely delineated reliefs concern royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war making. Predominance is given to animal forms, particularly horses and lions, which are magnificently represented in great detail.
Human figures are comparatively rigid and static but are also minutely detailed, as in triumphal scenes of sieges, battles, and individual combat. Among the best known Assyrian reliefs are the famous Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal scenes in alabaster, and the Lachish reliefs showing a war campaign in Palestine, both of which are of the 7th century BC, from Nineveh and now in the British Museum.[99] Reliefs were also carved into rock faces, as at Shikaft-e Gulgul, a style which the Persians continued.
The Assyrians produced relatively little sculpture in the round, with the partial exception of colossal human-headed lamassu guardian figures, with the bodies of lions or bulls, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and often also five legs, so that both views seem complete). These marked fortified royal gateways, an architectural form common throughout Asia Minor. A single statue of a nude female is known. The Assyrian form of the winged genie, winged spirits with bearded human heads seen in reliefs, influenced Ancient Greek art, which in its "orientalizing period" added various winged mythological beasts including the Chimera, griffin and winged horses (Pegasus) and men (Talos).[100] Many carry the bucket and cone.
Even before dominating the region the Assyrians had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[101] At Nimrud the carved Nimrud ivories and bronze bowls were found that are decorated in the Assyrian style but were produced in several parts of the Near East including many by Phoenician and Aramaean artisans.
Winged figure near a sacred tree; 9th century BC; from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II (Nimrud, Iraq); Hermitage Museum
Openwork furniture plaque with a grazing oryx in a forest of fronds; 9th–8th century BC; ivory; 12.7×11.91×1.09 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Relief with two Assyrian cavalrymen charging against enemies; circa 728 BC; gypsum; height: 129 cm, width: 183; British Museum (London)
Cylinder seal with deities, one of them on a winged lion; 8th–7th century BC; quartz, crypto-crystalline; 4.09 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Glazed terracotta tile from Nimrud, with a court scene, British Museum
Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar; 716-713 BC; height: 2.41 m, width: 38 cm; Louvre
Relief with a winged genie with bucket and cone; 713-706 BC; height: 3.3 m
Lion weight; 6th-4th century BC; bronze; height: 29.5 cm, Louvre
Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920
Neo-Babylonian period (626–539 BC)
The famous Ishtar Gate, part of which is now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, was the main entrance into Babylon, built in about 575 BC by Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who exiled the Jews; the empire lasted from 626 BC to 539 BC. The walls surrounding the entrance way are decorated with rows of large relief animals in glazed brick, which has therefore retained its colours. Lions, dragons and bulls are represented. The gate was part of a much larger scheme for a processional way into the city, from which there are sections in many other museums.[102] Large wooden gates throughout the period were strengthened and decorated with large horizontal metal bands, often decorated with reliefs, several of which have survived, such as the various Balawat Gates.
Other traditional types of art continued to be produced, and the Neo-Babylonians were very keen to stress their ancient heritage. Many sophisticated and finely carved seals survive. After Mesopotamia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, which had much simpler artistic traditions, Mesopotamian art was, with Ancient Greek art, the main influence on the cosmopolitan Achaemenid style that emerged,[103] and many ancient elements were retained in the area even in the Hellenistic art that succeeded the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.
Seal with a modern impression in which is depicted a hero fighting two female winged deamons; 8th–7th century BC; chalcedony; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon (France)
Conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Brick panel of a passing lion, from the Gate of Ishtar; 605–562 BC; glazed terracotta; from Iraq; Louvre
One of the mušḫuššu dragons from the Gate of Ishtar; 604–562 BC; glazed terracotta, now Istanbul
Caracteristicas
One fundamental intention of Mesopotamian art was to honour the gods and goddesses who ruled over different aspects of nature and important life events. The central place of worship was the ziggurat, a stepped pyramid with stairs leading to an altar where worshipers would elevate themselves closer to the heavens. Much like the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians believed that their rulers had a direct link to their gods, and many artworks depict rulers shown in a glorified manner.
As in other ancient civilizations, the sculptures, mostly rather small, are the main type of artwork to survive. In the late period Assyrian sculpture for palaces was often very large. Most of the Sumerian and Akkadian statues of figures are in a position of prayer. The main types of stone used are limestone and alabaster.
Arquitectura
Ancient Mesopotamia is most noted for its construction of mud brick buildings and the construction of ziggurats, occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city of Uruk had a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known.[104]
The word ziggurat is an anglicized form of the Akkadian word ziqqurratum, the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verb zaqaru, ("to be high"). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. The Ziggurat of Ur, excavated by Leonard Woolley, is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built under Ur-Nammu (circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt under Nabonidus (555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.[105]
Assyrian palaces had a large public court with a suite of apartments on the east side and a series of large banqueting halls on the south side. This was to become the traditional plan of Assyrian palaces, built and adorned for the glorification of the king.[106] Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in some palaces.
The Ziggurat of Ur, approximately 21st century BC, Tell el-Muqayyar (Dhi Qar Province, Iraq)
Illustration of a hall in the Assyrian Palace of Ashurnasrirpal II by Austen Henry Layard (1854)
Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate in the Pergamon Museum (Berlin, Germany)
Assyrian reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II in Khorsabad, 721-705 BC, Oriental Institute Museum (Chicago, USA)
Joyería
The preferred jewellery designs used in Mesopotamia were natural and geometric motifs such as leaves, cones, spirals, and bunches of grapes. Sumerian and Akkadian jewellery was created from gold and silver leaf and set with many semiprecious stones (mostly agate, carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli and chalcedony). A number of documents have been found that relate to the trade and production of jewellery from Sumerian sites.
Later Mesopotamian jewellers and craftsmen employed metalworking techniques such as cloisonné, engraving, granulation, and filigree. The large variety and size of necklaces, bracelets, anklets, pendants, and pins found may be due to the fact that jewellery was worn by both men and women, and perhaps even children.
Pair of earrings; 2600–2500 BC; gold; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair or earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC; gold; Sulaymaniyah Museum (Sulaymaniyah, Iraq)
Sumerian necklaces and headgear discovered in the royal (and individual) graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur, showing the way they may have been worn, in British Museum (London)
Colecciones
By some margin, the most important collections are those of (in no particular order) the Louvre Museum, the Vorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin, Germany), the British Museum (London), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City), and the National Museum of Iraq (Baghdad). The last was extensively looted after the breakdown of law and order following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but the most important objects have largely been recovered.
Several other museums have good collections, especially of the very numerous cylinder seals. Syrian museums have important collections from sites in modern Syria. Other museums with important collections of Mesopotamian art are: the Oriental Institute of Chicago, İstanbul Archaeology Museums (Istanbul, Turkey), University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (Leiden, the Netherlands) and the Israel Museum (Jerusalem). The reconstructed Ishtar Gate in Pergamon Museum (Berlin) is arguably the most spectacular single work in a museum.
Ver también
- Architecture of Mesopotamia
- Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Notas
- ^ Frankfort, 124-126
- ^ Frankfort, Chapters 2–5
- ^ Convenient summaries of the typical motifs of cylinder seals in the main periods are found throughout in Teissier
- ^ Frankfort, 66–74
- ^ Frankfort, 71–73
- ^ Frankfort, 66–74; 167
- ^ Murray, Tim (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 454. ISBN 9781576071861.
- ^ Edwards, Owen (March 2010). "The Skeletons of Shanidar Cave". Smithsonian. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
- ^ Yiśraʼel (Jerusalem), Muzeʼon; Museum (Jerusalem), Israel (1986). Treasures of the Holy Land: Ancient Art from the Israel Museum. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 29. ISBN 9780870994708.
- ^ "Horse from Hayonim Cave, Israel, 30,000 years" in Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology. Samuel Bronfman Biblical and Archaeological Museum of the Israel Museum. 2002. p. 10.
- ^ "Hayonim horse". museums.gov.il.
- ^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Belfer-Cohen, Anna (1981). The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave. pp. 35–36.
- ^ a b Chacon, Richard J.; Mendoza, Rubén G. (2017). Feast, Famine or Fighting?: Multiple Pathways to Social Complexity. Springer. p. 120. ISBN 9783319484020.
- ^ a b Schmidt, Klaus (2015). Premier temple. Göbekli tepe (Le): Göbelki Tepe (in French). CNRS Editions. p. 291. ISBN 9782271081872.
- ^ a b Collins, Andrew (2014). Gobekli Tepe: Genesis of the Gods: The Temple of the Watchers and the Discovery of Eden. Simon and Schuster. p. 66. ISBN 9781591438359.
- ^ Sagona, Claudia (2015-08-25). The Archaeology of Malta. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9781107006690. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
- ^ "The Earliest Uses of Clay in Syria | Expedition Magazine". www.penn.museum.
- ^ Kuijt, Ian (2006). Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 238. ISBN 9780306471667.
- ^ Otte, Marcel (2008). La protohistoire (in French). De Boeck Supérieur. p. 35. ISBN 9782804159238.
- ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ a b Maisels, Charles Keith (2003). The Emergence of Civilisation: From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities and the State of the Near East. Routledge. pp. 104–105. ISBN 9781134863280.
- ^ Pirajno, Franco; Ünlü, Taner; Dönmez, Cahit; Şahin, M. Bahadır (2019). Mineral Resources of Turkey. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 9783030029500.
- ^ Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. p. 39. ISBN 9781575060422.
- ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ For Jarmo pottery photograph, see "A Dish from the Jarmo Culture". World History Encyclopedia.
- ^ a b Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. (2013). Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 9781614510352.
- ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Number 63) The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (2010) ISBN 978-1-885923-66-0 p. 2; "Radiometric data suggest that the whole Southern Mesopotamian Ubaid period, including Ubaid 0 and 5, is of immense duration, spanning nearly three millennia from about 6500 to 3800 B.C."
- ^ Hall, Henry R. and Woolley, C. Leonard. 1927. Al-'Ubaid. Ur Excavations 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Adams, Robert MCC. and Wright, Henry T. 1989. 'Concluding Remarks' in Henrickson, Elizabeth and Thuesen, Ingolf (eds.) Upon This Foundation - The ’Ubaid Reconsidered. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 451–456.
- ^ a b Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham. 2010. 'Deconstructing the Ubaid' in Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham (eds.) Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 2.
- ^ Susan Pollock; Reinhard Bernbeck (2009). Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical Perspectives. p. 190. ISBN 9781405137232.
- ^ Jr, William H. Stiebing (2016). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 85. ISBN 9781315511160.
- ^ a b "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. (2013). Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 9781614510352.
- ^ Charvát, Petr (2003). Mesopotamia Before History. Routledge. p. 96. ISBN 9781134530779.
- ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ The Looting Of The Iraq Museum Baghdad The Lost Legacy Of Ancient Mesopotamia. 2005. p. Chapter III.
- ^ Crawford 2004, p. 69
- ^ Crawford 2004, p. 75
- ^ Frankfort, 27
- ^ Frankfort, 241-242
- ^ Frankfort, 24, 242
- ^ Frankfort, 24-28, 31-32
- ^ Stokstad, Marilyn (2018). Art History. Upper Saddle River: Pearson. pp. 29–30, 33. ISBN 9780134479279.
- ^ Frankfort, 32-33
- ^ Frankfort, 28-37
- ^ Frankfort, 36-39
- ^ Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. p. 25.
- ^ The Looting Of The Iraq Museum Baghdad The Lost Legacy Of Ancient Mesopotamia. 2005. p. viii.
- ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2006). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective – Volume 1 (12th ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-495-00479-0.
- ^ Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. p. 481. ISBN 9781588390431.
- ^ "Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin". repository.edition-topoi.org.
- ^ "Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin". repository.edition-topoi.org.
- ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
- ^ Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. pp. 10–14. ISBN 9780931464966.
- ^ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 424–425. ISBN 9781444333503.
- ^ Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
- ^ a b Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
- ^ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 427. ISBN 9781444333503.
- ^ Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. p. 14. ISBN 9780931464966.
- ^ Demand, Nancy H. (2011). The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 69. ISBN 9781444342345.
- ^ Collon, Dominique (1995). Ancient Near Eastern Art. University of California Press. pp. 51–53. ISBN 9780520203075.
- ^ a b Crawford, Harriet (2013). The Sumerian World. Routledge. pp. 703–705. ISBN 978-1-136-21911-5.
- ^ Breniquet, Catherine (2016). "Que savons-nous exactement du kaunakès mésopotamien?". Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale. 110 (January): 1–22.
- ^ Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1.
- ^ Frankfort, 55
- ^ Frankfort, 60–61
- ^ Frankfort, 61–66
- ^ Frankfort, 71-76
- ^ Frankfort, 46-49; the group are now divided between the Metropolitan Museum, New York, Oriental Institute, Chicago, and the National Museum of Iraq (with the god).
- ^ Frankfort, 55-60, 55 quoted
- ^ Lourve Pouysségur, Patrick , ed. "Perforated Relief of King Ur-Nanshe." Louvre Museum. Louvre Museum. Web. 13 Mar 2013..
- ^ Transliteration: "CDLI-Found Texts". cdli.ucla.edu.
- ^ Similar text: "CDLI-Found Texts". cdli.ucla.edu.
- ^ Spycket, Agnès (1981). Handbuch der Orientalistik (in French). BRILL. p. 87–89. ISBN 978-90-04-06248-1.
- ^ Parrot, André (1953). "Les fouilles de Mari Huitième campagne (automne 1952)". Syria. 30 (3/4): 196–221. doi:10.3406/syria.1953.4901. ISSN 0039-7946. JSTOR 4196708.
- ^ Frankfort, 83–91
- ^ Frankfort, 91
- ^ Kleiner, Fred (2005). Gardner's Art Through The Ages. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 41. ISBN 0-534-64095-8.
- ^ Frankfort, 86
- ^ Frankfort, 91
- ^ Stokstad, Marilyn (2018). Art History. Upper Saddle River: Pearson. p. 36. ISBN 9780134479279.
- ^ Nylander, Carl (July 1980). "Earless in Nineveh: Who Mutilated 'Sargon's' Head?". American Journal of Archaeology. 84 (3): 329–333. doi:10.2307/504709. JSTOR 504709.
- ^ M. E. L. Mallowan, "The Bronze Head of the Akkadian Period from Nineveh", Iraq Vol. 3, No. 1 (1936), 104–110.
- ^ McKeon, John F. X. (1970). "An Akkadian Victory Stele". Boston Museum Bulletin. 68 (354): 239. ISSN 0006-7997. JSTOR 4171539.
- ^ Frankfort, 93 (quoted)-99
- ^ Frankfort, 114–119
- ^ Frankfort, 124-126
- ^ Frankfort, 127
- ^ Frankfort, 93
- ^ Frankfort, 110-116, 126
- ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. p. 204. ISBN 9780141938257.
- ^ Frankfort, 110–112
- ^ Roux, Georges (1992-08-27), "The Time of Confusion", Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, p. 266, ISBN 9780141938257
- ^ Frankfort, 102-126
- ^ Frankfort, 130
- ^ Frankfort, 141–193
- ^ Frankfort, 205
- ^ Frankfort, 141–193
- ^ Frankfort, 203–205
- ^ Frankfort, 348-349
- ^ Risebero, Bill (2018). The Story of Western Architecture. Bloomsbury. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-3500-9212-9.
- ^ "Gods and Goddesses". Mesopotamia.co.uk. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- ^ Cole, Emily (2002). Architectural Details. Ivy Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-78240-169-8.
Referencias
- Crawford, Harriet E. W. (16 Sep 2004). Sumer and the Sumerians (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521533386.
- Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN 0140561072
- Teissier, Beatrice, Ancient Near Eastern Cylinder Seals from the Marcopolic Collection, 1984, University of California Press, ISBN 0520049276, 9780520049277, google books
Further reading
- Crawford, Vaughn E.; et al. (1980). Assyrian reliefs and ivories in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: palace reliefs of Assurnasirpal II and ivory carvings from Nimrud. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870992600.