Coordenadas : 26 ° S 141 ° E / 26 ° S 141 ° E
El continente de Australia , conocido a veces en contextos técnicos por los nombres Sahul ( / s ə h ü l / ), Australinea o Meganesia para distinguirlo del país de Australia , se compone de las masas de tierra que están sobre Australia de placa continental . El nombre "Sahul" toma su nombre de la plataforma Sahul , que forma parte de la plataforma continental del continente australiano. El continente incluye Australia continental , Tasmania y la isla deNueva Guinea , que consta de Papua Nueva Guinea y Nueva Guinea Occidental ( Papua y Papua Occidental , las provincias de Indonesia ). Está situado en la región geográfica de Oceanía , Australia es el más pequeño de los siete continentes tradicionales .
Área | 8,600,000 km 2 (3,300,000 millas cuadradas) (séptimo) |
---|---|
Población | 39.000.000 (población estimada de Australia , Papúa Nueva Guinea , Papúa y Papúa Occidental para 2019, sexto ) |
Densidad de población | 4,2 / km 2 (11 / millas cuadradas) |
Demonym | australiano |
Países | 3 ( Australia , Papua Nueva Guinea y partes de Indonesia ) |
Idiomas | Inglés , indonesio , tok pisin , hiri motu , 269 lenguas autóctonas papúes y austronesias , y alrededor de 70 lenguas indígenas australianas |
Zonas horarias | UTC + 8, UTC + 9:30, UTC + 10 |
TLD de Internet | .au , .pg y .id |
Las ciudades más grandes | Lista de ciudades de Australia por población Lista de ciudades y pueblos de Papúa Nueva Guinea por población Lista
|
El continente incluye una plataforma continental cubierta por mares poco profundos que lo dividen en varias masas terrestres: el mar de Arafura y el estrecho de Torres entre Australia continental y Nueva Guinea, y el estrecho de Bass entre Australia continental y Tasmania. Cuando los niveles del mar eran más bajos durante la edad de hielo del Pleistoceno , incluido el Último Máximo Glacial alrededor del 18.000 a. C., estaban conectados por tierra firme. Durante los últimos 18.000 a 10.000 años, el aumento del nivel del mar desbordó las tierras bajas y separó el continente en el actual continente de tierras bajas áridas a semiáridas y las dos islas montañosas de Nueva Guinea y Tasmania.
Terminología
El continente de Australia a veces se conoce con los nombres de Sahul, Australinea o Meganesia para distinguirlo del país de Australia, y consiste en las masas de tierra que se asientan en la placa continental de Australia. Esto incluye Australia continental , Tasmania y la isla de Nueva Guinea , que comprende Papua Nueva Guinea y Nueva Guinea Occidental (Papua y Papua Occidental, provincias de Indonesia ). [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] El nombre "Sahul" toma su nombre de la plataforma Sahul , que es parte de la plataforma continental del continente australiano.
El término Oceanía , originalmente una "gran división" del mundo, fue reemplazado por el concepto de Australia como continente en la década de 1950. [6] Hoy en día, el término Oceanía se usa a menudo para denotar la región que abarca el continente australiano, Zealandia y varias islas en el Océano Pacífico que no están incluidas en el modelo de siete continentes . [7] [8]
La terminología arqueológica de esta región ha cambiado repetidamente. Antes de la década de 1970, la única masa terrestre del Pleistoceno se llamaba Australasia , derivado del latín australis , que significa "sur", aunque esta palabra se usa con mayor frecuencia para una región más amplia que incluye tierras como Nueva Zelanda que no están en la misma plataforma continental. A principios de la década de 1970, se introdujo el término Gran Australia para el continente del Pleistoceno. [9] Luego, en una conferencia de 1975 y la publicación consiguiente, [10] el nombre Sahul se extendió de su uso anterior solo para Sahul Shelf para cubrir el continente. [9]
En 1984 W. Filewood sugirió el nombre Meganesia , que significa "gran isla" o "gran grupo de islas", tanto para el continente pleistoceno como para las tierras actuales, [11] y este nombre ha sido ampliamente aceptado por los biólogos. [12] Otros han utilizado Meganesia con diferentes significados: el escritor de viajes Paul Theroux incluyó a Nueva Zelanda en su definición [13] y otros la han utilizado para Australia, Nueva Zelanda y Hawai . [14] Otro biólogo, Richard Dawkins , acuñó el nombre Australinea en 2004. [15] También se ha utilizado Australia-Nueva Guinea . [dieciséis]
Geología y geografía
Situada en la región geográfica de Oceanía, Australia es el continente más pequeño en superficie terrestre.
El continente incluye una plataforma continental cubierta por mares poco profundos que lo dividen en varias masas terrestres: el mar de Arafura y el estrecho de Torres entre Australia continental y Nueva Guinea, y el estrecho de Bass entre Australia continental y Tasmania. Cuando los niveles del mar eran más bajos durante la edad de hielo del Pleistoceno , incluido el Último Máximo Glacial alrededor del 18.000 a. C., estaban conectados por tierra firme. Durante los últimos 18.000 [17] y 10.000 años, el aumento de los niveles del mar se desbordó las tierras bajas y separadas del continente en bajas de hoy árido a semiárido continental y las dos islas montañosas de Nueva Guinea y Tasmania. [18]
Con una superficie terrestre total de 8,56 millones de kilómetros cuadrados (3.310.000 millas cuadradas), el continente australiano es el continente más pequeño y el segundo más bajo habitado por humanos (después de la Antártida) de la Tierra . [19] La plataforma continental que conecta las islas, la mitad de la cual tiene menos de 50 metros (160 pies) de profundidad, cubre unos 2,5 millones de kilómetros cuadrados (970.000 millas cuadradas), incluida la plataforma Sahul [20] [21] y el estrecho de Bass .
Como el país de Australia se encuentra principalmente en una sola masa de tierra y comprende la mayor parte del continente, a veces se lo conoce informalmente como un continente insular, rodeado de océanos. [22]
Las fuerzas geológicas como el levantamiento tectónico de cadenas montañosas o los choques entre placas tectónicas ocurrieron principalmente en la historia temprana de Australia, cuando todavía formaba parte de Gondwana . Australia está situada en el medio de la placa tectónica y, por lo tanto, actualmente no tiene vulcanismo activo. [23]
El continente se encuentra principalmente en la placa Indoaustraliana. Debido a su ubicación central en su placa tectónica, Australia no tiene regiones volcánicas activas, el único continente con esta distinción. [24] Las tierras se unieron con la Antártida como parte del supercontinente sur Gondwana hasta que la placa comenzó a desplazarse hacia el norte hace unos 96 millones de años. Durante la mayor parte del tiempo desde entonces, Australia-Nueva Guinea siguió siendo una masa continental continua. Cuando el último período glacial terminó alrededor del 10.000 a. C., el aumento del nivel del mar formó el estrecho de Bass , que separó a Tasmania del continente. Luego, entre aproximadamente 8.000 y 6.500 a. C., las tierras bajas del norte fueron inundadas por el mar, separando Nueva Guinea, las islas Aru y el continente australiano.
Un arco norte que consta de las tierras altas de Nueva Guinea , las islas Raja Ampat y Halmahera fue elevado por la migración hacia el norte de Australia y la subducción de la placa del Pacífico . El Arco de Banda Exterior se acumuló a lo largo del borde noroeste del continente; incluye las islas de Timor , Tanimbar y Seram . Papua Nueva Guinea tiene varios volcanes , ya que se encuentra a lo largo del Anillo de Fuego del Pacífico . Las erupciones volcánicas no son raras y el área es propensa a terremotos y tsunamis debido a esto. [25] El monte Wilhelm en Papúa Nueva Guinea es la segunda montaña más alta del continente, [26] ya 4.884 metros (16.024 pies) sobre el nivel del mar , Puncak Jaya es la montaña más alta .
El continente australiano, que forma parte de la Placa Indo-Australiana (más específicamente, la Placa Australiana ), es la masa de tierra más baja, más plana y más antigua de la Tierra [27] y ha tenido una historia geológica relativamente estable. Nueva Zelanda no es parte del continente de Australia, sino del continente separado y sumergido de Zealandia . [28]
Nueva Zelanda y Australia son parte de la subregión de Oceanía conocida como Australasia , y Nueva Guinea se encuentra en Melanesia .
Papua Nueva Guinea, un país dentro del continente, es uno de los países con mayor diversidad cultural y lingüística del mundo. [29] También es uno de los más rurales, ya que solo el 18 por ciento de su población vive en centros urbanos. [30] Papua Occidental , una provincia de Indonesia , alberga a unos 44 grupos tribales no contactados . [31] Australia, la masa de tierra más grande del continente, está muy urbanizada , [32] y tiene la decimocuarta economía más grande del mundo con el segundo índice de desarrollo humano más alto a nivel mundial. [33] [34] Australia también tiene la novena población inmigrante más grande del mundo . [35] [36]
Historia humana
El continente australiano y Sunda fueron puntos de las primeras migraciones humanas después de dejar África. [37] Investigaciones recientes apuntan a una migración planificada de cientos de personas utilizando balsas de bambú, que finalmente aterrizaron en Sahul. [38] [39] [40]
Gente indígena
Los australianos indígenas , es decir, los aborígenes australianos y los isleños del Estrecho de Torres , son los habitantes originales del continente australiano y las islas cercanas. Emigraron de África a Asia hace unos 70.000 años [41] y llegaron a Australia hace al menos 50.000 años, según la evidencia arqueológica. [42] Investigaciones más recientes apuntan a una llegada más temprana, posiblemente hace 65.000 años. [43]
Se cree que se encuentran entre las primeras migraciones humanas fuera de África . Existe evidencia de intercambio genético y lingüístico entre los australianos en el extremo norte y los pueblos austronesios de la actual Nueva Guinea y las islas, pero esto puede ser el resultado de recientes intercambios comerciales y matrimonios mixtos . [44] Los primeros restos humanos conocidos se encontraron en el lago Mungo , un lago seco en el suroeste de Nueva Gales del Sur. [45] Los restos encontrados en Mungo sugieren una de las cremaciones más antiguas conocidas del mundo , lo que indica una evidencia temprana de rituales religiosos entre los humanos. [46] Dreamtime sigue siendo una característica destacada del arte aborigen australiano , la tradición artística más antigua del mundo. [47]
Se estima que la habitación de Papúa comenzó hace entre 42.000 y 48.000 años en Nueva Guinea. [48] El comercio entre Nueva Guinea y las islas vecinas de Indonesia se documentó ya en el siglo VII, y el dominio archipelágico de Nueva Guinea en el siglo XIII. A principios del siglo VII, el imperio Srivijaya (siglo VII-XIII) , con sede en Sumatra, entabló relaciones comerciales con el oeste de Nueva Guinea, inicialmente tomando artículos como madera de sándalo y aves del paraíso en homenaje a China , pero luego fabricando esclavos de los nativos. [49] El dominio del imperio de Majapahit (1293-1527), con base en Java, se extendió hasta la periferia occidental de Nueva Guinea. [50] Investigaciones arqueológicas recientes sugieren que hace 50.000 años la gente pudo haber ocupado sitios en las tierras altas a altitudes de Nueva Guinea de hasta 2.000 m (6.600 pies), en lugar de estar restringidos a áreas costeras más cálidas. [51]
Historia precolonial
Las leyendas de Terra Australis Incognita, una "tierra desconocida del Sur", se remontan a la época romana y antes, y eran un lugar común en la geografía medieval, aunque no se basaban en ningún conocimiento documentado del continente. [52] El filósofo griego antiguo Aristóteles especuló sobre una gran masa de tierra en el hemisferio sur, diciendo: "Ahora, dado que debe haber una región que tenga la misma relación con el polo sur que el lugar en el que vivimos osos con nuestro polo ...". [53] Más tarde, Ptolomeo (siglo II d. C.) amplió sus ideas , quien creía que las tierras del hemisferio norte deberían equilibrarse con las del sur . La teoría del equilibrio de la tierra ha sido documentada ya en el siglo V en mapas por Macrobius , quien usa el término Australis en sus mapas. [54]
Terra Australis , un continente hipotético postulado por primera vez en la antigüedad , apareció en mapas entre los siglos XV y XVIII. [55] Científicos, como Gerardus Mercator (1569) [56] y Alexander Dalrymple hasta 1767 argumentaron a favor de su existencia, con argumentos como que debería haber una gran masa de tierra en el sur como contrapeso a las masas de tierra conocidas en el Hemisferio norte. [57] Las representaciones cartográficas del continente sur en el siglo XVI y principios del XVII, como podría esperarse de un concepto basado en conjeturas tan abundantes y datos mínimos, variaron enormemente de un mapa a otro; en general, el continente se contrajo a medida que se reinterpretaban las posibles ubicaciones. En su mayor parte, el continente incluía Tierra del Fuego , separada de América del Sur por un pequeño estrecho; Nueva Guinea ; y lo que vendría a llamarse Australia. [58]
European exploration
In 1606 Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent of Australia in Cape York Peninsula.[59] Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands.[60] He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.[61]
In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres, who was the first European to explore the Strait. When Europeans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century.
On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point.[62] On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal, who he fired upon, injuring one.[63] His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered the eastern coastline of Australia.[64] Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Sydney on 26 January 1788.[65] This was to be the location for the new colony. Phillip described Sydney Cove as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".[66]
Modern history
In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve.[67] The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun, on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and the States. With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua, with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906.[68]
The bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia.[69] In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.[70]
Following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, "Special Autonomy" status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial and often criticized.[71] The region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua. Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare, who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975.[72]
Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers".[73] Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014.[74]
Ecología
Flora
For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When South America eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.
Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus (eastern Australia and New Guinea), the rainforest emergents Araucaria (eastern Australia and New Guinea), Nothofagus (New Guinea and Tasmania) and Agathis (northern Queensland and New Guinea), as well as tree ferns and several species of Eucalyptus. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus or gum trees, Melaleucas and Callistemons), Fabaceae (Acacias or wattles and Casuarina or she-oaks) and Grevilleas, which are typically found in the Australian mainland. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, such as Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus spp., elaeocarps, and laurels, together with typically Australasian flora. In the New Guinean highlands, conifers such as Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Papuacedrus and Libocedrus are present.[75]
For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered Great Dividing Range. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the Eurasian plate to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the Torres Strait that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of Wallacea, which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from Southeast Asia's rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.
Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern Argentina and Chile.[76]
Fauna
Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota.[77] There are over 300 bird species in West Papua, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia, Vogelkop bowerbird, and the king bird-of-paradise.[78]
Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia.[79] This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird;[80] 45% of these are endemic to Australia.[81] Predominant bird species in Australia include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra.[82] The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia,[83] and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country.[84] The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.[85]
As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique fauna, flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. Bird life also flourished—in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes, suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica, before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.[86]
Animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.
- While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular ecological niches.
- Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
- Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had volcanic activity and/or massive glaciation events to turn over fresh, unleached rocks rich in minerals, the rocks and soils of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual erosion and deep weathering. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where nutrients are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative co-evolution as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.
Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by population growth.
Clima
In New Guinea, the climate is mostly monsoonal (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October), and tropical rainforest with slight seasonal temperature variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around 80 °F (27 °C) year round. But the higher altitudes, such as Mendi, are constantly around 70 °F (21 °C) with cool lows nearing 52 °F (11 °C), with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The New Guinea Highlands are one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly 4,500 millimetres (180 in) of rainfall annually.
The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate.[87] Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above 50 °C (122 °F) to well below 0 °C (32 °F). Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods.[88]
Ice cap at top of Puncak Jaya in Papua (1972).
Autumn in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales.
A tropical rainforest in Papua New Guinea.
Simpson desert in Northern Territory.
Monsoonal squall in Darwin.
Snow in Thredbo, a town in the Snowy Mountains.
Grassland in Queensland with mountains in background.
Spring in the apple orchards of Tasmania.
Demografía
Religion
Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to no religion.[89] Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia. Traditional religions are often animist, found in New Guinea. Islam is widespread in the Indonesian New Guinea.[90] Many Papuans combine their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices.[91]
Languages
"Aboriginal Australian languages", including the large Pama–Nyungan family, "Papuan languages" of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family, and "Tasmanian languages" are generic terms for the native languages of the continent other than those of Austronesian family. Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such as Italian, Greek, Arabic, Filipino, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Spanish, among others.[92] Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Tok Pisin is an English creole language spoken in Papua New Guinea.[93] Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country,[29] with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers.[94]
Immigration
Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country.[95] Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken, with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home.[96] Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others.[97][98] Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe,[99] and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.[100][101][102]
Economía
Australia is the only first world country in the Australian-New Guinea continent, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity.[104] The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific.[105] In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP.[106] Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3.0% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy.[107] In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.[108]
Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living,[111] making it one of the most livable cities.[112] It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC.[113][114] Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list,[115] and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region.[116][117]
Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two-thirds of their export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil company and began to export in 2004 and this was the largest project in PNG's history.[118][119] Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund.[120] Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and resource sector led to the country becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011.[121][122]
Política
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy[123] with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of her ministers.[124][125] There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.[126][127] Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left.[128]
Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm. As such, Queen Elizabeth II is its sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet.[129] The monarch is represented by the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, currently Bob Dadae. Papua New Guinea (along with the Solomon Islands) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-general are elected by the legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch.
Cultura
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences.[131][132][citation needed] The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.[133][134][citation needed] Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.[135][citation needed] Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[135][citation needed][136][citation needed] The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in the continent, as well as in Oceania.[137][138] Sydney's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in the continent.[139]
It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in art, performance art, weaponry, costumes and architecture. Papua New Guinea is one of the few cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of bride price.[140] In particular, Papua New Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story-boards.
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years.[141] Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney.[142][143] Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime. Reverence for the land and oral traditions are emphasized.[144]
Sport
Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of football (rugby league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the national sport.[145] The most popular sport in Australia is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings.[146][147][148]
Australia has hosted two Summer Olympic Games: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000. Australia has also hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, and Gold Coast 2018). In 2006 Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 and 2014 World Cups as an Asian entrant.[149]
Ver también
- Australian Plate
- List of islands in the Pacific Ocean
- Outline of Australia
- Paleoclimatology
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