Un estado de emergencia o poderes de emergencia es una situación en la que un gobierno está facultado para poder aplicar políticas que normalmente no se le permitiría hacer, para la seguridad y protección de sus ciudadanos. Un gobierno puede declarar tal estado durante un desastre natural , disturbios civiles , conflicto armado , pandemia o epidemia médica u otro riesgo de bioseguridad . Justitium es su equivalente en derecho romano, un concepto en el que el Senado romano podría presentar un decreto final ( senatus consultum ultimum) que no fue objeto de disputa pero ayudó a salvar vidas en tiempos de conflicto.
Los estados de emergencia también pueden utilizarse como justificación o pretexto para suspender los derechos y libertades garantizados por la constitución o la ley básica de un país , a veces mediante la ley marcial o revocando el hábeas corpus . El procedimiento y la legalidad de hacerlo varían según el país.
Relación con el derecho internacional
Según el derecho internacional , los derechos y libertades pueden suspenderse durante un estado de emergencia, según la gravedad de la emergencia y las políticas del gobierno.
Uso y puntos de vista
Aunque es bastante poco común en las democracias, los regímenes dictatoriales a menudo declaran un estado de emergencia que se prolonga indefinidamente durante la vida del régimen, o por períodos prolongados de tiempo para que las derogaciones se puedan utilizar para invalidar los derechos humanos de sus ciudadanos, generalmente protegidos por el Pacto Internacional. sobre derechos civiles y políticos. [1] En algunas situaciones, también se declara la ley marcial , lo que permite que los militares tengan una mayor autoridad para actuar. En otras situaciones, no se declara la emergencia y el gobierno no toma medidas de facto o decreto-ley. La Sra. Nicole Questiaux (Francia) y el Sr. Leandro Despouy (Argentina), dos relatores especiales consecutivos de las Naciones Unidas , han recomendado a la comunidad internacional que adopte los siguientes "principios" que deben observarse durante un estado o situación de facto de emergencia: Principios de Legalidad, Proclamación, Notificación, Limitación de Tiempo, Amenaza Excepcional, Proporcionalidad, No Discriminación, Compatibilidad, Concordancia y Complementariedad de las Varias Normas del Derecho Internacional (cf. "Cuestión de Derechos Humanos y Estado de Emergencia", E / CN.4 2/1997/19, en el capítulo II; véase también état d'exception ).
El artículo 4 del Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos (ICCPR) permite a los estados derogar ciertos derechos garantizados por el ICCPR en "tiempos de emergencia pública". Sin embargo, cualquier medida que derogue las obligaciones dimanantes del Pacto debe ser únicamente en la medida requerida por las exigencias de la situación y debe ser anunciada por el Estado Parte al Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas . La Convención Europea de Derechos Humanos [2] y la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos [3] tienen disposiciones despectivas similares. No se permiten excepciones a los convenios internacionales del trabajo .
Algunos teóricos políticos , como Carl Schmitt , han argumentado que el poder de decidir el inicio del estado de emergencia define la soberanía misma. En State of Exception (2005) , Giorgio Agamben criticó esta idea, argumentando que el mecanismo del estado de emergencia priva a ciertas personas de sus derechos civiles y políticos , produciendo su interpretación del homo sacer . [4]
Graduación
En muchos estados democráticos hay una selección de definiciones legales para estados de emergencia específicos, [5] cuando la constitución del Estado está parcialmente en suspenso dependiendo de la naturaleza de la amenaza percibida para el público en general . En orden de gravedad, estos pueden incluir:
- Ley marcial cuando los derechos civiles están severamente restringidos por la imposición de la fuerza militar dentro de un estado soberano , por ejemplo, durante un período de amenaza extrema de invasión u hostilidades reales por parte de fuerzas extranjeras.
- Estado de sitio cuando es probable que se reduzcan los derechos civiles de determinadas personas o grupos, como los activistas políticos , por ejemplo, para evitar una insurrección o actos organizados de traición por parte de presuntos agentes provocadores.
- Emergencia civil que se ocupa de áreas de desastre y requiere el despliegue de recursos extraordinarios para contener situaciones peligrosas como desastres naturales o daños extensos a la propiedad maliciosos , como los que pueden ocurrir durante disturbios o incendios provocados . Además de los servicios de emergencia regulares , a veces se pueden asignar fuerzas militares para entregar ayuda en condiciones especialmente peligrosas o para evitar saqueos.
Abuso
Se puede abusar del estado de emergencia si se invoca. Un ejemplo sería permitir que un estado reprima la oposición interna sin tener que respetar los derechos humanos. Un ejemplo fue el intento de golpe de agosto de 1991 en la Unión Soviética (URSS), donde los líderes del golpe invocaron el estado de emergencia; el fracaso del golpe llevó a la disolución de la Unión Soviética .
Las excepciones de los Estados que han ratificado o se han adherido a acuerdos internacionales vinculantes, como el Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos, las Convenciones Estadounidense y Europea de Derechos Humanos y las Convenciones Internacionales del Trabajo, son supervisadas por comités de expertos independientes, tribunales regionales y otros Estados Partes. [6]
Ley en países seleccionados
Argentina
La Constitución, que ha sido enmendada varias veces, siempre ha permitido que se declare el estado de emergencia (literalmente, estado de sitio , "estado de sitio") si la constitución o las autoridades que crea están en peligro por disturbios internos o ataques extranjeros. . Esta disposición se abusó mucho durante las dictaduras, con estados de sitio de larga duración que le dieron al gobierno mano libre para reprimir a la oposición. [7] La Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San José de Costa Rica), adoptada en 1969 pero ratificada por Argentina sólo en 1984 inmediatamente después del final del Proceso de Reorganización Nacional , restringe el abuso del estado de emergencia al exigir a cualquier signatario nación que declara tal estado para informar a los demás signatarios de sus circunstancias y duración, y qué derechos se ven afectados.
Australia
La legislación sobre el estado de emergencia difiere en cada estado de Australia. Con respecto a la gestión de emergencias, las regiones (generalmente sobre la base del área del gobierno local ) que han sido afectadas por un desastre natural son responsabilidad del estado, hasta que ese estado declare un estado de emergencia donde el acceso al Fondo Federal de Emergencia esté disponible para ayudar. responder y recuperarse de desastres naturales. Un estado de emergencia no se aplica a todo el estado, sino a distritos o condados , donde los servicios esenciales pueden haber sido interrumpidos. [8]
El 18 de marzo de 2020, [9] se declaró una emergencia de bioseguridad humana a nivel nacional en Australia debido a los riesgos para la salud humana planteados por la pandemia de coronavirus (COVID-19) , después de que el Comité de Seguridad Nacional se reuniera el día anterior. La Ley de Bioseguridad de 2015 [10] especifica que el Gobernador General de Australia puede declarar tal emergencia si el Ministro de Salud (actualmente Greg Hunt ) está convencido de que "una enfermedad humana incluida en la lista representa una amenaza grave e inmediata, o está causando daño, a la salud humana a escala nacional ". Esto le da al Ministro amplios poderes, incluida la imposición de restricciones o la prevención del movimiento de personas y mercancías entre lugares específicos y las evacuaciones . [11] La Declaración de 2020 de Bioseguridad (Emergencia de Bioseguridad Humana) (Coronavirus Humano con Potencial Pandémico) fue declarada por el Gobernador General, David Hurley , en virtud de la Sección 475 de la Ley. [9]
Nueva Gales del Sur
En Nueva Gales del Sur , el NSW Premier puede, de conformidad con la Ley Estatal de Manejo de Emergencias y Rescate de 1989 , declarar un estado de emergencia debido a un hecho real o inminente (como un incendio, una inundación, una tormenta, un terremoto, una explosión, un acto terrorista, un accidente). , acción epidémica o bélica) que pone en peligro o amenaza con poner en peligro la seguridad o salud de personas o animales en el Estado, o destruye o daña, o amenaza con destruir o dañar bienes en el Estado, o causa una falla, o una interrupción significativa de un servicio o infraestructura esencial. [12] El primer ministro declaró el estado de emergencia el 11 de noviembre de 2019 en respuesta a los incendios forestales de Nueva Gales del Sur de 2019-2020 . Era la quinta vez que se declaraba un estado de emergencia en ese estado desde 2006 y se prolongó durante siete días. Las declaraciones posteriores se hicieron el 19 de diciembre por otros siete días, y nuevamente el 2 de enero de 2020. En Nueva Gales del Sur, la temporada de incendios forestales 2019-2020 provocó 26 muertes, destruyó 2.448 viviendas y quemó 5,5 millones de hectáreas (14 millones de acres). [13] [14]
Victoria
En Victoria , el primer ministro victoriano puede declarar el estado de emergencia en virtud de la Ley de preservación de la seguridad pública de 1958 [15] si existe una amenaza para el empleo, la seguridad o el orden público. [16] Un estado de emergencia declarado le permite al Primer Ministro hacer inmediatamente cualquier reglamento deseado para asegurar el orden público y la seguridad. La declaración expira después de 30 días, y una resolución de la Cámara alta o baja del Parlamento puede revocarla antes. Sin embargo, estas regulaciones expiran si el Parlamento no acepta continuarlas en un plazo de siete días.
El Premier (o un delegado) puede operar o prohibir la operación de cualquier servicio esencial , como transporte, combustible, energía, agua o gas, bajo la Ley de Servicios Esenciales de 1958 . [17] [18]
Si hay una emergencia que el Premier, después de considerar el consejo del Ministro pertinente y el Comisionado de Manejo de Emergencias , está satisfecho, constituye o es probable que constituya un peligro significativo y generalizado para la vida o la propiedad en Victoria, el Premier, de conformidad con la Emergencia Management Act 1986 , puede declarar que existe un estado de desastre en todo o en cualquier parte o partes del Estado. [19] El estado de desastre aborda asuntos más allá de los problemas de salud pública y está destinado a hacer frente a emergencias como desastres naturales, explosiones, terrorismo o asedios, y también se puede utilizar para hacer frente a "una plaga o una epidemia". [20]
La Ley de Salud Pública y Bienestar de 2008 otorga al Director de Salud amplios poderes para tomar medidas 'para investigar, eliminar o reducir los riesgos para la salud pública', incluido el poder de detener, restringir el movimiento o evitar la entrada de cualquier persona en el área de emergencia ". y dar cualquier otra dirección que el funcionario autorizado considere razonablemente necesario para proteger la salud pública ". [21]
Brasil
La actual constitución de Brasil [3] permite al presidente declarar dos estados, con el fin de "preservar o establecer la paz y el orden, amenazados por una inestabilidad institucional grave e inminente o por graves desastres naturales".
El primero, y menos severo, es el estado de defensa ( estado de defesa , en portugués), mientras que una forma más severa es el estado de sitio ( estado de sítio ).
En estado de defensa , el gobierno federal puede ocupar y utilizar cualquier edificio público o demandar cualquier servicio que considere oportuno. Puede suprimir el secreto de correspondencia y la libertad de reunión según sea necesario, siempre que especifique una región y un período de tiempo definidos.
Si el presidente considera que el estado de defensa es insuficiente, podría decretar un estado de sitio . Este estado reduce aún más las libertades civiles , eliminando la libertad de movimiento , permitiendo la búsqueda sin consentimiento o orden judicial y la incautación de cualquier activo que el gobierno considere necesario. El gobierno también puede intervenir y dirigir la función de cualquier empresa.
Para equilibrar estos poderes de gran alcance, el Congreso tiene que convocar y aprobar el estado en diez días o se cancela automáticamente. Además, el congreso debe revisar el estado de sitio cada 30 días, a menos que se plantee como respuesta a una guerra, en cuyo caso el gobierno es libre de establecerlo para que dure hasta el final de la guerra.
Desde el fin de la dictadura militar en 1985 y la formación de la sexta República brasileña , ninguno de los dos estados se ha planteado nunca.
Canadá
El gobierno federal de Canadá puede utilizar la Ley de Emergencias para invocar un estado de emergencia. Un estado de emergencia nacional expira automáticamente después de 90 días, a menos que el Gobernador en Consejo lo prorrogue. [22] Hay diferentes niveles de emergencias: Emergencia de Bienestar Público, Emergencia de Orden Público, Emergencia Internacional y Emergencia de Guerra. [23]
La Ley de Emergencias sustituyó a la Guerra Ley de Medidas en 1988. Las medidas de la Ley de la Guerra se invocó tres veces en la historia de Canadá, lo más polémico durante el 1970 Crisis de Octubre , y también durante la Primera Guerra Mundial (1914-1920, contra la amenaza del comunismo) y Mundial Segunda Guerra (de 1942 a 1945, contra la amenaza percibida de los canadienses japoneses tras el ataque del Japón imperial a Pearl Harbor ).
Según la actual Ley de Emergencia, los gobiernos provinciales, territoriales y municipales también pueden declarar el estado de emergencia. [24] Además, el gobierno federal de Canadá y cualquiera de sus gobiernos provinciales pueden suspender, durante cinco años seguidos, los derechos de la Carta a las libertades fundamentales en la sección 2, a los derechos legales en las secciones 7 a 14 y a los derechos de igualdad en la sección 15 mediante legislación que invoca la cláusula no obstante, la sección 33 , y por lo tanto, los poderes de emergencia pueden crearse efectivamente incluso sin utilizar la Ley de emergencia.
Los gobiernos provinciales también pueden invocar estados de emergencia , y lo han hecho para responder a al menos 12 incidentes durante el siglo XXI.
Dinamarca
El jefe de policía de un distrito puede imponer una zona en la que se pueda registrar el cuerpo de las personas sin una sospecha específica. Dicha orden debe emitirse por escrito, publicarse e imponerse por un período limitado. La ley de policía (artículo 6) regula este ámbito. [25] El procedimiento normal requiere ayudar al sospechoso a un área privada y desnudarlo. [26] La policía también puede imponer una zona en la que delitos específicos como violencia, amenazas, chantaje y vandalismo pueden ser castigados con una pena doble. La zona solo se puede imponer si hay un desarrollo extraordinario del delito y la zona solo puede durar hasta tres meses, a menos que el desarrollo extraordinario del delito aún se aplique después de ese período de tiempo. [27] [28]
Si la policía cree que una situación que involucra a una multitud puede salirse de control, puede ordenar que se disuelva la asamblea y "pasar la calle" en nombre del rey. Las personas que después de tres advertencias de este tipo siguen formando parte de la multitud pueden, sin más advertencias, ser sometidas a arrestos masivos . Todas las personas arrestadas pueden permanecer detenidas durante 24 horas sin acusarlas ni tomarlas por un juez. A esto se le llama arresto excluyente .
Egipto
Los egipcios vivieron bajo una Ley de Emergencia (Ley No. 162 de 1958) [29] de 1967 a 2012, excepto por una pausa de 18 meses en 1980 y 1981. La emergencia se impuso durante la Guerra árabe-israelí de 1967 y se volvió a imponer después de la asesinato del presidente Anwar Sadat . La ley se extendió continuamente cada tres años desde 1981. Según la ley, se extendieron los poderes policiales, se suspendieron los derechos constitucionales y se legalizó la censura . [30] La ley circunscribió drásticamente cualquier actividad política no gubernamental: se prohibieron formalmente las manifestaciones callejeras , las organizaciones políticas no aprobadas y las donaciones financieras no registradas. Unas 17.000 personas fueron detenidas en virtud de la ley y las estimaciones de presos políticos llegan a 30.000. [31] La norma de emergencia expiró el 31 de mayo de 2012 y se volvió a poner en vigor en enero de 2013. [32] [33] Egipto declaró una emergencia nacional de un mes el 14 de agosto de 2013. [34]
El presidente egipcio anunció un estado de emergencia de un mes en todo el país el 14 de agosto de 2013 y ordenó a las fuerzas armadas que ayudaran al Ministerio del Interior a hacer cumplir la seguridad. El anuncio realizado en la televisión estatal siguió a los mortales enfrentamientos en todo el país entre los partidarios del depuesto presidente Mohammed Morsi y las fuerzas de seguridad. [35]
Etiopía
Francia
Tres disposiciones principales se refieren a varios tipos de "estado de emergencia" en Francia: el artículo 16 de la Constitución de 1958 permite, en tiempos de crisis, "poderes extraordinarios" al presidente. El artículo 36 de la misma constitución regula el "estado de sitio" ( état de siège ). Finalmente, la ley de 3 de abril de 1955 permite la proclamación, por parte del Consejo de Ministros, del "estado de emergencia" ( état d'urgence ). [36] La distinción entre el artículo 16 y la Ley de 1955 se refiere principalmente a la distribución de poderes: mientras que en el artículo 16 el poder ejecutivo básicamente suspende los trámites ordinarios de la República, la Ley de 1955 permite un estado de emergencia de doce días, tras lo cual El Parlamento debe votar una nueva ley que amplíe la situación de emergencia. Estas disposiciones se han utilizado en varias ocasiones, en 1955, 1958, 1961, 1988, 2005 y 2015.
Alemania
La constitución de la República de Weimar (1919-1933) [37] permitió los estados de emergencia en virtud del artículo 48 para hacer frente a las rebeliones. El artículo 48 se invocó a menudo durante los 14 años de vida de la República, a veces sin otro motivo que permitir que el gobierno actuara cuando no podía obtener la mayoría parlamentaria .
Después del 27 de febrero de 1933, el incendio del Reichstag , un ataque atribuido a los comunistas , Adolf Hitler declaró el estado de emergencia utilizando el artículo 48, y luego hizo que el presidente von Hindenburg firmara el Decreto de incendio del Reichstag , que suspendía algunas de las libertades civiles básicas proporcionadas por Weimar. Constitución (como el hábeas corpus, la libertad de expresión, la libertad de expresión, la libertad de reunión o la privacidad de las comunicaciones) durante toda la duración del Tercer Reich . [38] El 23 de marzo, el Reichstag promulgó la Ley de habilitación de 1933 con la mayoría requerida de dos tercios, que permitió al canciller Adolf Hitler y su gabinete promulgar leyes sin participación legislativa. La Constitución de Weimar nunca fue realmente derogada por la Alemania nazi , pero efectivamente se volvió inoperante después de la aprobación de la Ley de Habilitación. [39] Estas dos leyes implementaron la Gleichschaltung , la institución del totalitarismo de los nazis .
En la República Federal de Alemania de posguerra, las Leyes de Emergencia establecen que algunos de los derechos constitucionales básicos de la Ley Fundamental pueden estar limitados en caso de un estado de defensa , un estado de tensión o un estado interno de emergencia o desastre (catástrofe). Estas enmiendas a la constitución se aprobaron el 30 de mayo de 1968, a pesar de la feroz oposición de la denominada oposición extraparlamentaria (véase el movimiento estudiantil alemán para más detalles).
RAE de Hong Kong
Durante un estado de guerra o agitación que amenaza la seguridad o la unidad nacional, y que el Comité Permanente del Congreso Popular Nacional cree que está fuera del control del gobierno local, el Comité Permanente puede invocar el Artículo 18 de la Ley Básica de Hong Kong y declarar un "Estado de emergencia" en Hong Kong; por tanto, el Gobierno Popular Central puede aplicar de forma selectiva leyes nacionales que normalmente no se permiten en Hong Kong. [40] Puede ocurrir el despliegue de tropas de la Guarnición de Hong Kong del Ejército Popular de Liberación en virtud de la "Ley de la República Popular de China sobre Guarnición de la Región Administrativa Especial de Hong Kong". [41]
El Jefe Ejecutivo de Hong Kong, junto con el Consejo Ejecutivo, pueden prohibir reuniones públicas, emitir órdenes de toque de queda , prohibir el movimiento de embarcaciones o aeronaves, delegar autoridad y otros poderes enumerados, en virtud de la "Ordenanza de orden público del capítulo 245". [42]
Aunque la Guarnición de Hong Kong del Ejército Popular de Liberación no puede interferir en los asuntos internos de Hong Kong, el Gobierno de la Región Administrativa Especial de Hong Kong puede invocar el Artículo 14 de la Ley Básica de Hong Kong y solicitar permiso al Gobierno Popular Central para que la guarnición ayude en "mantenimiento de orden público o socorro ". [40]
Desde 1997, nunca se ha declarado el estado de emergencia. Sin embargo, las medidas de emergencia se han utilizado en diversos grados a lo largo de los años durante el dominio británico y después del establecimiento de la Región Administrativa Especial. Algunas menciones notables son las siguientes:
- Huelga de marineros de 1922 - Promulgación de la Ordenanza de Reglamentos de Emergencia de 1922 en el plazo de un día el 28 de febrero de 1922
- Huelga de Cantón-Hong Kong de 1925: con la participación de policías y soldados de varias naciones
- Disturbio antijaponés de 1931 , con participación de la policía de Hong Kong y las Fuerzas Armadas Británicas
- Disturbios de Hong Kong de 1956 , con participación de las Fuerzas Armadas Británicas y la Policía de Hong Kong
- Disturbios de 1966 en Hong Kong , con participación de las Fuerzas Armadas Británicas y la Policía de Hong Kong
- Motines izquierdistas de 1967 en Hong Kong , con participación de las Fuerzas Armadas Británicas y la Policía de Hong Kong
- Disturbios de 1981 en Hong Kong , con participación de la policía de Hong Kong
- Protestas de la Conferencia de la OMC de 2005 : con la participación de la policía de Hong Kong y manifestantes antiglobalización encabezados por la Alianza Popular de Hong Kong en la OMC de 148 países
- Protestas de Hong Kong de 2014 , con la participación de la policía de Hong Kong
- Disturbios civiles en Mong Kok de 2016 , con participación de la policía de Hong Kong
- 2019-2020 protestas de Hong Kong , con la participación de la policía de Hong Kong
El 4 de octubre de 2019, Carrie Lam, directora ejecutiva de la RAE de Hong Kong, invocó la sección 2 (1) de la "Ordenanza sobre reglamentos de emergencia del capítulo 241" [43], implementada desde 1922 y modificada por última vez por el Consejo Legislativo en 1999, que permite la gobierno para implementar el nuevo, "Cap. 241K Prohibición del Reglamento sobre cubrirse la cara". [44] La nueva regulación prohíbe a los participantes de la asamblea pública usar máscaras o rostros oscuros durante tales eventos sin excusas razonables. Las excusas permitidas son: razones médicas o de salud preexistentes, razones religiosas, y si la persona usa la cubierta facial por seguridad física mientras realiza una actividad relacionada con su profesión o empleo. Cualquier persona que desafíe la nueva regulación se enfrenta a un posible proceso penal. El motivo del gobierno al hacerlo es poner fin a meses de malestar social y disturbios, sin embargo, no declaró un "estado de emergencia". El nuevo reglamento entró en vigor a las 00:00 HKT del 5 de octubre de 2019. [45] Los infractores se arriesgaban a una pena máxima de un año de prisión o una multa de 25.000 dólares de Hong Kong (3.200 dólares de los EE.UU.). [46]
El Tribunal Superior de Hong Kong denegó una solicitud de medida cautelar de la ley antienmascaramiento, la misma noche, poco antes de que entrara en vigor el nuevo reglamento. Un intento posterior de los pro demócratas de detener la nueva regulación también fracasó, sin embargo, el tribunal recomendó una revisión judicial en una fecha posterior. [47]
El 18 de noviembre de 2019, el Tribunal Superior dictaminó que la "Ordenanza sobre el reglamento de emergencia del capítulo 241" es "incompatible con la Ley Fundamental", sin embargo, el tribunal "deja abierta la cuestión de la constitucionalidad de la ERO en la medida en que se relacione con cualquier ocasión de emergencia." El tribunal también sostuvo que la ordenanza cumple con el requisito "prescrito por la ley". Sin embargo, el tribunal consideró que s3 (1) (b), (c), (d) y s5 del reglamento no cumplen con la prueba de proporcionalidad, ya que imponen restricciones a los derechos fundamentales que van más allá de lo necesario para promover sus objetivos previstos. [48]
El 22 de noviembre de 2019, el Tribunal Superior hizo la siguiente observación:
"No obstante, reconocemos que nuestra Sentencia es sólo una sentencia de primera instancia, y pronto será objeto de apelación ante la Corte de Apelaciones. Dada la gran importancia pública de las cuestiones planteadas en este caso y las circunstancias sumamente excepcionales que enfrenta Hong Kong actualmente, consideramos que es correcto que otorguemos una orden de suspensión provisional breve para que los demandados tengan la oportunidad de solicitar al Tribunal de Apelación, si así se les informa, las medidas cautelares que considere oportunas. En consecuencia , concederemos una orden de suspensión temporal provisional para aplazar la entrada en vigor de las declaraciones de nulidad por un período de 7 días hasta el final del 29 de noviembre de 2019, con libertad de aplicación ". [49] [50]
El 26 de noviembre de 2019, el Tribunal Superior anunció que la audiencia del recurso de apelación del gobierno contra la sentencia es el 9 de enero de 2020 [51].
El 27 de noviembre de 2019, la Corte de Apelaciones prorrogó la suspensión provisional de la sentencia hasta el 10 de diciembre de 2019 [52] [53].
El 10 de diciembre de 2019, el Tribunal de Apelación se negó a suspender la sentencia "inconstitucional" del Tribunal de Primera Instancia sobre el reglamento antienmascaramiento. Según lo previsto, la audiencia plenaria comenzará el 9 de enero de 2020. [54] [55] [56]
Hungría
Según la Constitución húngara , la Asamblea Nacional de Hungría puede declarar el estado de emergencia en caso de rebelión armada o desastre natural o industrial. Caduca a los 30 días, pero puede prorrogarse. La mayoría de los derechos civiles pueden suspenderse, pero los derechos humanos básicos (como el derecho a la vida, la prohibición de la tortura y la libertad de religión) no.
Durante el estado de emergencia, el Parlamento no puede disolverse.
Islandia
La constitución islandesa no proporciona ningún mecanismo para la declaración de guerra, la ley marcial ni el estado de emergencia.
India
El Estado de Emergencia puede ser proclamado por el Presidente de la India , cuando perciba graves amenazas a la nación, aunque sea por consejo del gabinete de ministros. La Parte XVIII de la Constitución de la India otorga al presidente el poder de anular muchas disposiciones, incluidas las que garantizan los derechos fundamentales a los ciudadanos de la India.
En India, se declaró el estado de emergencia dos veces:
- Entre el 26 de octubre de 1962 y el 10 de enero de 1968 durante la guerra entre la India y China , "la seguridad de la India" fue declarada "amenazada por una agresión externa".
- Entre el 3 de diciembre de 1971 y el 21 de marzo de 1977 se proclamó originalmente durante la guerra de Indo Pakistán , y luego se prorrogó el 25 de junio de 1975, junto con la tercera proclamación: "la seguridad de la India" había sido declarada "amenazada por agresión externa" y por "disturbios internos "
La primera emergencia interna fue declarada por el presidente, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, por consejo de la entonces Primera Ministra, Indira Gandhi. Las disposiciones de la Constitución permiten al Primer Ministro gobernar por decreto .
Irlanda
En Irlanda, la declaración de un estado de "emergencia nacional" implica el artículo 28.3.3 ° de la Constitución de Irlanda de 1937 , que establece que: [57]
Nada en esta Constitución [...] será invocado para invalidar cualquier ley promulgada por el Oireachtas [parlamento] que se exprese con el propósito de asegurar la seguridad pública y la preservación del Estado en tiempo de guerra o rebelión armada, o para anular cualquier acto realizado o presuntamente realizado en tiempo de guerra o rebelión armada en cumplimiento de dicha ley.
Además, durante una "guerra o rebelión armada", los tribunales militares pueden juzgar a civiles [58] y las Fuerzas de Defensa no están sujetas al hábeas corpus . [59]
La Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de 1939 permite declarar una emergencia durante las guerras en las que el estado no es beligerante , sujeto a las resoluciones de las casas del Oireachtas. [60] Por la 2da Enmienda de 1941, una emergencia termina, no automáticamente cuando termina la guerra, sino solo por las resoluciones de Oireachtas. [61] La 21ª Enmienda de 2002 impide la reintroducción de la pena capital durante una emergencia. [62]
La primera enmienda se apresuró a pasar por el Oireachtas después del estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , en la que el estado permaneció neutral . Inmediatamente después, se aprobó la resolución requerida, que a su vez permitió la aprobación de la Ley de poderes de emergencia de 1939 (EPA), que otorgó al gobierno y sus ministros amplios poderes para emitir órdenes estatutarias denominadas "Órdenes de poderes de emergencia" (EPO). [63] [64] (El período en Irlanda fue y se conoce como " La Emergencia ".) La EPA expiró en 1946, aunque algunas EPO continuaron bajo la Ley de Suministros y Servicios (Disposiciones Temporales) de 1946 hasta 1957 . [65] [66] El racionamiento continuó hasta 1951.
El estado de emergencia de 1939 no terminó formalmente hasta una resolución de 1976, que también declaró un nuevo estado de emergencia en relación con los disturbios en Irlanda del Norte y, en particular, el reciente asesinato del embajador británico en Irlanda, Christopher Ewart Biggs . [67] Luego se aprobó la Ley de Poderes de Emergencia de 1976 para aumentar los poderes de la Garda Síochána para arrestar, detener e interrogar a los sospechosos de delitos contra el estado . [68] El presidente Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh remitió el proyecto de ley del artículo 26 de la Constitución a la Corte Suprema , que confirmó su constitucionalidad. [69] La remisión fue condenada por el ministro Paddy Donegan como una "vergüenza atronadora", lo que provocó que Ó Dálaigh renunciara en protesta. La EPA de 1976 expiró después de un año, pero el estado de emergencia persistió hasta 1995, cuando como parte del proceso de paz de Irlanda del Norte se rescindió como una "medida de fomento de la confianza" para satisfacer a los republicanos de fuerza física después del alto el fuego de 1994 del IRA Provisional . [70]
La Ley de Delitos contra el Estado no exige el estado de excepción en virtud del artículo 28.3.3 °. [71] [72] La parte V de la ley, que establece un Tribunal Penal Especial (CCE) sin jurado , está permitida en virtud del artículo 38.3.1 °. [73] [74] La Parte V se activa mediante una declaración del gobierno de que es "necesaria para garantizar la preservación de la paz y el orden públicos", y puede ser anulada con el voto del Dáil Éireann . La disposición para el internamiento se activa y anula de manera similar (originalmente por la Parte VI de la ley de 1939, más tarde por la Parte II de una ley de enmienda de 1940). [71] [75] [76] Las Partes V y VI se activaron durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial y la Campaña Fronteriza del IRA a fines de la década de 1950 ; La Parte V ha estado activa continuamente desde 1972. [77] [78]
Varias revisiones oficiales de la Constitución y de las Leyes de Delitos contra el Estado han recomendado un plazo dentro del cual la vigencia del artículo 28.3.3 ° o del artículo 38.3.1 ° debe renovarse explícitamente por resolución o dejar de tener efecto. [79] [80] [81]
Israel
Las Regulaciones de Defensa de Emergencia de Israel son más antiguas que el propio estado, y fueron aprobadas bajo el Mandato Británico para Palestina en 1945. Se consideró brevemente una derogación en 1967, pero cancelada después de la Guerra de los Seis Días . Las regulaciones permiten a Israel, a través de sus fuerzas armadas , controlar los movimientos y enjuiciar a los presuntos terroristas en los territorios ocupados , y censurar las publicaciones que se consideren perjudiciales para la defensa nacional.
Italia
En Italia, el estado de emergencia planificado por el sistema legal es implementado por el Consejo de Ministros , sin necesidad de votación parlamentaria, debido a la Ley n. 225 de 1992 sobre Protección Civil . [82] Además, el artículo 120 de la Constitución establece que el gobierno puede ejercer "poderes sustitutivos" de las autoridades locales en situaciones típicas: proteger la unidad jurídica o económica del estado, en caso de violación de leyes supranacionales y enfrentar un grave peligro para la seguridad y la seguridad pública. [83] Para otras emergencias, como una guerra , se requiere una votación parlamentaria para otorgar poderes extraordinarios al gobierno. [84]
El Parlamento también puede otorgar poderes extraordinarios al gobierno en caso de emergencia sanitaria, como ocurrió durante la pandemia COVID-19 en 2020, cuando el Parlamento aprobó un estado de emergencia del 31 de enero de 2020 al 30 de abril de 2021, gracias a lo que el gobierno puede ejecutar actos administrativos, sin la aprobación del Parlamento. [85]
RAE de Macao (China)
El Comité Permanente del Congreso Nacional del Pueblo puede declarar el estado de emergencia y desplegar tropas de la Guarnición del Ejército Popular de Liberación de Macao en virtud del artículo 14 de la Ley Básica de Macao sobre la defensa de la Región Administrativa Especial de Macao.
Desde 1999 no se ha promulgado ninguna medida de emergencia. Antes de 1999, se han utilizado medidas de emergencia para 1 incidente importante:
- 12-3 incidente (1966) - con la ley marcial invocada y la participación de tropas portuguesas
Malaysia
In Malaysia, if the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Monarch) is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security, or the economic life, or public order in the Federation or any part thereof is threatened, he may issue a Proclamation of Emergency making therein a declaration to that effect.[86]
In the history of Malaysia, a state of emergency was declared by the then-colonial government of Britain. The state of emergency lasted from 1948 until 1960 to deal with the communists led by Chin Peng.
States of emergency were also declared during the Konfrontasi in 1962, the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis and the 1977 Kelantan Emergency.
When a race riot broke out on 13 May 1969, a state of emergency was declared.
On 11 August 2005, a state of emergency was announced for the world's 13th-largest port, Port Klang and the district of Kuala Selangor after air pollution there reached dangerous levels (defined as a value greater than 500 on the Air Pollution Index or API).
Thierry Rommel, the European Commission's envoy to Malaysia, told Reuters by telephone on 13 November 2007 (the last day of his mission) that, "Today, this country still lives under (a state of) emergency."[87] Although not officially proclaimed as a state of emergency, the Emergency Ordinance and the Internal Security Act had allowed detention for years without trial.
On 23 June 2013, a state of emergency was declared by Prime Minister Najib Razak for Muar and Ledang, Johor as smoke from land-clearing fires in Indonesia pushed the air pollution index to above 750. This was the first time in years that air quality had dipped to a hazardous level with conditions worsening as dry weather persisted and fires raged in Sumatra.[88]
On 12 January 2021, a nationwide state of emergency was declared by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Monarch) to curb the spread of COVID-19. The state of emergency is planned to be ended on 1 August 2021. However, most of the Pakatan MPs condemned the state of emergency as it failed to contain the spread of COVID-19. Some of the Pakatan MPs plea to Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin to end the emergency immediately. On 25 February 2021, Yang di-Pertuan Agong announced that the parliament can be convened during the state of emergency, but this didn't stop the critics from Pakatan MPs. On 30 April 2021, a group of youth protesters were having demonstrations in front of the parliament building, denouncing the state of emergency.[89]
Maldives
A state of emergency was declared on 26 December 2004, following the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami. The resulting tsunamis caused extensive damage to the country's infrastructure, cutting off communications from large swathes of the nation, decimating islands and forcing the closure of a number of resorts due to the damage.
On 5 February 2018, a state of emergency was declared by Maldives's President Abdulla Yameen for 15 days and ordered security forces into the Supreme Court of the Maldives and arrested former president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom and the Chief Justice of the Maldives.[90]
Namibia
Namibia last declared a State of Emergency due to an ongoing drought in 2016.[91]
New Zealand
The Civil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002 gives the Government of New Zealand and local-body councils the power to issue a state of emergency, either over the entire country or within a specific region.[92] This may suspend ordinary work and essential services if need be. States of emergency in New Zealand expire on the commencement of the seventh day after the date of a declaration unless extended. However, the Minister of Civil Defence or a local mayor may lift a state of emergency after an initial review of a region's status.
- On 25 March 2020 at 12.21 pm, the Minister for Civil Defence Peeni Henare declared a state of national emergency in response to the total cases of COVID-19 reaching 205. Combined with an epidemic notice issued under the Epidemic Preparedness Act 2006, the state of emergency declaration enabled authorities to close most premises in New Zealand and enforce a nationwide lockdown. This also provided access to special powers to combat COVID-19, including powers of requisition and closing roads and restricting movement. Director of Civil Defence Emergency Management Sarah Stuart-Black said these powers sat alongside other powers to ensure essential services could stay up and running.[93] The state of national emergency was renewed four times, to last for a total of five weeks.[94]
- On 23 February 2011 at 11.28 am the Minister of Civil Defence John Carter declared the first state of national emergency (for a civil-defence emergency) in New Zealand's history in response to the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake.[95] A local state of emergency was declared by mayors of Christchurch City, Selwyn District and Waimakariri District following the 4 September 2010 Canterbury earthquake.[96]
- In 1951, the Holland government issued emergency regulations in response to that year's waterfront dispute.[97]
Nigeria
In Nigeria, a state of emergency is usually declared in times of great civil unrest. In recent years, it has specifically been implemented in reaction to terrorist attacks on Nigerians by the Islamic jihadist group Boko Haram.
On 14 May 2013, Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency for the entire northeastern states of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa.[98] A more limited state of emergency had been declared on 31 December 2011 in parts of Yobe, Borno, Plateau and Niger states. This earlier declaration included the temporary shutdown of the international borders in those regions.[99]
Pakistan
In Pakistan, a state of emergency was declared five times in its history:
- In 1958 by President Iskander Mirza
- In 1969 by President General Yahya Khan
- In 1977 by President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq
- In 1998 by President Muhammad Rafiq Tarar
- In 2007 by President General Pervez Musharraf
The first three were regarded as the imposition of direct martial law.
Philippines
There are several situations that calls for various levels of government action in the Philippines. The constitution alludes to these:
- State of war: Declared by Manuel L. Quezon in 1941 after the United States' entry during World War II and lead to its occupation by Japanese forces.
- State of martial law: Six declarations in history (1896, 1898, 1944–45, 1972–1981, 2009 and 2017–2019)
These are not specified in the constitution, but were nevertheless declared at least once:
- State of rebellion: Last declared in 2003 due to the Oakwood mutiny
- State of emergency: Last two declarations were in 2006 and 2016–present.
- State of public health emergency: Last declared in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines.
- State of calamity: Last national declaration was in 2020–21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. Local governments are also permitted to declare local states of calamity in their areas hit by natural and man-made disasters.
Portugal
The current Constitution of Portugal empowers the President of the Republic[100] to declare a state of siege (Portuguese: estado de sítio) or a state of emergency (Portuguese: estado de emergência) in part or the entirety of the Portuguese territory, only in cases of actual or imminent aggression by foreign forces, serious threats to or disturbances of the democratic constitutional order, or public disasters.[101]
Such declarations allow the entities that exercise sovereignty from suspending the exercise of some of the constitutionally defined rights, freedoms and guarantees, so that the public authorities can take the appropriate and strictly necessary measures for the prompt restoration of constitutional normality; the Constitution, however, sets a temporal limit for these states of emergency (no more than fifteen days, even though renewal is possible) and forbids any suspension of the right to life, to personal integrity, to personal identity, to civil capacity and citizenship, the non-retroactivity of criminal law, the right to a fair trial, or the freedom of conscience and religion.[101] They also may not affect the constitutionally-defined competences and mode of operation of the entities that exercise sovereignty. The Assembly of the Republic may not be dissolved while a state of siege or a state of emergency is in force,[102] nor can the Constitution itself be subject to amendment.[103]
Before declaring a state of siege or a state of emergency, the President is required to consult with the Government and request authorisation to do so from the Assembly of the Republic.[104]
During the Third Portuguese Republic, the only two times such states of exceptional suppression of constitutional provisions were declared were during the failed left-wing coup d'état of 25 November 1975 (state of siege, within the confines of the Lisbon Military Region),[105] and during the COVID-19 pandemic (state of emergency, in the entirety of the Portuguese territory).
Within the remit of the basic law of civil protection services (Portuguese: Lei de Bases da Protecção Civil), the Prime Minister can, through a Resolution of the Council of Ministers and without the need of parliamentary approval or presidential promulgation, decree a situation of calamity (Portuguese: situação de calamidade). Lesser exceptional statuses, the situation of contingency (Portuguese: situação de contingência) and the situation of alert (Portuguese: situação de alerta) in descending order of importance, can also be set in motion by other civil protection authorities or Mayors.[106] These three situations allow for some extraordinary measures and special restrictions, but not the suspension of constitutional rights and freedoms.
Romania
In Romania, there are two types of states of emergency, each designed for a different type of situation.[citation needed]
- State of alert (Stare de alertă in Romanian): Non-military, can be enforced by a prefect. Roadblocks are enforced. Any utilitarian vehicle or equipment can be temporarily used by the state, without any restriction. Evacuation is not mandatory, unless extreme circumstances apply. Only EMS, Police and firefighting personnel are required to intervene. This situation can be enforced in case of natural disasters or civil unrest.
- State of emergency (stare de urgentă in Romanian): Can only be enforced by the President of Romania with approval from Parliament. The military becomes the upper form of control in the country (under the rule of the president).[citation needed] The civilian population is subject to strict regulations, imposed by the type of emergency.[citation needed] All private and public non-crucial activities are suspended.[citation needed] Essential services might be disrupted. This situation can be enforced in case of extreme circumstances, such as a war.
- Special zone of public safety (Zonă specială de siguranță publică in Romanian): Administrative, can be enforced by local police. This implies installation of road check-points and higher numbers in police and gendarmes/ riot police presence, patrolling the area. There is also a ban that restricts the right to travel for people in the area; any vehicle and individual transiting the zone are subject to screening.[107][108]
The most well-known event in which the state of emergency has been enforced was because of 1977 Vrancea earthquake.[citation needed]
The last instance in which the special zone of public safety was enforced was on 8 December 2013-ongoing, in Pungești, Vaslui following civil unrest in Pungești from Chevron's plans to begin exploring shale-gas in the village.[109] According to police officials, the special security zone will be maintained as long as there is conflict in the area that poses a threat to Chevron's operations.[107] This special security zone has faced domestic and international criticism for alleged human-rights abuses.
Russia
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone declared, on 7 February 2019, a State of Emergency due to ongoing rape and sexual violence in the country.[110] On 24 March 2020, a state of emergency was declared by His Excellency (Rtd) Brigadier Julius Madaa Bio due to global pandemic of the coronavirus.
South Africa
States of emergency in South Africa are governed by section 37 of the Constitution and by the State of Emergency Act, 1997. The President may declare a state of emergency only when "the life of the nation is threatened by war, invasion, general insurrection, disorder, natural disaster or other public emergency" and if the ordinary laws and government powers are not sufficient to restore peace and order. The declaration is made by proclamation in the Government Gazette and may only apply from the time of publication, not retroactively. It can only continue for 21 days unless the National Assembly grants an extension, which may be for at most three months at a time. The High Courts have the power, subject to confirmation by the Constitutional Court, to determine the validity of the declaration of a state of emergency.[111]
During a state of emergency the President has the power to make emergency regulations "necessary or expedient" to restore peace and order and end the emergency. This power can be delegated to other authorities. Emergency measures can violate the Bill of Rights, but only to a limited extent. Some rights are inviolable, including amongst others the rights to life and to human dignity; the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex or religion; the prohibition of torture or inhumane punishment; and the right of accused people to a fair trial. Any violation of a constitutional right must be strictly required by the emergency. Emergency measures may not indemnify the government or individuals for illegal actions. They may impose criminal penalties, but not exceeding three years' imprisonment. They may not require military service beyond that required by the ordinary laws governing the defence force. An emergency measure may be disapproved by the National Assembly, in which case it lapses, and no emergency measure may interfere with the elections, powers or sittings of Parliament or the provincial legislatures. The courts have the power to determine the validity of any emergency measure.
The constitution places strict limits on any detention without trial during a state of emergency. A friend or family member of the detainee must be informed, and the name and place of detention must be published in the Government Gazette. The detainee must have access to a doctor and a legal representative. He or she must be brought before a court within at most ten days, for the court to determine whether the detention is necessary, and if not released may demand repeated review every ten days. At the court review the detainee must be allowed legal representation and must be allowed to appear in person. The provisions on detention without trial do not apply to prisoners of war in an international conflict; instead they must be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions and other international law.
Spain
In Spain, there are three degrees of state of emergency (estado de emergencia in Spanish): alarma (alarm or alert), excepción (exception[al circumstance]) and sitio (siege). They are named by the constitution, which limits which rights may be suspended, but regulated by the "Ley Orgánica 4/1981" (Organic Law).
On 4 December 2010, the first state of alert was declared following the air traffic controllers strike.[112][113] It was the first time since the Francisco Franco's regime that a state of emergency was declared.[114] The second state of alert was declared on 14 March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic.[115] The third state of alert was declared before the end of October 2020 given the difficulties to control the spread of said pandemic.[116]
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the President is able to proclaim emergency regulations under the Public Security Ordinance in the constitution in order to preserve public security and public order; suppression of mutiny, riot or civil commotion; or maintenance of supplies and services essential to the life of the community. These regulations last for one month unless confirmed otherwise by Parliament.[117]
Switzerland
According to Art. 185 of the Swiss Federal Constitution The Federal Council (Bundesrat) can call up in their own competence military personnel of maximum 4000 militia for three weeks to safeguard inner or outer security (called Federal Intervention or Federal Execution, respectively). A larger number of soldiers or of a longer duration is subject to parliamentary decision. For deployments within Switzerland the principle of subsidiarity rules: as a first step, unrest has to be overcome with the aid of cantonal police units.
Syria
An emergency prevailed in Syria from 1962 to 2011. Originally predicated on the conflict with Israel, the emergency acted to centralize authority in the presidency and the national security apparatus while silencing public dissent. The emergency was terminated in response to protests that preceded the Syrian Civil War. Under the 2012 constitution, the president may pass an emergency decree with a 2/3 concurrence of his ministers, provided that he presents it to the legislature for constitutional review.
Trinidad and Tobago
A state of emergency was declared in 1990 during the Black Power Revolution by then Prime Minister Eric Williams. During the attempted state coup by the Jamaat al Muslimeen against the NAR government of the then Prime Minister A. N. R. Robinson,[118][119] a state of emergency was declared during the coup attempt and for a period after the coup.
On 4 August 1995, a state of emergency was declared to remove the Speaker of the House Occah Seepaul by Prime Minister Patrick Manning during a constitutional crisis.[120] The government had attempted to remove the speaker via a no-confidence motion, which failed. The state of emergency was used to remove the speaker using the emergency powers granted.[121]
The Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar announced a state of emergency on 22 August 2011 at 8:00 pm in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs.[122] The decision of the President, George Maxwell Richards, to issue the proclamation for the state of emergency was debated in the country's Parliament as required by the Constitution on 2 September 2011 and passed by the required simple majority of the House of Representatives. On 4 September the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further 3 months. It ended in December 2011.
On 15 May 2021 at 2:50pm, Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago Keith Rowley, declared a state of emergency following a mass surge in the number of deaths and COVID-19 infections, no hospital beds being available and a lack of COVID‑19 vaccines in dealing with a rapid and deadly spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago,[123][124][125] noted as being one of the worst in the world.[126][127]
Turkey
Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 the military conducted three coups d'état and announced martial law. Martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency that lasted until November 2002. The latest state of emergency was declared by President Erdoğan on 20 July 2016 following a failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016 by a faction of the country's armed forces. It was lifted on 18 July 2018.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, only the British Sovereign,[128] on the advice of the Privy Council, or a Minister of the Crown in exceptional circumstances, has the power to introduce emergency regulations under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, in case of an emergency, broadly defined as war or attack by a foreign power, terrorism which poses a threat of serious damage to the security of the UK, or events which threaten serious damage to human welfare or the environment of a place in the UK. The duration of these regulations is limited to thirty days, but may be extended by Parliament. A state of emergency was last invoked in 1974 by Prime Minister Edward Heath in response to increasing industrial action.
The act grants wide-ranging powers to central and local government in the event of an emergency. It allows the modification of primary legislation by emergency regulation, with the exception of the Human Rights Act 1998 and Part 2 of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004.
United States
The United States Constitution implicitly provides some emergency powers in the article about the executive power :
- Congress may authorize the government to call forth the militia to execute the laws, suppress an insurrection or repel an invasion.
- Congress may authorize the government to suspend consideration of writs of habeas corpus "when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it."
- Felony charges may be brought without presentment or grand jury indictment in cases arising "in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger."
- A state government may engage in war without Congress's approval if "actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay."
Aside from these, many provisions of law exist in various jurisdictions, which take effect only upon an executive declaration of emergency; some 500 federal laws take effect upon a presidential declaration of emergency. The National Emergencies Act regulates this process at the federal level. It requires the President to specifically identify the provisions activated and to renew the declaration annually so as to prevent an arbitrarily broad or open-ended emergency. Presidents have occasionally taken action justified as necessary or prudent because of a state of emergency, only to have the action struck down in court as unconstitutional.[129]
A state governor or local mayor may declare a state of emergency within his or her jurisdiction. This is common at the state level in response to natural disasters. The Federal Emergency Management Agency maintains a system of assets, personnel and training to respond to such incidents. For example, on 10 December 2015, Washington state Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency due to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rains.[130]
The 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act allows the government to freeze assets, limit trade and confiscate property in response to an "unusual and extraordinary threat" to the United States that originates substantially outside of it. As of 2015 more than twenty emergencies under the IEEPA remain active regarding various subjects, the oldest of which was declared in 1979 with regard to the government of Iran. Another ongoing national emergency, declared after the September 11 attacks, authorizes the president to retain or reactivate military personnel beyond their normal term of service.[131]
Venezuela
Ejemplos de
Active in 2021
- On 15 May 2021, following a mass surge in the number of deaths and COVID-19 infections, no hospital beds being available and a lack of COVID‑19 vaccines, Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago Keith Rowley, declared a state of emergency due to the rapid and deadly spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago,[123] [124][125] noted as being one of the worst in the world.[126][127]
- On 1 February 2021, following a Military coup in Myanmar, Min Aung Hlaing, Commander-in-Chief of Armed Forces of Myanmar and its new State Leader, declared a state of emergency lasting one year.
- On 12 January 2021, a national state of emergency was declared by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia Al-Sultan Abdullah to curb the spread of COVID-19.[132]
Active in 2020
- On 9 October 2020, Kyrgyzstan's President Sooronbay Jeenbekov declared a state of emergency due to the 2020 Kyrgyzstan protests.
- On 25 August 2020, Wisconsin's Governor Tony Evers declared a state of emergency due to Kenosha unrest.[133]
- On 18 August 2020, California's Governor Gavin Newsom declared a state of emergency because of the multiple wildfires being battled across the state.[134]
- On 5 August 2020, Lebanon's Prime Minister Hassan Diab declared a state of emergency after the 2020 Beirut explosion.
- On 6 July 2020, Georgia Governor Brian Kemp declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.[135]
- On 31 May 2020, Missouri Governor Mike Parson declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 31 May 2020, Georgia Governor Brian Kemp declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 31 May 2020, Texas Governor Greg Abbott declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 31 May 2020, Virginia Governor Ralph Northam declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 31 May 2020, Arizona Governor Doug Ducey declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 28 May 2020, Minnesota Governor Tim Walz declared a state of emergency for the George Floyd protests.
- On 9 April 2020, Botswana President Mokgweetsi Masisi declared a state of emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
- On 7 April 2020, Japan Prime Minister Shinzo Abe declared a national emergency for the COVID-19.
- On 25 March 2020, New Zealand Minister for Civil Defence Peeni Henare declared a National State Of Emergency for COVID-19.[136]
- On 25 March 2020, Prime Minister of Thailand Prayut Chan-o-cha declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[137]
- On 22 March 2020, Nova Scotia Premier Stephen McNeil declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[138]
- On 21 March 2020, Kyrgyzstan Prime Minister Mukhammedkalyi Abylgaziev declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[139]
- On 18 March 2020, Luxembourg Prime Minister Xavier Bettel declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 18 March 2020, Portugal President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[140] It was renewed twice (2 April and 17 April) in the constitutionally-mandated 15-day periods, lasting until 1 minute before midnight on 2 May 2020.[141] Beginning midnight, 3 May 2020, the country is now in a "situation of calamity" (Portuguese: situação de calamidade), a different status enshrined in the Basic Law of Civil Protection, which allows for restrictions on circulation or conditioning in the operation of certain establishments, but not the suspension of constitutional rights and freedoms as with the state of emergency.[142]
- On 18 March 2020, North Macedonia President Stevo Pendarovski declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 17 March 2020, Alberta Premier Jason Kenney declares public health emergency for COVID-19.[143]
- On 17 March 2020, Ontario Premier Doug Ford declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[144]
- On 17 March 2020, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte declared all of the Philippines to be in a state of calamity following a dramatic rise in cases of COVID-19.[145]
- On 16 March 2020, Government of Armenia declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[146]
- On 15 March 2020, President of Serbia Aleksandar Vučić declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[147]
- On 15 March 2020, President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[148]
- On 14 March 2020, Quebec Premier Francois Legault declares public health emergency for COVID-19.[149]
- On 13 March 2020, Prime Minister of Spain Pedro Sánchez announced the declaration of the state of emergency in the nation for a period of 15 days, to become effective next day after the approval of the Council of Ministers for the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain.[150]
- On 13 March 2020, President Donald Trump declared a national emergency for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic[151]
- On 13 March 2020, Minnesota Governor Tim Walz declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[152]
- On 13 March 2020, Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[153]
- On 13 March 2020, Alabama Governor Kay Ivey declared a state of public health emergency for COVID-19.[154]
- On 12 March 2020, Kansas Governor Laura Kelly declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[155]
- On 12 March 2020, Virginia Governor Ralph Northam declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[156]
- On 12 March 2020, Wisconsin Governor Tony Evers declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[157]
- On 11 March 2020, Arizona Governor Doug Ducey declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 11 March 2020, New Mexico Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[158]
- On 10 March 2020, Michigan Governor Gretchen Whitmer declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[159]
- On 10 March 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[160]
- On 10 March 2020, North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[161]
- On 10 March 2020, Colorado Governor Jared Polis declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[162]
- On 9 March 2020, New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 9 March 2020, Ohio Governor Mike Dewine declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[163]
- On 8 March 2020, Oregon Governor Kate Brown declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[164]
- On 7 March 2020, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[165]
- On 6 March 2020, Tennessee Governor Bill Lee declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 6 March 2020, Kentucky Governor Andy Beshear declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 5 March 2020, Maryland Governor Larry Hogan declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.
- On 4 March 2020. California Governor Gavin Newsom declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[166]
- On 29 February 2020, Washington Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[167]
- On 29 February 2020, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[167]
- On 11 March 2020, Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[168]
- On 3 March 2020, Tennessee Governor Bill Lee declared a state of emergency for the whole state, following the tornado outbreak of March 2–3, 2020.[169]
Past states of emergency
- On 7 January 2021, Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga declared the second state of emergency for the COVID-19 in several prefectures. It was lifted on 22 March. [170]
- On 14 January 2021, New Mexico's Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham declared a state of emergency in preparation of Inauguration of Joe Biden.[171]
- On 15 January 2021, Maryland's Governor Larry Hogan declared a state of emergency in preparation of Inauguration of Joe Biden.[172]
- On 6 January 2021, Virginia's Governor Ralph Northam declared a state of emergency due to 2021 storming of the United States Capitol.[173]
- On 11 January 2021, outgoing President Donald Trump declared a state of emergency for two weeks in Washington DC in preparation of Inauguration of Joe Biden.[174]
- On 15 October 2020, Thailand's Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha declared a state of extreme emergency in Bangkok due to 2020 Thai protests.[175] and was lifted on 22 October.
- On 7 April 2020, Japan Prime Minister Shinzō Abe declared a national emergency for the COVID-19.
- On 21 March 2020, Georgian President Salome Zurabishvili declared a state of emergency for COVID-19. State of emergency was prolonged for one month on 22 April 2020 and expired on 23 May 2020.
- In November 2019, New South Wales, Australia declared a seven-day state of emergency granting "emergency powers" to fire-fighting agencies due to major bushfires occurring in the state.[176]
- In October 2019, Ecuador declared a 60-day state of emergency after violent protests following the ending of fuel subsidies.[177][178]
- On 18 October 2019, a state of emergency was declared in the capital of Chile, Santiago, after violent protests broke out in response to the rising cost of living.[179] This state of emergency was later extended to other cities in the country.[180] The state of emergency was lifted on 27 October 2019.[181]
- At midnight on 23 April 2019, a state of emergency was declared across Sri Lanka following multiple bomb attacks on churches, luxury hotels and other locations across the country in which 253 people were killed and more than 500 injured.[182][183][184] After being extended three times, the state of emergency was lifted on 25 August 2019.[185]
- On 15 February 2019, President Donald Trump declared a national emergency on the U.S. border with Mexico to allocate funds towards a border wall.[186][187]
- In March 2018 a state of emergency was imposed in Sri Lanka in Kandy for 10 days following clashes between Sinhalese and Muslims.[188]
- In February 2018, Ethiopia declared a 6-month long state of emergency following the resignation of Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn.[189]
- Following the 2017 Palm Sunday church bombings in Egypt, President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi declared a nationwide three-month-long state of emergency.[190]
- On 12 August 2017, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S. state of Virginia due to escalating tensions amid protesters and counter-protesters in Charlottesville.[191]
- On 21 September 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S. state of North Carolina for riots in Charlotte after a police shooting of a black male.[citation needed]
- On 4 September 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the Philippines by President Rodrigo Duterte following 2 September bombings in Davao City that killed 14 people and seriously wounded at least 60 others.
- On 12 June 2016, following the Orlando nightclub shooting in which at least 50 people were killed (including the shooter), the Governor of Florida declared a state of emergency in the immediate Orlando area.[192]
- In May 2016, Venezuela declared a 60-day state of emergency due to mass protests against the government of President Nicolás Maduro, further fueled by the impeachment process against Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff, which Maduro believes is the result of an American conspiracy to overthrow him.[193][194][195]
- On 22 November 2015, Crimea declared a state of emergency after pylons in Ukraine were blown up leaving 1,896,000 people without power.[196]
- France declared a state of emergency in response to the November 2015 Paris attacks which after five extensions ended in November 2017.[197]
- On 27 April 2015 the U.S. state of Maryland declared a state of emergency and activated the National Guard of the United States, as a direct result of the rioting and widespread physical violence during protesting in Baltimore due to the Death of Freddie Gray.[citation needed]
- In March 2013, Myanmar declared a state of emergency in the city of Meiktila due to ongoing sectarian violence.[198]
- Egypt had been under a nearly-continuous state of emergency since 1967 (interrupted for 18 months in 1980–81); the People's Assembly renewed it every two to three years.[29][31][199] The state of emergency expired on 31 May 2012.[200]
- Tunisia declared state of emergency January 2011, following unrest from economic issues.[201]
- 28 November 2011 – Slovakia declared a state of emergency for numerous hospitals, due to resignation of many Medicare workers.[202]
- 21 August 2011 – Trinidad and Tobago, in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs.[203]
- 15 March 2011 – Bahrain declared a state of emergency on 15 March 2011 and asked the military to reassert its control over the capital, Manama, as clashes between Shia and Sunni groups spread across the country. Bahrain has been gripped by deepening political unrest and widespread protests for over a month, with the Shia majority and some Sunni liberals calling for democracy and an end to discrimination.[204]
- 30 September 2010 – A state of emergency was declared in Ecuador due to a coup by armed forces.
- 11 April 2009 – Thailand's Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva declared a state of emergency in the areas of Pattaya and Chonburi, in response to anti-government protesters breaking into the conference center of a hotel complex in the seaside resort city of Pattaya, in the then-venue site of the ASEAN was being held, immediately resulting in its cancellation.[205] Another state of emergency on 12 April 2009, was announced in Bangkok and the surrounding areas, due to an heightened escalation of tension between the government and anti-government protesters, but was later lifted.[206]
- January 2009 – Slovakia was in a state of emergency due to natural gas supply shortage.
- 11 January 2007 – Bangladesh was in a state of emergency due to electoral violence. This ended on 16 December 2008, when new parliamentary elections were organized.
- 26 November 2008 – In Maharashtra state, India, Maharashtra Government declared a state of Emergency following the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
- 2 September 2008 – A state of emergency was declared in Bangkok by Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej following civil unrest; it was lifted on 14 September 2008.
- 1 July 2008 – Mongolian president Nambaryn Enkhbayar declared a state of emergency in the capital Ulaanbaatar for four days after violent protests against the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP had claimed a majority of seats in the 2008 parliamentary elections, but was accused of fraud and vote rigging by the less-successful parties.[207]
- March 2008 – Armenia was in a state of emergency from 2 March 2008 to 20 March 2008, declared by President Robert Kocharyan in response to protests over the 2008 Armenian presidential elections.[208]
- 3 November 2007 – Pakistan was in a state of emergency from 3 November 2007 to 15 December 2007. President Pervez Musharraf declared emergency "to stop Pakistan from committing suicide". He lifted the state of emergency after he resigned from the army and took the oath of office as a civilian President of Pakistan.
- 24 February 2006 – the Philippines declared a state of emergency via Philippine Proclamation 1017 for one week until Philippine Proclamation 1021, in response to a supposed coup against President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo's government in the midst of the 20th anniversary of the 1986 People Power Revolution that toppled the rule of Ferdinand Marcos.
- August 2005 – Portugal declares state of emergency, in response to wildfires.
- Mid-August 2005 – Sucumbios and Orellana, two provinces of Ecuador, because of indigenous protests against oil firms
- 15 April 2005 – Quito, capital of Ecuador due to protests; lifted less than a day later, on 17 April 2005.
- December 2004 – Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Maldives because of the tsunami.
- November 2003 – Georgia, following weeks of civil unrest.
- August 2003 – Michigan, Ohio, New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada, in response to the 2003 North America blackout.
- March 2003 – Serbia after assassination of Zoran Đinđić (vanredno stanje).
- July 2002 – Paraguay, in response to public unrest.
- November 2001 – Nepal, in response to increased guerrilla activity.
- 30 November 1999 – The U.S. city of Seattle, Washington, stemming from protest of the WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 and police reaction to it – known as the 1999 Seattle WTO protests.
- May–June 1998 – Indonesia declares state of emergency, due to May 1998 riots of Indonesia.
- 2 March 1997 – The 1997 unrest in Albania, also known as the Lottery Uprising or Anarchy in Albania, was an uprising sparked by Ponzi scheme failures. Albania descended into anarchy and violence in which the government was toppled and some 2,000 people were killed. On 1 March, Prime Minister Aleksandër Meksi resigned and on 2 March President Sali Berisha declared a state of emergency.
- 5 August 1995 – Trinidad and Tobago to remove Speaker of the House Occah Seapaul who refused to resign.[209]
- Winter 1995 – The U.S. city of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan after a severe snowstorm buried the city in 6 feet (1.8 m) of snow.
- April–May 1992 – California, United States. State of Emergency was declared in response of the 1992 Los Angeles riots, which were caused by the acquittal of the police officers who had been seen on tape beating Rodney King.
- March 1992 – Republic of Moldova, in response to War of Transnistria
- 1992 to 2011 – Algeria endures a 19-year state of emergency enacted at the beginning of the 1992 coup. The state of emergency, which suspended citizens' rights in lieu of military power, was lifted after the Algerian Government gave in to protester demands during the 2011 Arab Spring.[6]
- August 1991 – Soviet Union, enemies of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms evoked the state of emergency because Gorbachev, according to them, was destroying both communism and the state itself. The coup was led by the acting president of the Soviet Union, Gennady Yanayev.
- July–August 1990 – Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency when a group stormed Parliament and a TV Station holding government officials, including the Prime Minister at ransom. See Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt
- July 1985 to February 1990 – South Africa, in response to increasing civil unrest and township violence opposing apartheid rule.
- 1975 to 1977 – India, Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency in 1975 in response to political opposition and her own conviction on charges of electoral fraud. The Emergency lasted for 21 months.
- 1972 to 1976 – Mauritius, due to ethnic and labor-related unrest. Elections were suspended during this period, and political rights were broadly circumscribed.
- 1971 – Queensland, Australia in response to fears over increasing protest over the 1971 Springbok tour
- 1970 to 1972 – Trinidad and Tobago; a state of emergency was declared to deal with the Black Power Revolution which also included a mutiny in the Military.
- 1972 – the United Kingdom in response to increasingly militant industrial action.
- October 1970 – Quebec in response to the October Crisis kidnappings of government officials.
- July 1967 – Detroit, United States in response to the 12th Street riot started on Sunday morning during a blind pig raid.
- October 1962 – United States in response to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
- 1963 to 2011 – Syria during the Arab–Israeli conflict.
- 1948 to 1960 – Malayan Emergency in Malaysia and Singapore
- 1958 – Malta due to riots against the colonial government following Prime Minister Dom Mintoff's resignation.
- 1950 to 1978 – United States due to the Cold War, specifically the threat of "world conquest by communist imperialism."[210]
- 1948 to 1991 – China declared the state of emergency in response to the communist insurgency during the Chinese Civil War. Martial law was declared in both Mainland China and Taiwan, the latter following the February 28 incident in 1947 but was lifted in 1987. Eventually, Mainland China fell to the victorious Communists led by Mao Zedong who established the People's Republic of China in 1949.
- 1939 to 1952 – United States due to World War II
- 1941 to 1942 – Moscow due to the German advance to within 19 miles (31 km) of the city
- October 1936 – Spain in response to the proclamation of the Catalan State and the ongoing Asturian miners' strike of 1934.[211]
- 18 March 1907 – Moldavia and Wallachia in Romania during the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt.
Ver también
- Arbitrary arrest and detention
- Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)
- Continuity of Government Plan
- Due process
- International humanitarian law
- Search and seizure
- Senate Report 93-549
- Snow emergency
- State of exception
- Unitary executive theory
- Presidential Emergency Action Documents
Referencias
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Bibliografía
- Agamben, Giorgio (2005). State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-00925-4.. Excerpt online: "A Brief History of the State of Exception".
- Barzilai, Gad (1996). Wars, Internal Conflicts, and Political Order. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2943-1..
- Walter Benjamin, Zur Kritik der Gewalt ("Critique of Violence")
- Fabbri, Lorenzo. "Chronotopologies of the Exception. Agamben and Derrida before the Camps", "Diacritics," Volume 39, Number 3 (2009): 77–95.
- Hederman, Anthony J.; Committee to Review the Offences against the State Acts 1939 to 1998 (August 2002). "Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2 April 2017.
- Carl Schmitt, On Dictatorship and Political Theology
- Wolf, Conradin (2005). Ausnahmezustand und Menschenrecht..
- Hussein, Nassar (2003). The Jurisprudence of Emergency. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Rooney, Bryan. 2019. "E mergency powers in democratic states: Introducing the Democratic Emergency Powers dataset." Research & Politics
enlaces externos
- United Nations Human Rights Committee, General Comment 29, States of Emergency (article 4), U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11 (2001)
- The protection of human rights in emergency situations, PACE report (2009)
- Opinion on the protection of human rights in emergency situations, Venice Commission (2006)